EXPERIMENT NO: 1

AIM: - . Class C Single Tuned amplifier.

APPRATUS: - Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM

THEORY:Class C Amplifier Operation:In class C operation, collector current flows for less than one half cycle of the input signal. The class C operation is achieved by reverse biasing the emitter-base junction, which sets the dc operating point below cutoff and allows only the portion of the input signal that overcomes the reverse bias to cause collector current flow. The class C operated amplifier is used as a radiofrequency amplifier in transmitters. From the previous discussion, you can conclude that two primary items determine the class of operation of an amplifier (1) the amount of bias and

(2) the amplitude of the input signal. With a given input signal and bias level, you can change the operation of an amplifier from class A to class B just by removing forward bias. Also, a class A amplifier can be changed to class AB by increasing the input signal amplitude. However, if an input signal amplitude is increased to the point that the transistor goes into saturation and cutoff, it is then called an OVERDRIVEN amplifier. You should be familiar with two terms used in conjunction with amplifiers FIDELITY and EFFICIENCY. Fidelity is the faithful reproduction of a signal. In other words, if the output of an amplifier is just like the input except in amplitude, the amplifier has a high degree of fidelity. The opposite of fidelity is a term we mentioned earlier distortion. Therefore, a circuit that has high fidelity has low distortion. In conclusion, a class A amplifier has a high degree of fidelity. A class AB amplifier has less fidelity, and class B and class C amplifiers have low or "poor" fidelity. The efficiency of an amplifier refers to the ratio of output-signal power compared to the total input power. An amplifier has two input power sources: one from the signal, and one from the power supply. Since every device takes power to operate, an amplifier that operates for 360 degrees of the input signal uses more power than if operated for 180 degrees of the input signal. By using more

power, an amplifier has less power available for the output signal; thus the efficiency of the amplifier is low. At tuned frequency current drawn from power supply is minimum. For higher frequency as well as lower frequency current drawn form power supply is maximum i.e. efficiency is maximum at tuned frequency.

PROCEDURE:1.Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. 2.Adjust the input frequency of the signal to get the maximum output at the load. 3.For the applied DC voltage adjust the amplitude of sine wave signal so that the output signal peak to peak amplitude is twice of the DC voltage(without any distortion) 4.Vary the load resistance RL around 10KW. 5.Note VO, VDC, IC and RL to find PAC and PDC hence the efficiency.

(Note: While measuring VO short the Ammeter connection)

IDEAL GRAPH :-

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

f (Hz)

Vo (Volts)

VDC (Volts)

IC ( mA)

RL (Ohms)

PAC=Vo2/8RL (mW)

PDC=VDCxIC =PAC/PDC (mW)

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:1. PAC=Vo2/8RL

(mW)

2. PDC=VDCxIC (mW)

3.

=PAC/PDC

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO: 2
AIM: a) AM Generation (DSB-FC): Calculation of modulation index by graphical method,
Power of AM Wave for different modulating signal. b) Envelope Detector - Practical diode detector, Observe effect of change in RC time constant which leads to diagonal and negative clipping

APPRATUS: Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM. THEORY:

In case of AM amplitude of high frequency carrier signal varies in accordance with instantaneous value of low frequency modulating signal. V = VcSinWct + mVc Cos (Wc-Wm)t + m Vc Cos(Wc+Wm)t 2 2 The equation for amplitude modulated wave is as above . Thus it contains two side band frequencies fc+fm & fc-fm and bandwidth required twice the frequency of modulating signal Pt =V2c + V2LSB +V2USB R R R

Pt = V2c + m2 V2c + m2 V2c R 4R 4R

= Pc + m2 Pc + m2 Pc 4 = Pc + m2 /2 Pc = Pc (1+ m2 /2) 4

This is total power in the modulated wave . The maximum power in the AM wave is pt =1.5 pc when m =1. It shows that 66% power is lost in carrier wave itself. It can be avoided using Double side band transmission & signal side band transmission. In case of double side band transmission carrier is suppressed before transmission. Wave forms are as shown. In our AM Generator Transistorised Oscillator is given as a carrier generator. Its amplitude is variable. IC 8038 based (Function generator) Modulating signal with variable frequency and variable amplitude is provided. For AM generation output of carrier generator & modulating

signal generator are given to OPAMP (LF 351) adder. Modulation index can be vary ,using amplitude adjust pot given on front panel. Output of adder is given to tuned amplifier (Class C). It gives required AM signal. AM Receiver In case of receiver our aim is to reconstruct modulating signal from received modulated wave. The simplest way of AM detection is to use detector diode (OA 79) & give its output to low pass filter. In practical cases the signal strength may varies due to changing atmospheric conditions. Due to this amplitude of detected signal also varies. This change in amplitude creates nuisance. This effect is reduce using automatic gain control which is provided in practical detector circuit. In this case output of diode detector is given to two low pass filters as shown in diagram. Also negative envelop of modulated wave is detected. The cutoff frequency of One low pass filter passes audio range & that of other is vary low. Output of second filter is almost DC level. If input signal strength increase (in negative direction) & it is feed to amplifier section & thus reduces the gain of amplifier section & output amplitude is automatically controlled. The output of detector can have different errors such as i. High frequency ripple. ii. Diagonal clapping due to slope overload. If RC time constant of low pass filter is vary low then it gives ripple in output waveform. If RC time constant of low pass filter is high then it gives slope overload i.e. output can not track changes in modulating signal due to time constant & it gives diagonal clipping. In our kit we have given different capacitor & potientometer to observe all this effect.

PROCEDURE
1) 2) Switch on the power supply. Adjust O/P of carrier generator to 1Vp-p & that modulating signal to 500 mVp-p, 1KHz. 3) Connect carrier output to fc I/P of adder & modulating signal to fm I/P of adder. 4) Observe O/P of Adder & connect it to I/P of tunned circuit. 5) Observe O/P of tunned circuit which is required AM signal. Adjust oscillator coils provided on pannel such that AM O/P is maximum. Also Keep pot near to tunned circuit to maximum position. 6) Connect AM output to input of detector. 7) Keep detector pots to maximum position. 8) Observe O/P of diode detector Adjust amplitude of modulating signal such that detected O/P is a neat sine wave. 9) Observe effect of RC time constant on O/P by varying pot next to diode detector. 10) Observe effect of volume control pot. 11) Measure DC voltage at AGC O/P. 12) Now vary the amplitude of AM signal using pot next to tunned circuit

& observe its effect on AGC O/P. SIMPLE DIODE DETECTOR

I/P
OA 79

0.01uf

0.1uf

For Simple diode detector two capacitor C1& C2 [0.01 uf ] & [0.1uf ] respectively, are given & 10K pot is provided on panel. By varying 10K pot we can vary RC time constant of detector section & observe its effect on reconstructed O/P at cathode of detector diode.

PROCEDURE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Connect AM signal as I/P to OA 79 diode detector. Connect cathode of diode to C1 i.e. 0.0uf. Observe ripple in detected O/P. Also vary pot & observe its O/P Connect cathode of diode to C2 i.e. 0.1uf. Observe diagonal clipping by varying frequency of modulating signal. Also varying 10 K pot in detector section. 6. When 0.01uf i.e. C1 is used. Connect O/P of detector section to LPF & observe filtered output.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

FREQ ADJ.

AM MODEM
FC SIGNAL GEN. SINE CARRIER GEN. OSC COIL

SIMPLE DIODE DETECTER I/P AGC

C1

C2

FC

AMPL. ADJ
O/P

I/P

AUDIO

ADD.

PRACTICAL DIODE DETECTOR

Fm +12V COIL I/P I/P O/P LPF

BUFF

TUNED CCT.

AM SIGNAL

POWER ON

M/s. KASHTRONICA

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

FREQ ADJ.

Connection Diagram Points For observation Only

SIMPLE DIODE DETECTER I/P

OR
FC SIGNAL GEN. SINE FC CARRIER GEN. OSC COIL I/P AGC

C1

C2

AMPL. ADJ
O/P

OR

AUDIO

ADD.

PRACTICAL DIODE DETECTOR

Fm +12V COIL I/P I/P O/P LPF

BUFF

TUNED CCT.

AM SIGNAL

POWER ON

M/s. KASHTRONICA

OBSERVATION:

Modulating signal

Carrier

AM O/P

Diode Detector o/p before RC Filter

Detector O/p After Filter

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:1. Pt =V2c + V2LSB +V2USB R R R

Pt = V2c + m2 V2c + m2 V2c R 4R 4R

= Pc + m2 Pc + m2 Pc 4 = Pc + m2 /2 Pc = Pc (1+ m2 /2) 4

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO: 3
AIM:
AM transmitter: Measure Total power of transmitter with the help of Spectrum Analyzer or Wattmeter, Observe variation in total power by varying modulating signal level

APPRATUS: Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM. THEORY:

The XR 2206 is a monolithic function generator IC capable of producing high quality sine, square, triangle, ramp & pulse waveforms of high stability & accuracy. The O/p waveforms can be both amplitude & frequency modulated by an external voltage. The IC is ideally suited for communications, instrumentation & function generator applications requiring sinusoidal tone, AM, FM, or FSK generation O/p amplitude can be modulated by applying a. d. c. Bias & a modulating signal to pin 1, O/p amplitude varies linearly with the applied voltage at pin 1, for values of dc bias at this pin, with in + 4 volts of V/2 as shown in fig.. As this bias level approaches V/2 the phase of the O/p signal is reversed & the amplitude goes through Zero. Therefore when d. c. bias is equal to V/2 i. e. 6V in our kit we get suppressed carrier AM Generator. Also when dc bias is above 6V we get AM loops in phase with modulating signal & when d. c. bias is below 6V we get AM loops out of phase with modulating signal.

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

AM TRANSMITTER
12V

MW ANTENNA
AMPL. ADJ

XR 2206

AM O/p

DC BIAS

+ I/P

O/P
2N 3668

I/p

FREQ. ADJ. SIGNAL GEN.

CARRIER FREQ. ADJ

O/P

POWER AMPLIFIER
POWER ON

AMPL. ADJ

GND.

M/s. KASHTRONICA

PROCEDURE:1. Switch on the power supply. 2. Measure Vp-p of modulating signal Generator. 3. Adjust d. c. bias of XR 2206 to 8V using point provided on panel. 4. Adjust the Carrier freq. by using carrier freq. adj. pot 5. Now connect O/p signal Generator to modulating I/p of XR 2206. 6. Observe AM O/p by keeping pot of AM O/p at maximum position. 7. By varying amplitude of signal generator observe its effect on modulating index. 8. Now reduce dc bias gradually & observe its effect on AM O/p. Following effects can be observed. i) Over modulation ii) Suppressed carrier AM O/p. iii) AM loops out of phase with modulating I/p. 9. Now again adjust D. C. Bias to 8 V.

For Power Measurement:

1. Disconnect the modulating signal. 2. Connect O/p of AM signal to I/P of Power Amplifier & adjust the gang Capacitor in the LC to get max. O/P at output of Power amplifier. 3. Calculate the carrier power by using the formula ; Pc =Vc2 /R

( Note : Antenna resistance is 2.7 ohm ) 4. Now connect modulating signal at I/P of AM Gen. & adjust the modulating index to 30% by changing the amplitude of modulating signal. 5. Calculate Side-band power by using the formula: PSB = (m)2/2 * Pc 6. Calculate total power by using the formula: PT = PSB + Pc

OBSERVATION TABLE:

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:1. Pc =Vc2 /R 2. PSB = (m)2/2 * Pc 3. PT = PSB + Pc

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO: 4
AIM: a) Frequency modulator using varactor diode and NE 566 VCO, calculation of
modulation Index b) FM demodulator using IC 565 ( PLL based)

APPRATUS: Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM. THEORY:

In case of Frequency Modulation, frequency of high frequency carrier signal varies in accordance to modulating signal. Frequency modulation has higher noise immunity. In our kit FM Generator is obtain using function generator IC 8038. Frequency of IC8038 depends on voltage at pin No. 8. This property of IC8038 is used. Modulating signal is given to pin No. 8 through decoupling capacitor. O/p of IC 8038 is buffered. For FM demodulation phase lock loop IC 565 is used. Free running frequency of PLL must be equal to carrier frequency. PLL tracks FM Generator O/p & O/p of phase detector is demodulated signal. This O/p is filtered using second order low pass filter.

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:
Field Code Changed
FREQ. ADJ. +12V

FM MODEM
BUFFER O/P

I/P IC 8038

DC BIAS SIGNAL GEN. - 12 V FREQ. ADJ. AMPL. ADJ. FREQ. ADJ.

I/P
I/P PLL 565 O/P FILTER

O/P

GND. POWER ON

M/s. KASHTRONICA

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

FREQ. ADJ. +12V

Connection Diagram Points For Observation only

BUFFER I/P O/P

IC 8038

DC BIAS
SIGNAL GEN. - 12 V FREQ. ADJ. AMPL. ADJ. FREQ. ADJ.

I/P

O/P FILTER

I/P
PLL 565

O/P

GND.
POWER ON

PROCEDURE:-

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Switch on the power supply. Adjust carrier i. e. O/p of IC 8038 to 50 KHz using frequency adjust pot. Adjust free running frequency of PLL 565 to 50 KHz using frequency adjust pot. Connect buffered O/p of IC 8038 to I/p of PLL. Now slightly vary the frequency of 8038 & observe its effect on O/p of PLL & verify whether PLL tracks the frequency of 8038. 6. Now connect O/p of signal generator i. e. modulating signal to I/p of 8038. Keep signal gen. Freq. minimum & Amplitude 500mV p-p. 7. Observe FM O/p together with modulating signal on CRO. We can not observe stable o/p, since freq .of FM o/p changes at every instant. Use spectrum analyzer to study effect of amplitude of modulating signal on FM o/p. From bessels function calculate modulation index. 8. Observe O/p of PLL & Connect it to filter & observe filter O/p. 9. If you are not getting proper o/p slightly adjust PLL Freq. If there is over modulation reduce the amplitude of modulating signal

10. Now increase Freq .of modulating signal. At higher Freq. o/p of Receiver (After LPF ) decreases. You can apply more amplitude of modulating signal. Why? In case of FM modulation index depends on freq. of modulating signal. As freq. increases index decreases. So in practical systems Premphasis & Deemphasis cct.s are used.

If you dont have spectrum analyser to calculate modulation index follow the following procedure. I. Observe the frequency of 8038 buffered O/p & adjust it to 50 KHz using frequency adjust pot & measure the voltage at the variable point of potentiometer given on front panel. Say V Now suppose we are going to apply modulating signal of amplitude 1 Vp-p & frequency 1 Khz. Due to this maximum DC voltage at pin 8 of IC 8038 will be V+0.5 & minimum DC voltage will be V-0.5.

V+0.5 V V-0.5

OBSERVATION:

Modulating Signal

FM o/p

PLL o/p

LPF o/p

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:-

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM: Study of FM Transmitter; observe output waveform using Spectrum Analyzer and see
the effect of Eigen values on carrier power.

APPRATUS: Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM. THEORY:

In this kit variable freq. & amplitude modulating signal generator is provided. FM is generated by reactance modulator carrier freq. of Fm is variable between 88 MHz to 108 MHz Carrier freq. of FM can be set using a trimmer provided on the panel. Rod antenna is provided for FM transmitter. In this kit, first FM is generated by using reactance modulator. Then this is amplified by 3 stage power amplification stages. In the first stage 10 mw of power is generated. Second stage provides approximately 100 mw of power & last stage gives around 1W of power. In this kit you observe that number of test points on the panel is less. Also conventional banana sockets are not used for these test points. Instead, bolts are used which are isolated from panel. Here carrier freq. is of the order of 90 MHz approx. if any high freq. test pt. Is brought up on the panel using conventional banana socket panel capacitance comes in picture & it varies carrier freq. drastically. So test pt is isolated from panel. Also to observe this high freq. FM on any equipment like oscilloscope or spectrum analyzer I/P capacitance of probe should be very low. So you will see that on normal low freq. oscilloscope we cannot observe this FM. Also spectrum analyzer used to observe this FM should have high I/P impedance, high freq. resolution, high internal sampling freq. To observe this FM signal on spectrum analyzer center freq. adjustment, span adjustment, sampling freq. adjustment are critical. Note: As per our observation HP spectrum analyzer is best suitable equipment for this purpose. To observe both side waveforms of FM around FM should be observed on spectrum analyzer & not on FFT analyzer. carrier freq. ,

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

FM TRANSMITTER
VHF GEN. AMPL.
SIGNAL GEN. Q3 Q1 FREQ. I/P Q2

O/P

POWER ON

GND.

PRE. AMPLIFIER

POWER AMPLIFIER

PROCEDURE:1) Switch on power supply. 2) Observe modulating signal connected to FM I/P. Measure its min & max. freq. 3) Keep freq. of modulating signal gen. 1 KHz & amplitude 0.2 V peak to peak. 4) Observe FM wave from on spectrum analyzer. 5) Now vary modulating signal amplitude & observe FM spectrum. As amplitude of modulating signal increase, more freq. components are visible in FM spectrum. 6) Also by using FM receiver, tune in to FM transmitter carrier freq. & hear different tones depending upon modulating signal freq.

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:-

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO: 6
AIM: Measurement of Receiver Characteristics: Sensitivity, Selectivity, Fidelity. APPRATUS: Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM. THEORY
Transmission of radio signal:Radio waves propagate with different modes in atmosphere. We very some of its property in with information so by catching those radio waves information can be extracted e.g in AM amplitude of radio carrier is varied in accordance with information and in FM, frequency of carrier is varied accordingly.Different stations are operating on different carrier frequencies.Therefore, they can be separately received. Signal receiption Antenna which emits radio energy into atmosphere, can also absorb energy from atmosphere. So in the receiver we use antenna. Now this antenna is tuned to a particular frequency using variable capacitor across it called gang. So we can get one prominent ratio carrier at a time. Now this signal is very weak, it is amplified by tuned amplifiers and detected. Super heterodyning principle Super heterodyning means mixing. There are no. of different carrier frequencies e.g 550 KHz to 1600KHz. By means of antenna we can stick to one carrier & extract information out of it. But then forgoing amplifiers are required to work over a large frequency span, which is not possible. Over this span characteristics of amplifying devices change and we will not get required fidelity. To avoid the difficulty all these amplifiers are made to work on single frequency called intermediate frequency [IF]. So better fidelity results. To do this antenna signal is mixed with local oscillator signal and resulting signal frequency is held fixed, equal to IF . To achieve this local oscillator frequency is also varied by gang so that antenna frequency and its frequency maintain fixed frequency difference, equal to IF. This IF has typical valueslike 455 KHz, 550 KHz etc. So each station is converted into IF using mixer and amplified signal is passed through detector and we get information output . In our kit we have given AM generator with variable carrier freq. stations. Modulating signal is variable. Since at a particular time modulating signal is of fixed frequency set by operator, we can observe different stages in receiver for our required signal.

Here we connect our AM signal with patch cord to antenna, or even without actual connection signal can be observed but power is less, so to observe signal clearly we connect it with patch cord. . Actually AM signal at the input of receiver required is less, but to observe it properly we have given strong AM signals and in receiver we have provided potential dividers i.e. deliberately we have reduced the gain of our receiver. Due to this we can not hear weak commercial stations in our receiver.

PROCEDURE Sensitivity test

1) Switch on the power supply. 2) Adjust Frequency of AM gen 625Khz using carrier freq. adjust pots.Two pots are provided ,one for corase adjustment( left side) & other for fine adjustment ( right side). 3) Adjust freq of signal gen. to 400 Hz , & amplitude 1Vpp & connect it to signal i/p of AM gen. 4) Keep AM signal o/p to maximum amplitude using amplitude adjust pot.& adjust AM signal such that we get 30% modulation index. For that purpose use DC bias pot of AM gen. block. 5) Adjust amplitude of AM signal 200mV p-p & connect it to I/P point of receiver. 6) At receiver to types of power amplifiers are used. a) IC LM380 based power amplifier b) Pushpull amplifier. Keep both toggle S/Ws to left most position.i.e LM380 power amplifier is used. 7) Observe oscillator freq. at a point provided at right hand lower corner of PCB. Vary gang capacitor to observe maximum & minimum freq. Note the direction. 8) Now adjust gang position such that we get audio o/p at o/p points of receiver. Keep audio pot at maximum position. 9) Now sensitivity of receiver is defined as i/p signal required to get 50 mW o/p power,when loud speaker is replaced by equivalent resistance. We have used 8 ohm resistance. Corresponding to that we required 1.78 Vp-p at o/p. 10) Here very fine adjustment of gang knob & AM o/p knob is required. 11) Adjust AM o/p knob such that we get o/p 1.78 Vp-p. Verify that station is properly tunned using gang knob. 12) Measure AM signal amplitude. 13) Now Adjust AM gen . carrier freq. to 1Mhz. & repeat the procedure as above. 14) Adjust AM gen. carrier freq to 1400 Khz & repeat the procedure as above. 15) Plot the Graph of AM i/p signal required for 50mW o/p power vs AM station frequency. This is the sensitivity curve for given receiver.

Selectivity Test:1) As above adjust AM o/p ( carrier freq = 1MHz, modulation index = 30%) 2) Connect AM o/p to i/p of receiver. 3) Adjust gang knob & AM strength such that we get audio o/p 1.78 Vp-p corresponding to 50 mW o/p power. 4) Measure carrier freq. using freq . counter. 5) Now slightly change the carrier freq . using fine adjustment knob & measure o/p of receiver. 6) Take two to three readings for carrier freq. lower than 1Mhz & two to three readings for carrier freq. higher than 1MHz. 7) Plot the graph of o/p vs carrier freq. This is the selectivity curve of receiver.

Fidelity Test:1) 2) 3) 4) Adjust AM o/p as in case of selectivity test. Adjust gang knob & AM o/p strength such that we get o/p of receiver. Now dont change final AM o/p strength. Now vary audio freq from minimum to maximum & each time measure audio O/P . Tabulate the readings. Plot the graph of o/p vs freq.of signal generator. This the fidelity curve. 5) Now Keep both toggle S/Ws to rightmost position i.e. pushpull power amplifier is used. 6) Repeat step 1 to 4. Plot fidelity curve for pushpull amplifier.

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:-

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO: 7
AIM: - Double Sideband Modulator & Demodulator (DSB)

APPRATUS:
THEORY:-

Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM.

All the modulation information necessary for signal transmission & recovery is present in each of the sidebands of an amplitude-modulated signal. At 100% sinusoidal modulation only 1/6 of the total power was present in one sidebands while 2/3 of its carrier signal which contains no information. Thus, if the carrier can be eliminated from the signal before transmission ,only 1/3 of the total power need to be transmitted for the same signal level & thus efficiency is increased. It is called as Double sideband suppressed carrier (DBSSC) or balanced modulator. The signal spectra is as shown in figure

AM SIGNAL LSB Fc- fmmax DBSSC LSB Fc- fmmax

Carrier USB fc Fc- fmmax

USB fc Fc- fmmax

Ordinary sinusoidally modulated signal contains three components, at an upper sideband frequency, at a lower sideband frequency & and at the carrier frequency. Further this signal is equivalent of the carrier sinusoid being multiplied by the modulation signal with a dc component added to it.

EAM = ( 1+ m SinWm t )SinW c t m = modulationdex = m 2 Emmax Ecmax cos

E = SinW c t + AM

Wc - W m t -

m 2

cos

( Wc

+W t m

The two side frequencies are entirely due to the product of the carrier & modulation signal. while the carrier term is due to only the presence of the dc offset in the modulation signal. Therefore, if the modulation circuit can be balanced so that the dc term cancels, but the product term does not cancel, the O/p will contain only the two sideband term, as shown.
E balmod = mSinW m t SinW c t

m = 2

cos W c - Wm

t -

cos W c +W m

)t

Such a circuit is called as Balanced Modulator . In our kit we have used one Integrated circuit Balanced Modulator (IC MC 1496). The Internal circuit is as shown in figure. The carrier may be considered to be a switching voltage which alternately switches transistors Q1, Q4 & Q2, Q3 on & off, each pair being switched together,. Assuming that base currents are negligible in all cases, summing the currents at junction A & B gives.

= I + ie = I + ie

at junction A at junction B

The O/p voltage Vo is Vo = V2 V1 = R (I2 I1) = (2ie) Applying kichoffs voltage low to the loop containing em & Re Gives em = Vbe5 - Vbe6 + Ve The circuit operates with I >> ie. ., so that Vbe5 ~ Vbe6 Hence em = Ve / Re

Therefore ie = Ve / Re = em Where em= modulating voltage

Therefore Vo=(2R*em)/Re When the carrier I/p changes polarity, Q1 & Q4 are switched on, Q2, a Q3 off The O/p voltage is now Vo = V1 V2 = - (2R * em) / Re Thus the action of carrier is to switch Vo at the carrier frequency between + (2R *em) / Re. Representing the switching action by a square wave function P(t) at a carrier frequency. Vo = (2R / Re) * P (t) *em P (t) = Sin Wct + 1/3 Sin 3 Wct + 1/5 Sin 5 Wct + The O/p voltage seen to contain a product term em SinWct. For sinusoidal modulation this can be expanded as SinWct* SinWmt = cos (Wc Wm) t cos (Wc + Wm) t Which shows that the O/p contains upper & lower side frequencies The other components, which are side frequencies around the other harmonics of the carrier frequency are easily filtered out. The carrier itself & its harmonics do not appear in the O/p. The advantage of the integrated circuit type of balanced modulator are that the section can be made more nearly identical (i.e. matched for characteristics) than is the case with discrete components. Also the circuit does not require the use of transformers like other circuits. Balanced De - Modulator

Demodulation of a Balanced modulated signal can be achieved by multiplying it with locally generated carrier voltage at the receiver. It is important that the carrier be as closely

synchronized in frequency & phase with the original carrier as possible. Therefore in our kit we use carrier from transmitter i.e. Balance Modulator. In our kit we have used MC 1496 multiplier IC for this purpose of demodulator. This IC is use where O/p voltage is product of an I/p voltage signal & switching carrier. Typical applications include suppers carrier. AM i.e. DSB, SSB. Features of 1496 are as follows: 1) Excellent carrier supession 65 db type at 500KHz 50 db type at 10MHz 2) 3) 4) adjustable gain & signal handing. Balanced I/p & O/p. High common mode rejection 85 db typical.

Mathematical Analysis: I/p to Balanced demodulator is expressed as follows Modulated signal = K1 [Cos (Wc Wm) t + Cos (Wc + Wm)t] Carrier = K2 Cos Wct

Product of above two give K1*K2[ Cos(Wc-Wm)t +Cos(Wc+Wm)t]CosWct = K1K2{1/2 CosWmt + 1/2Cos(2Wc-Wm)t + 1/2CosWmt +1/2Cos(2Wc+Wm)t } == K1K2 CosWmt + K1K2Cos(2Wc-Wm)t + 2 K1K2Cos(2Wc+Wm)t } 2

After filtration we received modulated signal. In our kit we have provided active filter (2 nd order butterworth).

Instruments Required To Perform Experiment. (a) Good quality of Analog CRO, preferably with digital readout and cursor measurement facility. (b) (c) Good quality of Patch Cords. Circuit diagram printed on the board

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

+12V

DSB MODEM
+ 12

Fc

IC 1496
DSB GEN. O/P IC 1496 DSB DEMOD Fm AMPL.. CARRIER ADJ. AM SIGNAL

CARRIER

O/P

Fm
CARRIER ADJ. SINE AMPL..

-8
I/P BUFFER O/P GND. Fc I/P SINE LPF O/P FREQ. POWER ON

M/s. KASHTRONICA

FREQ.

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

Connection Diagram Points for observation only

+12V

+ 12

Fc

IC 1496
DSB GEN. O/P IC 1496 DSB DEMOD Fm AMPL.. CARRIER ADJ. AM SIGNAL

CARRIER

O/P

Fm
CARRIER ADJ. SINE AMPL..

-8
I/P BUFFER O/P GND. Fc I/P SINE LPF O/P FREQ. POWER ON

M/s. KASHTRONICA

FREQ.

OBSERVATION:-

Modulating signal

Carrier

DSB O/p

REC O/p

LPF O/p

PROCEDURE:
1) 2) Switch on the power supply. Adjust carrier amplitude to 300 mV p.p using amplitude adjust pot. & frequency to 100KHz. 3) Adjust modulating signal amplitude to 200 mV p.p. using amplitude adjust pot. 4) 5) Connect carrier signal & modulating signal to DSB generator I/p. Observe O/p of DSB generator & observe effect of carrier adjust pot on O/p.

6) 7)

Connect DSB O/p to buffer I/p & observe buffer O/p. Connect buffered O/p to AM signal I/p of DSB demodulator & carrier to carrier I/p of DSB demodulating.

8) 9)

Observe O/p of DSB demodulator & connect it to I/p low pass filter. Observe filter O/p.

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:-

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTION
1. IF 100% modulated AM and DSB Waveform are given, how you will distinguish between two ? 2. What is the advantage of DSB over AM ? 3. What is the principle behind balanced modulator ?

EXPERIMENT NO: 8
AIM: - SSB modulator using Filter method, phase shift method & its detection APPRATUS: Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM.

THEORY:In this method, only one side band is transmitted. SSB modulation can be achieved by following way: 1) Filter Method In this method unwanted side band of DSB is filtered out. Such a filter must have a flat pass band & extremely high attenuation outside the pass band. 2) Phase shift Method This method avoids filters & some of their attendant disadvantages & instead makes use of two balanced modulators & two phase shifting network.s One of the Modulators, receives, the carrier voltage (shifted by 90degree) & the modulating voltage, whereas the other Modulator, is fed the modulating voltage (shifted through 90 degree) & the carrier voltage. Both balanced modulator produce an O/p of double side bands. Both upper side bands leads the I/p carrier by 90 degree & one of the lower side bands are thus out of phase & when combined in the adder, they cancel each other. The upper sidebands are in phase at adder & thus add, giving SSB in which lower side band has been canceled. We have used this method for SSB Generator. If carrier signals interchanged upper sideband gets cancelled & we get lower sideband. 3) Third Method Please refer to ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM by G. Kennedy. 4) SSB Demodulator:For SSB demodulator cct is as shown. It also uses IC 1496 & filter is provided. It is a low pass filter. We observe that if fm = 1KHz & fc = 100 KHz. therefore when it is fed to IC 1496, the O/p contains frequencies equal to 1KHz & 201 KHz. therefore after filtering we get modulating signal.

PROCEDURE:1. Switch on the power supply. 2. Observe O/p of modulating signal generator i. e. Fm & Fm+90 & using respective amplitude adjust pots. Adjust amplitude to 300 mv p-p 3. Observe Fc & Fc+90 wave forms & again by using their respective amplitude adjust pots, adjust their amplitude to 300 mv p-p 4. Connect Fm signal to Fm I/p of DSB GEN. 1 & Fc signals to Fc I/p of DSB GEN. 1 block. 5. Connect Fm+90 signal to Fm I/p of DSB GEN. 2 & Fc+90 signals to Fc I/p of DSB GEN. 2 block. 6. Observe O/p of DSB GEN. 1 & by varying carrier adjust pots make even DSB loops. 7. Observe O/p of DSB GEN. 2 & varying carrier adjust pots make even DSB loops. 8. Connect O/ps of two DSB GEN. blocks to I/ps of ADDER & observe SSB O/p. you will get single frequency at SSB O/p point. 9. For demodulation connect SSB O/p to SSB DEMOD also connect Fc & observe its O/p. 10. Connect O/p of SSB Demod to I/p of filter & observe O/p as smooth signal. 11. For observing USB & LSB effect

(a) Connect point A as carrier to first DSB generator & point B as carrier to second DSB Generator. (b) Keep frequency of Modulating signal to 2 KHz & amplitudes of Fm & Fm+90 to 300 mV p-p (c) Measure frequency of SSB O/p waveform. Interchange point A & B and measure frequency of SSB waveform.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

FREQ. ADJ.

SSB MODEM
AMPL. ADJ. ADDER

Fc.
Fm. MODULATING SIGNAL GEN. Fm +90 Fm. O/P SSB O/P

DSB GEN 1.
SSB AMPL. ADJ. DSB GEN 2 AMPL. ADJ. Fc. CARRIER GEN. FILTER Fc. FILTER Fm. O/P Fc SSB DEMOD. O/P

PHASE SHIFT N/W

I/P A B FILTER Fc.+ 90 AMPL. ADJ. GND. O/P

POWER ON

M/s. KASHTRONICA

CONNECTION DIAGRAMME:

FREQ. ADJ.

SSB MODEM
AMPL. ADJ. ADDER

Fc.
Fm. MODULATING SIGNAL GEN. Fm +90 Fm. O/P SSB O/P

DSB GEN 1.
SSB AMPL. ADJ. DSB GEN 2 AMPL. ADJ. Fc. CARRIER GEN. FILTER Fc. FILTER Fm. O/P Fc SSB DEMOD. O/P

PHASE SHIFT N/W

I/P A B FILTER Fc.+ 90 AMPL. ADJ. GND. O/P

POWER ON

M/s. KASHTRONICA

OBSERVATION:

Modulating Signa Fm

Fm + 90

DSB 1 O/p

DSB 2 O/P

SSB O/p

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:-

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO: 9
AIM:
Verification of Sampling Theorem, PAM Techniques, (Flat top & Natural sampling),Effect of variable sampling rate, filter cutoff, reconstruction of original signal using Interpolation Filter. Aliasing Effect in frequency domain

APPRATUS: Experimental kit, connector, CRO, DSO, DMM. THEORY:According to sampling theorm sampling rate be rapid enough so that at least two samples are taken during the course of the period corresponding to the highest frequency spectral component. i.e if our signal frequency is 1 khz then sampling frequency must be 2 khz minimum for proper reproduction of original signal from sampled signal. It is called as Nyquist crieteria. In this Kit we have provided two different types of sampling 1] Natural Sampling. 2] Flat Top Sampling. 1] Natural Sampling :- In this case the sampled signal consists of sequence of pulses of varying amplitude whose tops are not flat but follow the waveform of I/p signal. 2] Flat Top Sampling :- A Flat topped pulse has a constant amplitude established by the sample value of the signal at some point within the interval. We have arbitrarily sampled the signal at the beginning of the sampling pulse. To generate flat top sample the signal is held using a holding capacitor after sampling pulse . please reffer to cct diagram. After holding time the capacitor is dumped using a dump pulse. So that between sampling pulse & dump pulse we get a fiat topped sample pulse. In this kit we have provided 1khz sine wave & crystal clock to observe stable waveforms on normal oscilloscope. To verify sampling theorem you can vary freq of i/p signal from minimum to maximum & observe reconstructed o/p. OR IC 555 clock is given. By varing basic clock freq. Sampling frequency can be varied & its effect on reconstructed signal can be observed. Also at receiver side effect of value of Holding capacitor (sample & hold cct.) o reconstructed signal can be observed.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

SAMPLING & RECONSTUCTION

Vcc CRYSTAL CLOCK FREQUENCY DIV. GEN. NATURAL I/P

LPF
555 I/P O/P O/P S. CLOCK

CONTROL
CLOCK

A RECEIVER C

O/P

I/P FLAT TOP SAMPLE C1 O/P C2 GND.

I/P

HOLD PLUSE

S. CLOCK

DUMP CLOCK

POWER ON

CONNECTION DIAGRAMME:
Connection Diagram For Natural Sampling

Vcc CRYSTAL CLOCK FREQUENCY DIV. GEN. NATURAL I/P

LPF
555 I/P O/P O/P S. CLOCK

CONTROL
CLOCK

A RECEIVER C

O/P

I/P FLAT TOP SAMPLE C1 O/P C2 GND.

I/P

HOLD PLUSE

S. CLOCK

DUMP CLOCK

POWER ON

Connection Diagram For Flat Top Sampling

Vcc CRYSTAL CLOCK FREQUENCY DIV. GEN. NATURAL I/P

LPF
555 I/P O/P O/P S. CLOCK

CONTROL
CLOCK

A RECEIVER C

O/P

I/P FLAT TOP SAMPLE C1 O/P C2 GND.

I/P

HOLD PLUSE

S. CLOCK

DUMP CLOCK

POWER ON

PROCEDURE: A] Natural Sampling: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Connect crystal CLK O/p to CLK pt of control block. Connect pt A to sampling I/p of natural sampling block & also to hold CLK of receiver section. Connect fixed sine wave i. e. O/p of frequency divider block to I/p of natural sampling block. Observe O/p of buffer i. e. sample O/p (PAM o/p). Connect PAM O/p to I/p of receiver. Connect pt D to C1 pt & observe O/p of buffer.(you can observe spikes in o/p signal waveform) Connect pt D to C2 pt & observe O/p of buffer. (you can observe that o/p is not properly tracking & some overshoots) Connect O/p of Receiver buffer to I/p of LPF & observe LPF O/p. To verify sampling theorem & aliasing effect. connect variable frequency sine wave to I/p of natural sampling block.& vary signal freq. from minimum to maximum.( Aliasing means conversion of high freq. signal to lower freq due to sampling)

Now connect O/p of 555 CLK to CLK I/p of control block & by varing frequency of 555 vary the sampling frequency. B] Flat top Sampling : 1. Connect crystal CLK O/p to CLK pt of control block. 2. Observe pt B & C on dual scope CRO. For flat top sampling I/p waveform is sampled using sampling pulse B & its value is hold using capacitor & then capacitor is dumped using pulse C therefore between time period B& C we have get flat top sample. 3. Now connect pt B to sampling CLK of Flat top sample Block & Hold CLK of Receiver. 4. Also connect pt c to dump CLK of Flat top sample Block. 5. Connect Fixed sine wave to I/p of Flat top sample Block& observe O/p of Flat top sample Block. 6. Connect O/p of Flat top sample block to I/p of Receiver. 7. Connect pt D to C1 & observe buffer O/p. 10. Also repeat Step (1) to (7) for 555CLK as I/p to CLK to control Block.

OBSERVATION
SINE WAVE

SAMPLING PULSE A

NATURAL SAMPLING

SAMPLING PULSE B

DUMP PULSE C

FLAT TOP O/P

SAMPLED SIGNAL

HOLD PULSE

O/P OF SAMPLE & HOLD FOR SMALLER VALUE OF C

O/P OF SAMPLE & HOLD FOR HIGHER VALUE OF C

O/P OF LPF

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION:-

RESULT/CONCLUSION:-

STUDY QUESTIONS:-