1

UNIT-VI
Application layer (WWW and HTTP): ARCHITECTURE : Client (Browser) ,Server ,Uniform Resource Locator HTTP: HTTP
Transaction, HTTP Operational Model and Client/Server Communication, HTTP Generic Message Format, HTTP Request Message
Format, HTTP Response Message Format. The wireless web : WAP—The Wireless Application Protocol

WWW and HTTP

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a repository of information linked together from points all over the
world. The WWW has a unique combination of flexibility, portability, and user-friendly features that
distinguish it from other services provided by the Internet. The WWW project was initiated by CERN
(European Laboratory for Particle Physics) to create a system to handle distributed resources necessary
for scientific research. In this chapter we first discuss issues related to the Web. We then discuss a
protocol, HTTP, that is used to retrieve information from the web.
ARCHITECTURE
The WWW today is a distributed client/server service, in which a client using a browser can access a
service using a server. However, the service provided is distributed over many locations called sites, as
shown i n t h e f i g u r e .

Each site holds one or more documents, referred to as Web pages. Each Web page can contain a link to other
pages in the same site or at other sites. The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers. Let us go
through the scenario shown in Figure. The client needs to see some information that it knows belongs to
site A. It sends a request through its browser, a program that is designed to fetch Web documents. The
request, among other information, includes the address of the site and the Web page, called the URL.
The server at site A finds the document and sends it to the client. When the user views the document, she
finds some references to other documents, including a Web page at site B. The reference has the URL for
the new site. The user is also interested in seeing this document. The client sends another request to the new
site, and the new page is retrieved.
Client (Browser)
A variety of vendors offer commercial browsers that interpret and display a Web document, and all use
nearly the same architecture. Each browser usually consists of three parts: a controller, client protocol,
and interpreters. The controller receives input from the keyboard or the mouse and uses the client
programs to access the document. After the document has been accessed, the controller uses one of the
interpreters to display the document on the screen. The client protocol can be one of the protocols
described previously such as or HTIP . The interpreter can be HTML, Java, or JavaScript, depending
on the type of document.
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Server
The Web page is stored at the server. Each time a client request arrives, the corresponding document is sent
to the client. To improve efficiency, servers normally store requested files in a cache in memory. Cache
memory is faster to access than disk. A server can also become more efficient through multithreading
or multiprocessing. In this case, a server can answer more than one request at a time.
Uniform Resource Locator
A client that wants to access a Web page needs the address. To facilitate the access of documents distributed
throughout the world, HTTP uses locators. The uniform resource locator (URL) is a standard for
specifying any kind of information on the Internet. The URL defines four things: protocol, host computer,
port, and path.
URL

Protocol ://Host

The protocol is the client/server program used to retrieve the document. Many different protocols can
retrieve a document; among them are FTP or HTTP. The most common today is HTTP.
The host is the computer on which the information is located, although the name of the computer can be an
alias. Web pages are usually stored in computers, and computers are given alias names that usually begin
with the characters "www". This is not mandatory, however, as the host can be any name given to the
computer that hosts the Web page.
The URL can optionally contain the port number of the server. If the port is included, it is
inserted between the host and the path, and it is separated from the host by a colon.
Path is the pathname of the file where the information is located. Note that the path can itself contain
slashes that, in the UNIX operating system, separate the directories from the subdirectories and files.
Cookies
The World Wide Web was originally designed as a stateless entity. A client sends a request; a server
responds. Their relationship is over. The original design of WWW, retrieving publicly available
documents, exactly fits this purpose. Today the Web has other functions; some are listed here.
I. Some websites need to allow access to registered clients only.

2. Websites are being used as electronic stores that allow users to browse through the store, select wanted
items, put them in an electronic cart, and pay at the end with a credit card.
Some websites are used as portals: the user selects the Web pages he wants to see.

4. Some websites are just advertising.

Creation and Storage of Cookies
The creation and storage of cookies depend on the implementation; however, the principle is the same.
1. When a server receives a request from a client, it stores information about the client in a file or a string.
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The information may include the domain name of the client, the contents of the cookie (information the
server has gathered about the client such as name, registration number, and so on), a timestamp, and
other information depending on the implementation.
2. The server includes the cookie in the response that it sends to the client.

3. When the client receives the response, the browser stores the cookie in the cookie directory, which is
sorted by the domain server name.
Using Cookies
When a client sends a request to a server, the browser looks in the cookie directory to see if it can find
a cookie sent by that server. I f found, the cookie is included in the request. When the server receives
the request, it knows that this is an old client, not a new one. Note that the contents of the cookie are
never read by the browser or disclosed to the user. It is a cookie made by the server and eaten by the
server. Now let us see how a cookie is used for the four previously mentioned purposes:
1. The site that restricts access to registered clients only sends a cookie to the client when the client
registers for the first time. For any repeated access, only those clients that send the appropriate cookie are
allowed.
2. An electronic store (e-commerce) can use a cookie for its client shoppers. When a client selects an
item and inserts it into a cart, a cookie that contains information about the item, such as its number and
unit price, is sent to the browser. If the client selects a second item, the cookie is updated with the new
selection information. And so on. When the client finishes shopping and wants to check out, the last
cookie is retrieved and the total charge is calculated.
3. A Web portal uses the cookie in a similar way. When a user selects her favorite pages, a cookie is
made and sent. If the site is accessed again, the cookie is sent to the server to show what the client is
looking for.
HTTP
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used mainly to access data on the World Wide Web.
HTTP functions as a combination of FTP and SMTP. It is similar to FfP because it transfers files and uses the
services of TCP. However, it is much simpler than FTP because it uses only one TCP connection. There is no
separate control connection; only data are transferred between the client and the server.
HTTP is like SMTP because the data transferred between the client and the server look like SMTP
messages. In addition, the format of the messages is controlled by MIME-like headers. Unlike SMTP, the
HTTP messages are not destined to be read by humans; they are read and interpreted by the HTTP server
and HTTP client (browser). SMTP messages are stored and forwarded, but HTTP messages are delivered
immediately. The commands from the client to the server are embedded in a request message. The contents
of the requested file or other information are embedded in a response message. HTTP uses the services of
TCP on well-known port 80.
HTTP Transaction
Figure illustrates the HTTP transaction between the client and server. Although HTTP uses the services of
TCP, HTTP itself is a stateless protocol. The client initializes the transaction by sending a request message.
The server replies by sending a response.
Messages
The formats of the request and response messages are similar; both are shown in Fig• ure 27.13. A request
message consists of a request line, a header, and sometimes a body. A response message consists of a status
line, a header, and sometimes a body.
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HTTP transaction

Request and response messages

Request type: This field is used in the request message. In version 1.1 of HTTP, several request types
are defined. The request type is categorized into methods as defined in Table.
Methods
Method Action
GET Requests a document from the server
HEAD Requests information about a document but not the document itself
POST Sends some information from the client to the server
PUT Sends a document from the server to the client
TRACE Echoes the incoming request
CONNECT Reserved
OPTION Inquires about available options

URL. We discussed the URL earlier in the chapter.

Version. The most current version of HTTP is 1.1.
Status code: This field is used in the response message. The status code field is similar to those in the
FTP and the SMTP protocols. It consists of three digits. Whereas the codes in the 100 range are only
informational, the codes in the 200 range indicate a successful request. The codes in the 300 range
redirect the client to another URL, and the codes in the 400 range indicate an error at the client site.
Finally, the codes in the 500 range indicate an error at the server site. We list the most common codes
in Table.
Status phrase: This field is used in the response message. It explains the status code in text
form. Table also gives the status phrase.
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Table Status codes

Code Phrase Description

Informational
100 Continue The initial part of the request has been received, and the
client may continue with its request.
101 Switching The server is complying with a client request to switch
protocols defined in the upgrade header.
Success
200 OK The request is successful.
201 Created A new URL is created.
202 Accepted The request is accepted, but it is not immediately acted upon.
204 No content There is no content in the body.

Code Phrase Description

Redirection
301 Moved permanently The requested URL is no longer used by the server.
302 Moved temporarily The requested URL has moved temporarily.
304 Not modified The document has not been modified.
Client Error
400 Bad request There is a syntax error in the request.
401 Unauthorized The request lacks proper authorization.
403 Forbidden Service is denied.
404 Not found The document is not found.
405 Method not allowed The method is not supported in this URL.
406 Not acceptable The format requested is not acceptable.
Server Error
500 Internal server error There is an error, such as a crash, at the server site.
501 Not implemented The action requested cannot be performed.
503 Service unavailable The service is temporarily unavailable, but may be requested
in the future.
Header
The header exchanges additional information between the client and the server. For example, the client
can request that the document be sent in a special format, or the server can send extra information about the
document. The header can consist of one or more header lines. Each header line has a header name; a
colon, a space, and a header value (see Figure 27.15). We will show some header lines in the examples
at the end of this chapter. A header line belongs to one of four categories: general header, request
header, response header, and entity header. A request message can contain only general, request, and
entity headers. A response message, on the other hand, can contain only general, response, and entity
headers.

Header format

General header: the general header gives general information about the message and can be present in
both a request and a response. Table 27.3 lists some general headers with their descriptions.
General headers
Header Description
Cache-control Specifies infonnation about caching
Connection Shows whether the connection should be closed or not
Date Shows the current date
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MIME-version Shows the MIME version used
Upgrade Specifies the preferred communication protocol

Request header : The request header can be present only in a request message. It specifies the client's
configuration and the client's preferred document format. See Table 27.4 for a list of some request headers
and their descriptions.
Request headers
Header Description
Accept Shows the medium fonnat the client can accept
Accept-charset Shows the character set the client can handle
Accept-encoding Shows the encoding scheme the client can handle
Accept-language Shows the language the client can accept
Authorization Shows what pennissions the client has
From Shows the e-mail address of the user
Host Shows the host and port number of the server
If-modified-since Sends the document if newer than specified date
If-match Sends the document only if it matches given tag
If-non-match
-- _._---. .. _-Sends the document only if it does not match given tag
If-range Sends only the portion of the document that is missing
If-unmodified-since Sends the document if not changed since specified date
Referrer Specifies the URL of the linked document
User-agent Identifies the client program

Response header: The response header can be present only in a response message. It specifies the
server's configuration and special information about the request. See Table for a list of some response
headers with their descriptions.

Response headers
Header Description
Accept-range Shows if server accepts the range requested by client
Age Shows the age of the document
Public Shows the supported list of methods
Retry-after Specifies the date after which the server is available
Server Shows the server name and version number

Entity header : The entity header gives information about the body of the document. Although it is
mostly present in response messages, some request messages, such as POST or PUT methods, that contain
a body also use this type of header. See Table for a list of some entity headers and their descriptions.
Entity headers
Header Description
Allow Lists valid methods that can be used with a URL
Content-encoding Specifies the encoding scheme
Content-language Specifies the language
Content-length Shows the length of the document
Content-range Specifies the range of the document
Content-type Specifies the medium type
Etag Gives an entity tag
Expires Gives the date and time when contents may change
Last-modified Gives the date and time of the last change
Location Specifies the location of the created or moved document

Body :The body can be present in a request or response message. Usually, it contains the document to be
sent or received.
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Example 27.3
HTTP uses ASCII characters. A client can directly connect to a server using TELNET, which logs
into port 80. The next three lines show that the connection is successful.
We then type three lines. The first shows the request line (GET method), the second is the
header (defining the host), the third is a blank, terminating the request.
The server response is seven lines starting with the status line. The blank line at the end
nates the server response. The file of 14,230 lines is received after the blank line (not shown here). The
last line is the output by the client.

$ teinet www.mhhe.com 80
Trying 198.45.24.104 ...
Connected to www.mhhe.com (198.45.24.104).
Escape character is 11\]'.
GET /engcslcompscilforouzan HTTP/I.t
From: [email protected]
HTTP/t.l 200 OK
Date: Thu, 28 Oct 2004 16:27:46 GMT
Server: Apache/l.3.9 (Unix) ApacheJServ/1.1.2 PHP/4.1.2 PHP/3.0.18
MIME-version: 1.0
Content-Type: text/html
Last-modified: Friday, 15-0ct-04 02:11:31
GMT Content-length: 14230
Connection closed by foreign host
Persistent Versus Nonpersistent Connection
HTTP prior to version 1.1 specified a nonpersistent connection, while a persistent connection is the
default in version 1.1.
Nonpersistent Connection
In a nonpersistent connection, one TCP connection is made for each request/response. The following
lists the steps in this strategy:
1. The client opens a TCP connection and sends a request.
2. The server sends the response and closes the connection.
3. The client reads the data until it encounters an end-of-file marker; it then closes the connection.
In this strategy, for N different pictures in different files, the connection must be opened and closed N
times. The nonpersistent strategy imposes high overhead on the server because the server needs N
different buffers and requires a slow start procedure each time a connection is opened.
Persistent Connection
HTTP version 1.1 specifies a persistent connection by default. In a persistent connection, the server leaves
the connection open for more requests after sending a response. The server can close the connection at
the request of a client or if a time-out has been reached. The sender usually sends the length of the data
with each response. However, there are some occasions when the sender does not know the length of the
data. This is the case when a document is created dynamically or actively. In these cases, the server
informs the client that the length is not known and closes the connection after sending the data so the client
knows that the end of the data has been reached.
The Wireless Web
There is considerable interest in small portable devices capable of accessing the Web via a wireless link. We
will focus on the first two wide area wireless Web systems to hit the market: WAP and i-mode.
WAP-The Wireless Application Protocol
Once the Internet and mobile phones had become commonplace, it did not take long before somebody got the
idea to combine them into a mobile phone with a built-in screen for wireless access to e-mail and the Web. The
''somebody'' in this case was a consortium initially led by Nokia, Ericsson, Motorola, and phone.com (formerly
Unwired Planet) and now boasting hundreds of members. The system is called WAP (Wireless Application
Protocol).
A WAP device may be an enhanced mobile phone, PDA, or notebook computer without any voice capability.
The specification allows all of them and more. The basic idea is to use the existing digital wireless
infrastructure. Users can literally call up a WAP gateway over the wireless link and send Web page requests to
it. The gateway then checks its cache for the page requested. If present, it sends it; if absent, it fetches it over the
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wired Internet. In essence, this means that WAP 1.0 is a circuit-switched system with a fairly high per-minute
connect charge. To make a long story short, people did not like accessing the Internet on a tiny screen and
paying by the minute, so WAP was something of a flop (although there were other problems as well). However,
WAP and its competitor, i-mode (discussed below), appear to be converging on a similar technology, so WAP
2.0 may yet be a big success. Since WAP 1.0 was the first attempt at wireless Internet, it is worth describing it
at least briefly.
WAP is essentially a protocol stack for accessing the Web, but optimized for low-bandwidth connections using
wireless devices having a slow CPU, little memory, and a small screen. These requirements are obviously
different from those of the standard desktop PC scenario, which leads to some protocol differences. The layers
are shown in Fig.
The WAP protocol stack.

The lowest layer supports all the existing mobile phone systems, including GSM, D-AMPS, and CDMA. The
WAP 1.0 data rate is 9600 bps. On top of this is the datagram protocol, WDP (Wireless Datagram Protocol),
which is essentially UDP. Then comes a layer for security, obviously needed in a wireless system. WTLS is a
subset of Netscape's SSL, which we will look at in Chap. 8. Above this is a transaction layer, which manages
requests and responses, either reliably or unreliably. This layer replaces TCP, which is not used over the air link
for efficiency reasons. Then comes a session layer, which is similar to HTTP/1.1 but with some restrictions and
extensions for optimization purposes. At the top is a microbrowser (WAE).
Besides cost, the other aspect that no doubt hurt WAP's acceptance is the fact that it does not use HTML.
Instead, the WAE layer uses a markup language called WML (Wireless Markup Language), which is an
application of XML. As a consequence, in principle, a WAP device can only access those pages that have been
converted to WML. However, since this greatly restricts the value of WAP, the architecture calls for an on-the-
fly filter from HTML to WML to increase the set of pages available. This architecture is illustrated in Fig..
The WAP architecture.

In all fairness, WAP was probably a little ahead of its time. When WAP was first started, XML was hardly
known outside W3C and so the press reported its launch as WAP DOES NOT USE HTML. A more accurate
headline would have been: WAP ALREADY USES THE NEW HTML STANDARD. But once the damage
was done, it was hard to repair and WAP 1.0 never caught on. We will revisit WAP after first looking at its
major competitor.