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A practical guide to using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis in

qualitative research psychology

Article · January 2014

DOI: 10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7

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 Czasopismo Psychologiczne
A practical guide to using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis ...
Psychological Journal

DOI: 10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7

A practical guide to using

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
in qualitative research psychology
Igor Pietkiewicz*
University of Social Sciences & Humanities, Faculty in Katowice

Jonathan A. Smith
Birkbeck University of London, Department of Psychological Sciences

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) has become a popular methodological framework in qualitative
psychology. Studies based in IPA focus on examining how individuals make meaning of their life experiences.
A detailed analysis of personal accounts followed by presenting and discussing the generic experiential themes
is typically paired with the researcher’s own interpretation, which is an expression of double hermeneutics in
practice. IPA draws upon phenomenology, hermeneutics, and idiography. This paper presents fundamental
principles behind IPA and offers guidelines for doing a study based on this framework.
Key words: qualitative research methodology, interpretative phenomenological analysis, qualitative psychology

QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORKS tive studies are generally more concerned with counting
IN PSYCHOLOGY occurrences, volumes, or the size of associations between
entities (which require the reduction of phenomena to
For many decades, the mainstream experimental psy- numerical values in order to carry out statistical analy-
chology relied on quantitative methodology based on ses), a great deal of qualitative research aims to provide
a model which involved testing theories by deriving rich descriptive accounts of the phenomenon under in-
hypotheses from them, which could then be checked in vestigation. In qualitative research, data is usually col-
practice via an experiment or observation. The research- lected in naturalistic settings (at home, school, hospi-
er looked for disconfirmation (falsification) of theory and, tal). Both participants’ and researchers’ interpretations
by eliminating claims which were not true, he or she was of phenomena is taken into account in the process of
believed to move closer to the truth. In contrast to this analysis. An important part of qualitative methodology
approach, we have observed a growing development of is epistemological reflexivity, which refers to questions
qualitative research methodologies1, based on a different such as: How does the research question define and limit
epistemological view. Qualitative researchers are main- what can be found? How does study design and method
ly concerned with meaning (e.g., how individuals make of analysis affect data and its analysis? If the research
sense of the world, how they experience events, what problem were defined differently, how would this affect
meaning they attribute to phenomena). In other words, the understanding of the phenomenon under investiga-
they are more preoccupied with the quality of experi- tion? (Willig, 2008).
ence, rather than causal relationships. While quantita- Handbooks on qualitative methodology in psychology
usually describe a number of major methodological ap-
1
Silverman (1993, p. 1) explains the difference between proaches, such as the Grounded Theory, Phenomenol-
“methodology” and “method”: whereas the former refers to ogy, Discourse Analysis, Narrative Psychology, Partici-
‘a general approach to studying research topics’, the latter
denotes ‘a specific research technique’ (such as an in-depth
patory Action Research (Smith 2008; Willig 2008; Camic,
interview, focus group, participatory observation). Rhodes & Yardley 2003). Each type constitutes a com-

* Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to This is an English version reprint of the paper: Pietkiewicz, I.
Igor Pietkiewicz, University of Social Sciences & Humanities & Smith, J.A. (2012). Praktyczny przewodnik interpretacyjnej
Faculty of Psychology in Katowice, Techników 9, 40-326 Kato- analizy fenomenologicznej w badaniach jakościowych w psycho-
wice, Poland. [email protected] logii. Czasopismo Psychologiczne 18, 2, 361-369.

© Czasopismo Psychologiczne – Psychological Journal, 20, 1, 2014, 7-14 7

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 Igor Pietkiewicz, Jonathan A. Smith

prehensive framework which includes the theoretical of their subject (although recognizing this is never com-
underpinnings behind it and guidelines for research de- pletely possible) and, through interpretative activity,
sign (sampling, methods of data collection and analysis). make meaning comprehensible by translating it (just
When producing the final report (or a research paper), like the mythological Hermes translated the gods’ mes-
it is especially convenient to use an established meth- sages to humans). This means that the IPA study is
odological framework. This is valuable, as most journals a dynamic process with the active role of the researcher
impose limitations on paper lengths. The researcher can who influences the extent to which they get access to the
make reference to standardized methods and methodolo- participant’s experience and how, through interpretative
gies, instead of giving detailed descriptions of analytical activity, they make sense of the subject’s personal world.
procedures. This allows more space to present abundant The analytical process in IPA is often described in terms
qualitative material. In this paper, we describe one such of a double hermeneutic or dual interpretation process
methodological framework which has become increas- because, firstly, the participants make meaning of their
ingly popular in European and American psychology, world and, secondly, the researcher tries to decode that
namely Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). meaning to make sense of the participants’ meaning
After a short outline of its theoretical orientation, we de- making (Smith & Osborn, 2008). In other words, IPA re-
scribe the specifics of research problems suitable for IPA, searchers try to understand what an experience (object
methods of sampling and data collection, and present or event) is like from the participant’s perspective. Yet,
guidelines for analysis using examples, and final com- at the same time, they try to formulate critical questions
ments on how to produce a final paper. For the reader referring to the material, such as: What is the person
who is interested, a much fuller treatment of these is- trying to achieve here? Is anything meaningful being
sues can be found in the book on IPA (Smith, Flowers, said here, which was not intended? Do I have a sense
& Larkin 2009). of something going on here that the person himself or
herself is perhaps less aware of? IPA studies may thus
IPA THEORETICAL ORIENTATION contain elements of both types of interpretation, making
the analysis richer and more comprehensive.
The primary goal of IPA researchers is to investigate To sum up, IPA synthesizes ideas from phenomenol-
how individuals make sense of their experiences. It is ogy and hermeneutics resulting in a method which is de-
assumed that people are ‘self-interpreting beings’ (Tay- scriptive because it is concerned with how things appear
lor, 1985), which means that they are actively engaged and letting things speak for themselves, and interpreta-
in interpreting the events, objects, and people in their tive because it recognizes there is no such thing as an
lives. To examine this process, IPA draws upon the fun- uninterpreted phenomenon.
damental principles of phenomenology, hermeneutics, The third theoretical orientation which IPA relies
and idiography. upon is idiography. This refers to an in-depth analysis
Phenomenology, developed by Edmund Husserl as an of single cases and examining individual perspectives of
eidetic method, is concerned with attending to the way study participants in their unique contexts. The funda-
things appear to individuals in their experience. In other mental principle behind the idiographic approach is to
words, it aims at identifying the essential components explore every single case, before producing any general
of phenomena or experiences which make them unique statements. This contrasts with the nomothetic princi-
or distinguishable from others. By the use of eidetic re- ples which underlie most empirical work in psychology,
duction, phenomenologists try to recognize what essen- in which groups and populations are studied to establish
tial components make a given phenomenon special (or the probability that certain phenomena will occur un-
unique). Phenomenological studies thus focus on how der specific conditions. IPA relies on idiography, mean-
people perceive and talk about objects and events, rather ing that researchers focus on the particular rather the
than describing phenomena according to a predeter- universal (Smith, Harré, & Van Langenhove, 1995). The
mined categorical system, conceptual and scientific cri- researcher can make specific statements about study
teria. This involves ‘bracketing’ one’s preconceptions and participants because the analysis is based upon a de-
allowing phenomena to speak for themselves. tailed case exploration. The IPA researcher thus starts
Husserl’s thought was further developed by his fol- either by examining an individual and producing a case
lower, Martin Heidegger (1962), into existential philoso- study or moves to an equally attentive exploration of the
phy and hermeneutics. Heidegger was concerned with second case, and so on. This idiographic commitment is
the ontological question of existence itself. According to unusual even among qualitative methodologies. If the
hermeneutics (from the Greek word ‘to interpret’ or ‘to researcher wants to study a group of individuals, he or
make clear’) one needs to comprehend the mind-set of she moves between important themes generated in the
a person and their language which mediates one’s ex- analysis and exemplifies them with individual narra-
periences of the world, in order to translate his or her tives (how particular individuals tell their stories), com-
message (Freeman, 2008). Thus, IPA researchers at- paring and contrasting them (i.e., showing similarities
tempt to understand what it is like to stand in the shoes and differences).

8 © Czasopismo Psychologiczne – Psychological Journal, 20, 1, 2014, 7-14

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 A practical guide to using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis ...

FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS about a particular participant’s experiences or present

a more general account on a group or specific popula-
Most qualitative methodologies reject formulating hy- tion. Doing both is rarely possible, so the final goal will
potheses prior to research conduct. Instead, they promote determine the subsequent methodology and research de-
an open inductive approach to data collection and analy- sign. It is inappropriate to use a large sample size just
sis. IPA emphasises studying people idiographically. It because that is more common in psychological studies.
aims at generating rich and detailed descriptions of how With IPA, we aim at producing an in-depth examination
individuals experience phenomena under investigation. of certain phenomena, and not generating a theory to be
Its concern with the in-depth exploration of their lived generalized over the whole population. (However, com-
experiences and how they make sense of those experi- paring multiple IPA studies on a particular problem may
ences helps define the type of question which is suitable provide insights into universal patterns or mechanisms.)
for an IPA study. Example research problems might be: There is no rule regarding how many participants
• What does jealousy feel like? should be included. It generally depends on: 1. the depth
of analysis of a single case study; 2. the richness of the
• How do young people experience the transition
individual cases; 3. how the researcher wants to compare
from school to college or university?
or contrast single cases; and 4. the pragmatic restric-
• How do people make the decision whether or not tions one is working under. The last category includes
undergo chemotherapy? time constraints or access to participants. For example,
There are interesting examples of using IPA in psy- one of the authors participated in a study to investigate
chological research to explore a variety of problems, the experiences of parents who had a child with Juve-
such as: the relationship between body image, gender nile Huntington’s Disease – a seemingly rare condition
and sexual orientation (Morgan & Arcelus, 2009); how (Smith et al., 2006). The total number of people for whom
people with multiple sclerosis think about the experi- this is a relevant experience is small and therefore this
ence of exercise (Borkoles et al., 2008); how being HIV immediately determines the boundaries for a possible
positive impacts personal relationships (Jarman, Walsh, sample. More commonly the potential participant pool
& de Lacey, 2005); what influences the decision to stop is wider and a process of sample selection needs to be
psychotherapy (Wilson & Sperlinger, 2004); how an indi- undertaken.
vidual’s sense of identity is affected by being diagnosed IPA studies have been published with – for example –
with Alzheimer’s disease (Clare, 2003); by homelessness one, four, nine, fifteen participants. Larger sample sizes
(Riggs & Coyle, 2002); or how it changes during the tran- are possible but less common. According to Turpin et al.
sition to motherhood (Smith, 1999); how people come to (1997) the clinical psychology doctoral programmes in
terms with the death of a partner (Golsworthy & Coyle, Britain recommend that six to eight participants is ap-
1999); or how gay men think about sex and sexuality propriate for an IPA study as this size sample gives an
(Flowers et al, 1997). opportunity to examine similarities and differences be-
IPA was initially applied to problems in health psy- tween individuals. At the same time, the amount of qual-
chology but became more and more popular in other itative data gathered is not overwhelming. In general,
fields. It can be a suitable approach in clinical psychol- IPA researchers should concentrate more on the depth,
ogy and psychotherapy to examine cases. Its strengths rather than breadth, of the study. A detailed analysis of
can also be utilized in cultural or indigenous psychology, a single case may well be justified if rich and meaning-
which focus on the emic perspective of participants. It can ful data has been collected which allows the researcher
also support psychologists of religion to analyze spiritual to present original problems, mechanism, or experiences.
experiences or religious rituals and meanings attributed This offers an opportunity to learn a lot about the indi-
to them. Community psychologists, as well as psycholo- vidual, his or her response to a specific situation, and
gists of migration and acculturation, can find it useful to consider connections between different aspects of the
examine how various groups construct their ethnic (or person’s account (Smith, 2004). In most studies, how-
group) identity, what meaning they attribute to social ever, IPA researchers rely on a small sample rather than
roles, and how they perceive phenomena. These are just a single individual.
a few examples of how this methodological framework Typically, IPA researchers aim for a fairly homoge-
can be used to design qualitative psychological research. neous sample, contrary to grounded theorists, for ex-
ample, who engage in constant comparisons and seek
SAMPLING IN IPA exceptions or odd cases which helps them produce a mul-
tidimensional dynamic theory of how different factors af-
The main concern in IPA is give full appreciation to each fect human behaviours (Charmaz, 2006). In IPA, psycho-
participant’s account (case). For this reason, samples in logical similarities and differences are usually analyzed
IPA studies are usually small, which enables a detailed within a group that has been defined as similar accord-
and very time consuming case-by-case analysis. At an ing to important variables. Obviously, it is inappropriate
early stage, the researcher must decide whether he or to think in terms of random or representative sampling
she wants to give a comprehensive and in-depth analysis when one is interviewing so few participants. In line

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 Igor Pietkiewicz, Jonathan A. Smith

Frame 1:
Example interview questions for a study on illness behaviors in an ethnic minority group. The researcher’s goal was to examine how
the indigenous culture and acculturation in northern India affected Tibetan patients’ explanatory models and reactions to becoming ill

1. Can you tell me about your illness experiences when living in exile?
Prompts: What kind of health problems did you have? How did that feel in your body? How did you interpret symptoms? Why do you think
symptoms appeared at that time of your life? What was going on in your mind then? (thoughts/ associations/ fantasies)
2. What did you think could help you feel better at that time?
Prompts: What kind of treatment did you think was most appropriate? Why? What did you think should have been done to help you
overcome your problem(s)? How did you think your condition would change if you had done nothing about it?
3. What was your first / subsequent reaction(s)?
Prompts: How did you decide to go about your health problems? Where did you seek help? What stopped you from seeking help? If sought
medical / non-medical treatment: What did you think about recommendations you received? What was similar or different in what you
thought about your problem and how the person you referred to assessed it?

with the theoretical underpinnings of IPA, participants It is crucial that researchers have developed their in-
are selected purposely. This allows one to find a defined terviewing skills. Apart from mastering active listening2
group for whom the research problem has relevance and and the ability to ask open-ended questions free from
personal significance. How homogeneous the group is de- hidden presumptions, the interviewer should know to
pends on two factors: 1. interpretative concerns (degree build rapport and gain trust of the participant. A kind
of similarity or variation that can be contained in the of warm-up discussion may be necessary to reduce the
analysis of the phenomenon), and 2. pragmatic consider- interviewee’s tension and get him or her ready to discuss
ations (ease or difficulty of contacting potential partici- more sensitive or personal issues. With semi-structured
pants, relative rarity of the phenomenon). The subject interviews, it is helpful to prepare an interview plan
matter can itself define the boundaries of the relevant in advance. This plan is a guide to facilitate a natural
sample (e.g., if the topic is rare and few representatives flow of conversation, and can include key questions or
are available, such as the Juvenile Huntington’s Disease areas the researcher wants to discuss (see example in
mentioned earlier). In other cases, when the topic is more Frame 1). Formulating specific questions (e.g., relating
commonplace, the sample may include individuals with to sensitive issues) may be helpful for less experienced
similar demographic or socio-economic status profiles interviewers. Apart from open and expansive questions
(e.g., elderly, female members of a specific religious com- which encourage participants to talk at length, it may be
munity or young, male patients diagnosed with a par- also be convenient to think about prompts. These may be
ticular illness, etc.). In this respect, IPA can be compared helpful if participants find some questions too general or
to ethnographic studies in which small communities are abstract. Questions suitable for an IPA study may con-
closely investigated to produce detailed descriptions and centrate on exploring sensory perceptions, mental phe-
commentaries about their culture, where claims are nomena (thoughts, memories, associations, fantasies)
bound to that culture or only cautiously suggested at and, in particular, individual interpretations. During an
a broader level. Nevertheless, through a steady accumu- interview, the researcher should also feel comfortable
lation of similar studies on other groups, generalizations with moments of silence, to allow both his or herself and
may become possible over time (Smith, Harré, & Van the participant to reflect upon issues being discussed.
Langenhove, 1995). Furthermore, an experienced interviewer is also sensi-
tive to and tries to be aware of all verbal, non-verbal, and
COLLECTING DATA non-behavioral communication. (Frame 1)
For ethical reasons, and because IPA studies are fre-
The primary concern of IPA researchers is to elicit rich, quently concerned with significant existential issues, it
detailed, and first-person accounts of experiences and is crucial that the interviewer monitors how the inter-
phenomena under investigation. Semi-structured, in- view is affecting the participant. Experienced interview-
depth, one-on-one interviews are the most popular meth- ers can easily determine when the participants avoid
od to achieve that, although other alternatives of data talking about certain issues, start feeling awkward,
collection can also be used (e.g., diaries, focus groups, let- ashamed or become very emotional. Using counseling
ters or chat dialogues). Semi-structured interviews allow skills may then be useful and, if the interviewer has not
the researcher and the participant to engage in a dia- developed such competence, he or she should follow spe-
logue in real time. They also give enough space and flex-
ibility for original and unexpected issues to arise, which 2
This involves listening attentively, trying to understand
the researcher may investigate in more detail with fur- what is being said, negotiating meaning when things seem
ther questions. unclear, ambiguous or abstract, and constructing appropri-
ate questions which help explore what is being said.

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 A practical guide to using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis ...

cific ethical procedures (e.g., stop the interview and refer data through a psychological lens, interpreting it with
the person to a professional in mental care). Even though the application of psychological concepts and theories
such situations are rare, researchers should consider all which the researcher finds helpful to illuminate the un-
possible risks. derstanding of research problems. Showing the emic per-
The duration of most IPA interviews is one hour or spective protects researchers from psychological or psy-
longer. The semi-structured form of interviews allows chiatric reductionism. On the other hand, by looking at
the interviewer to ask questions in a convenient order, data from the outsider’s perspective, we have a chance to
which may differ from one interview to another. Novel develop higher level theories and insights (which the re-
perspectives or topics, which have not been anticipat- spondent himself or herself may not have access to). The
ed, may also arise and the researcher is free to develop researcher should be careful, however, when applying
them. In IPA it is necessary to audio record the interview theories developed in one setting (e.g., western culture)
and produce a verbatim transcription of it. to explain phenomena from a different one. Indigenous
psychologists stipulate that such theories might be ir-
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITATIVE MATERIAL relevant.
In general, IPA provides a set of flexible guidelines
Analysing qualitative material using the IPA framework which can be adapted by individual researchers accord-
can be an inspiring activity, although complex and time- ing to their research objectives. However, these guide-
consuming. It is recommended that researchers totally lines are merely an illustration of one possible way of
immerse themselves in the data or, in other words, try analysing the qualitative material. They should not be
to step into the participants’ shoes as far as possible. treated as a recipe and the researcher is advised to be
IPA aims at giving evidence of the participants’ mak- flexible and creative in his or her thinking. To demon-
ing sense of phenomena under investigation and, at the strate how the analysis unfolds, we describe the analytic
same time, document the researcher’s sense making. stages of an example study on how Tibetans accultur-
The researcher thus moves between the emic and etic ating in northern India make meaning of their medical
perspectives. The latter is achieved by looking at the conditions.

Frame 2:
An extract from an interview with Lobsang (a Tibetan from Dharamsala) about making meaning of his symptoms, with researcher’s
notes

Oryginal transcript Exploratory comments

Interviewer: Can you tell me about the last time you were ill?
Oh, it was long ago. By the grace of His Holiness the Dalai Lama I haven’t had any Attributes good fortune to the Dalai Lama. A cliché or
problems recently. When I arrived here ten years ago… well… even I had a small, reflects his beliefs?
like… spirit harm. My [points to his genitals], you know, my organ got swollen and Attributes illness to spirits; does not know the word “penis”
it was itching. I did not pay attention to it at first, but after a few days it got worse. or ashamed to use it? Grew worried about his symptoms as
I had… sort of pain when I was trying to pee, and I was really worried. they got worse
Interviewer: Why do you think that symptom appeared?
Well, you know, many reasons are possible. What I thought at that time and what I Finds different explanations for his problem
think now – two different reasons. I mean, you know, we used to piss everywhere, Sees symptoms as punishment by nagas
you see. In a spring, on a tree… we used to pee near that and sometimes my organ
[penis] swells. And when I go to lama, he say: “This is harm of nagas because you
did something wrong.” So, they would tell me to do this prayer and I do.
Interviewer: Can you tell me how you interpreted your health problem?
Well, at that time, I thought that it was the curse of nagas. These serpent deities Holds folk beliefs about serpent deities (nagas), ways of
are very powerful beings, you know, so you have to… you know, be careful not to offending them (peeing, cutting a tree), and being cursed.
offend them. Sometimes, they… you can see them in the form of a frog or snake. Associating skin problems with nagas’ activity
They live in forests, in streams or in a tree. So, you know… when you pee into the
stream or on that tree… or cut this tree, you can make them angry and they curse
you. Then, you know… skin problems.
Interviewer: What else might have caused your problem? You mentioned another
reason.
Well… it is like…. you know, I may have slept with another woman, who may have Smiled and seemed embarrassed to talk about sleeping
some problems. Like a prostitute for instance. I think, if that is the cause, then I with a woman. What is embarrassing for him – talking about
should go to a doctor. It depends. Maybe nagas or maybe… you know… bacteria. sexual activity, prostitutes?
Sometimes we have these talks, you know… a nurse or a doctor comes… and
they talk about bacteria. “Wash your hands” – you know, after using toilet or “Use Referring to the germ theory to explain his symptoms. How
condoms.” does he go about conflicting explanations?

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 Igor Pietkiewicz, Jonathan A. Smith

Multiple reading and making notes tailed and comprehensive notes have been produced at
an earlier stage, they should reflect the source material.
The initial stage involves close reading of the transcript The aim is to transform notes into emerging themes.
a number of times. If an audio recording is available, it is The researcher aims to formulate a concise phrase at
also recommended to listen to it a few times. This helps a slightly higher level of abstraction which may refer to
researchers immerse themselves in the data, recall the a more psychological conceptualization. Nevertheless,
atmosphere of the interview, and the setting in which this is still grounded in the particular detail of the par-
it was conducted. Each reading and listening to the re- ticipant’s account. At this stage, we are inevitably in-
cording may provide some new insights. At this stage, fluenced by having already annotated the transcript as
the researcher can make notes about his or her observa- a whole, which is a good example of the hermeneutic
tions and reflections about the interview experience or circle discussed earlier (the part is interpreted in rela-
any other thoughts and comments of potential signifi- tion to the whole, and the whole is interpreted in relation
cance. They may focus on content (what is actually being to the part). Frame 3 shows examples of the emergent
discussed), language use (features such as metaphors, themes for the same interview extract with Lobsang.
symbols, repetitions, pauses), context, and initial inter-
pretative comments. Some comments associated with Seeking relationships and clustering themes
personal reflexivity may also be generated (e.g., how
might personal characteristics of the interviewer, such The next stage involves looking for connections between
as gender, age, social status, affect the rapport with the emerging themes, grouping them together according to
participant). It is useful to highlight distinctive phrases conceptual similarities, and providing each cluster with
and emotional responses. An example of relevant notes a descriptive label. In practice, it means compiling themes
is shown in Frame 2. for the whole transcript before looking for connections
and clusters. Some of the themes may be dropped at this
Transforming notes into Emergent Themes stage if they do not fit well with the emerging structure
or because they have a weak evidential base. A final list
At this stage, the researcher should work more with his may comprise of numerous superordinate themes and
or her notes, rather than with the transcript. When de- subthemes (see: Frame 4). Researchers who use the tra-

Frame 3:
Examples of developing emergent themes

Original transcript Emerging themes

Interviewer: Can you tell me about the last time you were ill?
Oh, it was long ago. By the grace of His Holiness the Dalai Lama I haven’t had any Attributing good fortune to lama’s blessing.
problems recently. When I arrived here ten years ago… well… even I had a small,
like… spirit harm. My [points to his genitals], you know, my organ got swollen and Attributing illness to supernatural forces.
it was itching. I did not pay attention to it at first, but after a few days it got worse.
I had… sort of pain when I was trying to pee, and I was really worried.
Interviewer: Why do you think that symptom appeared?
Well, you know, many reasons are possible. What I thought at that time and what I
think now – two different reasons. I mean, you know, we used to piss everywhere,
you see. In a spring, on a tree… we used to pee near that and sometimes my organ
[penis] swells. And when I go to lama, he say: “This is harm of nagas because you Holding different explanatory models.
did something wrong.” So, they would tell me to do this prayer and I do.
Interviewer: Can you tell me how you interpreted your health problem?
Well, at that time, I thought that it was the curse of nagas. These serpent deities Referring to folk beliefs associated with nagas to rationalize
are very powerful beings, you know, so you have to… you know, be careful not to illness.
offend them. Sometimes, they… you can see them in the form of a frog or snake.
They live in forests, in streams or in a tree. So, you know… when you pee into the
stream or on that tree… or cut this tree, you can make them angry and they curse Folk beliefs about nagas, ways of offending them, and being
you. Then, you know… skin problems. cursed.
Interviewer: What else might have caused your problem? You mentioned
another reason..
Well… it is like…. you know, I may have slept with another woman, who may have
some problems. Like a prostitute for instance. I think, if that is the cause, then Referring to folk beliefs to rationalize skin problems.
I should go to a doctor. It depends. Maybe nagas or maybe… you know… bacteria.
Sometimes we have these talks, you know… a nurse or a doctor comes… and
they talk about bacteria. “Wash your hands” – you know, after using toilet or “Use Using western conceptualizations to explain illness.
condoms.”

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 A practical guide to using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis ...

Frame 4: a persuasive account that explains to the reader the im-

An example of clustered themes portant experiential items that have been found during
the process of analysis. Using interviewees’ own words
Conditions associated with good health and luck to illustrate themes has two functions: 1. It enables the
Accumulation of positive karma in the past. reader to assess the pertinence of the interpretations,
Involvement in actions to accumulate merits. and 2. It retains the voice of the participants’ personal
Attributing good fortune to lama’s blessing. experience and gives a chance to present the emic per-
Meaning attributed to spiritual involvement. spective. The final paper thus includes both the partici-
Rationalizing symptoms of illness pant’s account of his or her experience in his or her own
The concept of negative karma. words, and interpretative commentary of the research-
Referring to indigenous beliefs to conceptualize illness: er. The narrative account may engage several levels of
• Imbalance of humours. interpretation, from low-level interpretation of data to
• Attributing illness to supernatural forces. a highly detailed, interpretative and theoretical level,
Using western conceptualizations to explain illness:
• Attributing symptoms to viruses or bacteria.
which may generate new insights.
• Illness attributed to stress. In a typical IPA project, the narrative account is fol-
Illness attributed to poor diet. lowed by a discussion section which relates the identified
Illness attributed to exhaustion. themes to existing literature. Reflection on the research
Holding conflicting explanatory models can be included here, as well as comments on implica-
tions of the study, its limitations, and ideas for future
development.
ditional method of pen and paper, and write comments
and themes in the margin, probably like to end up with CONCLUSION
a list of major themes and subthemes, and relevant short
extracts from the transcript, followed by the line number, Doing an IPA study is a demanding enterprise, despite
so that it is easy to return to the transcript and check a possible illusion that using a small sample makes it
the extract in context. On the other hand, researchers easy. Obviously, the researcher needs to combine a wide
who use modern software for qualitative data admin- repertoire of skills. To gather valuable data, some de-
istration, will feel confident with a mere list of themes gree of interviewing experience is indispensable. Care-
and subthemes, as they can produce short descriptions ful, systematic, and rigorous analysis, on the other
of each theme and use links to appropriate passages in hand, requires patience and openness to see the world
the transcript. Using QDA software with IPA is another through someone else’s eyes and the ability to control a
subject, however, which needs further elaboration in temptation to a priori impose conceptual categories. The
a separate paper. inductive character of most qualitative methodologies
requires that theories are derived from data, and not the
WRITING UP AN IPA STUDY other way round.
Training in qualitative research in psychology is still
The painstaking analysis described above leads to writ- relatively new and underdeveloped. Students are thus
ing a narrative account of the study. This usually in- likely to approach qualitative research with a mindset
volves taking the themes identified in the final table and developed from much fuller training in quantitative
writing them up one by one. Each theme needs to be de- methodology. Many feel challenged by the lack of ap-
scribed and exemplified with extracts from interview(s), propriate skills required here. As qualitative psychology
followed by analytic comments from the authors (see ex- matures, we expect the general level of student work to
ample in Frame 5). The table of themes opens up into become stronger, deeper, and richer (Smith, 2011).

Frame 5:
A brief ilustration of writing up an IPA study

Trying to rationalize the onset of his illness, Lobsang initially referred to the traditional indigenous beliefs of the culture he represented:

I thought that it was the curse of nagas. These serpent deities are very powerful beings, you know, so you have to… you know, be careful
not to offend them. Sometimes, they… you can see them in the form of a frog or snake. They live in forests, in streams or in a tree. So, you
know… when you pee into the stream or on that tree… or cut this tree, you can make them angry and they curse you.

Stories about serpent deities have been part of everyday life and social discourse in the Tibetan diaspora. They were embedded in their
cosmological system and reflected the belief in the invisible sphere of existence, inhabited by gods, demi-gods, spirits or hungry ghosts. This
defined Lobsang’s spirituality and his sense of identity. This also represents shared values Lobsang identified with, such as respect towards
nature and all living creation. Yet, in another part of his discourse, Lobsang refers to fundamental principles of tantric Buddhism according to
which all phenomena are perceived as “mere reflections of the mind”. As such, serpent deities, powerful, dangerous, and potentially oppressive
for those who cross the taboo, can represent inner objects which are projected and used to control the behavior of body, speech, and mind.
Peeing into the stream or cutting a tree which belongs to the nagas carries significant symbolic force…

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 Igor Pietkiewicz, Jonathan A. Smith

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