Chapter 2 - Energy

Energy
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms such as heat, kinetic
or mechanical energy, light, potential energy, electrical, chemical or other forms.

According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of a system remains constant, though energy
may transform into another form.

The SI unit of energy is the joule (J) or Newton-meter (N * m). The joule is also the SI unit of work.

Chemical energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules.
This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within molecule or otherwise.

Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy by a chemical reaction.
For example, when a fuel is burned the chemical energy converted to heat, same is the case with digestion of
food metabolized in a biological organism.

Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy through the process known photosynthesis, and
electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy through electrochemical reactions.

Various Sources of Energy

There are two sources of energy

i. Renewable sources of energy: These are sources of energy which are gained from natural resources and
replenished naturally. Energy produced by these sources are not harmful to environment. Example of
sources of these energies is: sun, wind, rain, tides etc.
ii. Non-renewable sources of energy: This type of energy is gained from deposits found on earth. These are
present in limited quantities. It took thousands of years for the resources to be formed on earth. When
energy is produced using them, it causes harm nature. When we burn petrol, carbon dioxide along with
soot is produced which is harmful to the environment.
Examples of non-renewable sources of energy: fossil fuels which include coals, natural gas, petroleum etc.

Nuclear energy
It is the part of the energy of an atomic nucleus, which can be released by fusion or fission or radioactive
decay. The most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium - 235 (235U) and plutonium-239 (239Pu). The
actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of nuclear fuel together make up the
nuclear fuel cycle.
A nuclear power plant uses steam to generate electricity the same as fossil fuel power plant. The
majordifference between the fossil fuel power plant and nuclear power plant is the method used to heat the
water and produce steam.
In nuclear power plant, uranium takes place of coal, oil or gas to be the fuel used to heat water and produce
steam.
As the reserves of fossil fuel is depleting very fast, more number of nuclear power plants are coming up in most
of the countries.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 1

 Chapter 2 - Energy

Fig. 2.1 Nuclear Power Plant

However main disadvantages of nuclear power plants are high investment and the byproducts of fission are
radio-active which may cause a dangerous radio-active pollution.

Hydel/Hydraulic/Water Energy
Hydro power is the generation of electricity by using the natural force of water. It is generated in three
different ways: hydroelectric power, tidal power, and wave power.

1) Hydroelectric Power: This is the most common form of hydro-power, making up the majority of all
renewable energy produced. Electricity is produced in hydroelectric dams where the force of falling water
drives massive turbines.

Fig. 2.2 Hydel power plant

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 2

 Chapter 2 - Energy

It is relatively cheaper and better source of energy. Water stored at high level contains large potential energy.
The water head is created by constructing dam across the river or lake at a higher level.

When water starts flowing from higher level, its potential energy gets converted into kinetic energy which is
further converted into mechanical energy by running the hydraulic turbine and water wheels. Turbines and
water wheels are coupled to electric generator -generating electric power.

Hydroelectric power generation is becoming more and more popular as it is reliable, require low mainte nance
cost, low operating cost and free from pollution. However it requires large initial investment cost for dam and
reservoir.

Numbers of hydro power plants are constructed in India. Sardar sarovar hydro power project in Gujarat is one
of the largest projects in India.

2) Tidal Power: The second most popular type of hydro power, tidal energy is produced by currents caused
from the natural ebb and flow of the tide. The Rotec Tidal Turbine (RTT) is a unique solution to the
problem of providing renewable energy. The RTT unit is completely submerged and is connected to an
on-shore electrical substation via subsea

3) Wave Power: This is the latest of the three hydropower solutions. The system harnesses the power from
ocean surface wave motion, where air displaced by waves is driven through a generator than spins a
turbine. The end result is electricity.

These generators can either be coupled to floating devices on the sea, or fixed along the shore where seas are
rough. Although this technology is relatively new, it has been estimated that there is enough energy in ocean
waves to produce power.

Fig. 2.3 Tidal power plant

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 3

 Chapter 2 - Energy

Wind Energy

Fig. 2.4 Wind power plant

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to
generate electric power, windmills for mechanical power, wind pump s for water pumping or drainage or sails
to propel ships. Fig. 2.4 shows the outline of wind power generation.

Large wind farms consist of hundreds of individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power
transmission network. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land and off-shore farms have less visual
impact, but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher.

Fig. 2.5 Wind power plant line diagram

Small onshore wind farms provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies increasingly buy surplus
electricity produced by small domestic wind turbines.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 4

 Chapter 2 - Energy

Wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no
greenhouse gas emissions during operation and uses little land.

The effects on the environment are generally less problematic than those from other power sources. Large
wind farms are constructed at Kanyakumari in Chennai and at Bhuj in Gujarat.

Solar Energy:
Sun is the ultimate source of energy. The energy originates with the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring
in the sun. It Represents the entire electromagnetic radiation (visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, x -rays, and
radio waves). Solar energy reaching the earth in tropical zones is about 1kW/meter square per day.

By one calculation, 30 days of sunshine striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of the total of all the
planet’s fossil fuels, both used and unused. In the Indian subcontinent, abundant solar energy is available for
about ten months of the year for six to eight hours a day.

Fig. 2.6 Solar energy collector

Radiated heat energy from the sun can be utilized for both domestic and commercial purposes such as heating
of water, distillation of water, refrigeration, drying, power generation, etc. For power generation there are
mainly two technologies - (1) Solar Thermal and (2) Solar Photo Voltaic (PV).

Solar Thermal heat energy generate steam which runs turbine to generate power. Solar PV is more advanced
technology which directly converts sunlight into electricity without using generators or any moving devices.
Solar PV power generation system is shown in fig 2.6

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 5

 Chapter 2 - Energy

Energy from fossil Fuels:

There are three major forms of fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. All three were formed many hundreds of
millions of years ago before the time of the dinosaurs - hence the name fossil fuels.

Classification of Fuels:
There two ways the classify the fuels

(a) Natural and Artificial.

(b) Solid, liquid and gaseous.

(a) Natural Fuel: - Fuel that occur in nature. It is also known as primary fuel.
(b) Artificial Fuel: - They are prepared fuels. They are also known as secondary fuels.

Solid Fuels: -
Wood: - It is most commonly used and easily available natural fuel. In India, wood is used in almost all villages
and towns as fuel. It ignites easily (approx. at 250°C) and so it is used for igniting other fuels.
Peat: - It is a mixture of water and decayed vegetable matter. It is the first stage in the formation of coal from
wood. It contains large amount of moisture. It is dried for about 1 to 2 months before it is put to use. In Europe
it is used as a domestic fuel. All other varieties of coal are derived from peat. It has the lowest calorific value.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 6
 Chapter 2 - Energy

Table 2.1 Types of Fuels

Type of Fuel Natural (Primary) Prepared (Secondary)

Solid Wood Coke
Peat Charcoal
Lignite Briquetted coal
Pulverized coal
Liquid Petroleum Gasoline
Kerosene
Fuel oil
Alcohol
Benzol
Shale oil
Natural gas Petroleum gas
Gaseous Producer gas
Coal gas
Coke-oven gas
Blast furnace gas
Sewer gas

Lignite: - The formation of lignite is next to peat. Its color is brown. Hence it is also known as brown coal. The
moisture content varies from 20 to 60%. It is low grade fuel. There are large deposits of lignite in Kashmir,
Neyvelli and Rajasthan.

Bituminous Coal: It is the -next stage in development. It is shining black in appearance. It is easier to ignite. It
burns with a long yellow and smoky flame. In India, coal reserves are located in Bihar, Bengal, M. P. and Orissa.

Anthracite Coal: - It is transformed from Bituminous coal. It is hard, brittle, and lustrou s in appearance. It
burns without flame or smoke. It is difficult to ignite. It burns without smell.

Amongst natural coal, this coal has minimum ash, Sulphur, volatile matter and moisture. It has the highest
calorific value and hence very suitable for steam generation. In India, this coal reserves are found in Kashmir
and Eastern Himalayas.

Artificial or Prepared Fuels

(a) Wood Charcoal: - It is obtained by destructive distillation of wood. During the process the volatile matter
and water are expelled.

(b) Coke: - Coke is produced by removing the volatile matter from bituminous coal. It is hard, brittle and
porous. It consist of carbon, mineral matter with 2% Sulphur and small quantities of hydrogen, nitrogen and
phosphorus. It is smokeless and clear fuel. It can be produced by several processes. It is not used for steam
raising but is used in gas producers.

(c) Briquetted Coal: - It consists of finely ground coal mixed with suitable binder and pressed together to form
blocks or briquettes.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 7

 Chapter 2 - Energy

The briquettes can be of any shape. By this method, it is possible to increase heating value of low quality of
coal.

(d) Pulverized coal: - Coal when crushed to powder is called pulverized coal. The fineness is adjusted so that
during combustion it floats. Thus there is better contact between air and fuel. Hence the combustion efficiency
is very high. By this method, rough fuels can be used for steam raising in boilers. The advantages of this method
are flexibility of control, complete combustion with less excess air and high flame temperature.

Liquid Fuels: -
The liquid fuels are classified according to mode of procurement as -
1) Natural or Crude oils
2) Artificial or manufactured oil.

Table 2.2 Liquid Fuel classification

Natural oils (Distilled) Distilled artificial oils

Petrol Coal-tar
Benzene Tar-oil
Diesel Shale-oil
Other light oils Natural gas oil
Like kerosene

Petroleum: - It is the lightest and most volatile liquid fuel. It is chiefly used for light petrol engine. Petrol comes
out at 65°C to 220°C by distillation of crude oil. It is known as gasoline. In India the main sources of petroleum
are Assam and Gujarat.

Kerosene: - It is also known as paraffin oil. Kerosene distills at 220°C to 345°C. Heavier and less volatile than
petrol. It is used for heating and lighting purposes.

Diesel oil: - The liquid fuels distilled after petroleum and Kerosene is Diesel oil. Diesel oil may be obtained by
straight distillation, by cracking or by blending several oils. Diesel Engines are the main users of this oil. It is
also known as heavy fuel oils. It is also used in oil-fired boilers. They are distilled at temperature 345°C to
470°C

Tar: - It is an important by product obtained from the manufacture of coal gas. Redistilled, important fuel like
benzene (C6H6) is produced. Benzene is less liable detonation than standard petrol.

Alcohol: - It is formed by fermentation of vegetable matter. It is an artificial liquid fuel. Its cost is higher than
petrol. The energy content of Alcohol is lower than it is mainly industrial fuel and practically not used.

The advantages and disadvantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels:

Advantages:-

1) Require less space for storage.

2) Higher calorific value.
3) Easy handling and transportation.
4) Better control of consumption by using valves or a grates or less number of burners as required.
5) Better cleanliness and-freedom from dust.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 8

 Chapter 2 - Energy

6) Practically no ashes.
7) Non-corrosion of boiler plates.
8) Higher efficiency.

Disadvantages: -

1) Higher cost.
2) Greater risk of fire.
3) Costly containers are required for storage and transport

Gaseous Fuels: -
Most hydrocarbons in petroleum deposits occur naturally as a liquid but a few exist in gaseous state at
atmospheric temperature. Methane is the most common natural gas. They can also be manufactured by
heating coal. They are also obtained as a byproduct as in the case of blast furnace.

Coal Gas: - It mainly consists of hydrogen carbon monoxide and hydro-carbons. It is prepared by carbonization
of coal. It is also known as town gas.

Coke-Oven gas: - It is obtained during the production of coke by heating the bituminous coal. The volatile
content of coal is driven off by heating.
Blast furnace gas: - This is a by-product in the production of pig iron in the blast furnace. The gas leaving the
blast furnace has a high dust content. The proportion of dust varies with the operation of blast furnace. Its
heating value is comparatively law. Before using it as a fuel the dust be removed by dust catchers and washing
operation. It is used as a fuel for metallurgical furnaces.

Producer gas: - When coal, coke or peat are burnt with insufficient quantity of air, producer gas is produced
from partial oxidation. It is produced in specially designed retorts. It has got a very low calorific value because
of nitrogen as its principle constituent and nitrogen is an inert gas. It is used in steel industry fo r firing open
hearth furnace.

Water gas: - It is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. It is made by passing steam over incandescent
coke. As it burns with a blue flame, it is also known as blue water gas. It contains no unsaturated hydrocarbon.
In order to use this gas for a domestic lighting, unsaturated hydr ocarbons are added.

Sewer Gas: - It is obtained from Sewage disposal vats in which fermentation and decay occur. It mainly consists
of CH4. It is usually collected at large disposal plants. It works as a fuel for gas engines used for driving pumps
of the plant and agitators.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):

It is a product of petroleum gases. It consists principally of propane and butane. This must be stored under
pressure to keep it in liquid state. At atmospheric pressure and above freezing temperature, the se substances
would be in a gas form. Large quantities of propane and butane are now available from gas and petroleum
industries.

They are often used as fuel for tractors, trucks, buses and also as domestic fuel. Because of low boiling point (-
44°C to 0°C) and high vapour pressure of these gases, their handling as liquid in pressurized cylinder is
necessary Owing to demand from industry for butane derivatives, LPG sold now as fuel is made up largely of
propane.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 9

 Chapter 2 - Energy

LPG leaves little or no engine deposit in cyli nder when it bums and used in engines. LPG used in IC engines
must have high compression ratio of above 10. This is necessary because of its high octane rating. The calorific
value of LPG is about 45,360 kJ/kg.

Liquefied natural Gas (LNG):

It is a product of natural gas. This gas consists primarily of methane. Its properties are those of liquid methane
slightly modified by minor constituents. The main source of natural gas is oil well and earth. This gas contains
about 85% to 95% methane. One property which differentiates liquefied natural gas (LNG) from liquefied
petroleum (LPG) is the low critical temperature of about - 73°C.

NG is contained in coal reserves in tight sands and is trapped in geopressured zones deep within the earth.
LNG is obtained when natural gas (NG) is placed under very high pressure. When the high pressure is released,
LNG converts to NG.

Because of low critical temperature of NG, it cannot be liquefied at ordinary temperature. NG must be cooled
to cryogenic (ultra low) temperatures to be liquefied. It must be stored in well insulated container in order to
hold it in liquid form. The pressure to be maintained is between 50 to 60 bars, for automobile, pressure of 220
- 250 bar is required.

For automobile, this NG is known CNG (compressed natural gas) and the one used for domestic purpose and
industrial use is supplied in pipe and hence known as piped natural gas (PNG). The high pressure is suitably
reduced in milibar based ort where NG is supplied for use. The calorific value of NG is 40.7 - 41.2 MJ/m3. The
main difference in CNG and LNG is in liquid form only. When it is burned there is no pollutants hence it is an
ideal source of energy.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG):

The main components of natural is methane (90%), ethane (4%), and propa ne (1.7% ) with other contaminants
with low concentrations. The compressed natural gas (CNG is made by compressing it to less than 1% of its
volume at standard atmosphere pre' sure. It is stored and distributed in robust containers (usually cylindrical
or spherical) at a normal pressure of 200 bar to 220 bar (20 MPa to 22 MPa). Due to its anti-knock property,
CNG is safely used in I.C. Engines with higher compression ratio. CNG is nontoxic and lighter than air, so when
leakage occurs it quickly disappears.

It has calorific value about 40700 kJ/cu.m to 41200 kJ/cu.m. As it has relatively high thermal efficiency and
being less pollutant, it is now being used as a regular fuel for auto rickshaws, cars and busses as a substitute
for petrol or diesel.

It is used as a dual fuel in automobile engines which work on both gas and diesel or petrol. Number of old cars
and busses are conveniently converted from petrol/diesel to CNG with required modifications in the engine.
CNG is stored in a specially designed cylinders at a pressure of about 200 bars and 60 liters capacity which are
suitable for cars.

Bio-Fuel:

The material of plants and animals is called biomass. It is organic, carbon based material that reacts with
oxygen in combustion and natural metabolic process to release heat.
The material may be transformed by chemical and biological processes to produce intermediate biofuels, such
as methane gas, ethanol liquid or charcoal solid.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 10

 Chapter 2 - Energy

The initial energy of the biomass - oxygen system is captured from solar radiation in photosynthesis. When
released in combustion the biofuel energy is dissipated.

The industrial use of biomass energy may be large, say about 40% of national commercial supplies. In some
sugarcane producing countries crop residues are burnt for process heat.

The domestic use of biofuel in wood, dung and plant residues for heating is of prime importance for about
50% of the world's population supplying total about 300 GW.

If biomass is to be considered renewable, growth must at least keep pace with use. It is disastrous that forest
and fire wood consumption is significantly out pacing growth in e ver increasing areas of the world.

The main dangers of extensive use of biomass fuel are deforestations, soil erosion and displacement of food
crops by fuel crops.

Bio - gas described below is one of the method of producing Bio - fuel. This gas is produced by using sources
like forest logging, Timber mill residues, Grain crop s, sugarcane mill, crushed cane, residue, animal wastes,
Municipal sewage etc. Soybean is used to produce bio-diesel.
Bio Gas:

A bio-fuel or gas unit is an asset to a farming family. It produces good manure (Fertilizer) and clean fuel. It also
improves sanitation. The animal waste, vegetable waster for decomposition fermentation and from which a
combustible by - product gas is produced known as bio-gas. For farmers, better quality of fertilizer is available.

Generally speeking cattle dung, when burnt as fuel, it is lost to the soil while a biogas plant doubles the
availability of organic fertilizer, which is better in terms of both quantity and quality.

Presently agricultural residues and dung cakes are used as cooking fuel in rural areas. This will result in smoky
kitchens which are harmful to the health of women and children. The collection and storage of these materials
is problematic during rainy season.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 11

 Chapter 2 - Energy

Fig. 2.8 Fixed-dome Bio-gas plant

It is an efficient fuel for cooling purposes. Children can read under biogas illumination during erratic supply of
electricity or shortage of kerosene.

Bio-gas units are effective means for the sanitary disposal of human excreta. If dry latrines, attached with a
bio-gas units will eliminate the practice of carrying head loads of night-soil. By using Bio - gas plant for night-
soil, most of the disease causing organisms are killed, and the digested slurry remains free from smell. This
will also eliminate mosquitoes and flies. This will improve sanitation.

Bio-gas does not cause any smoke in the kitchen and also reduce eye diseases. Bio-gas being clean fuel does
not cause air pollution. It is considered better fuel than CNG and LPG since it does not contain Sulphur. Sulphur
when burnt with air produce SO2 which is responsible for many lung diseases.

The danger of explosion of bio-gas is less as it contains CO2 which acts as a fire extinguisher.

The fig shows a double chamber bio-gas plant. The low temperature in winter may reduce the production of
gas. The calorific value of bio - gas is about 25 kJ/kg, the gases produced during digestion, bubble up through
the slurry and get collected in the collecting tank provided at the top.

The collected gas can be taken out through a valve and pipe located on the top of the tank. The collecting tank
can move up or down depending upon the gas pressure; the concentrated slurry thrown out from the bottom.

Hydrogen gas:
Hydrogen gas is a volatile gas at room temperature, but when chilled to - 253° C and compressed, it makes the
perfect fuel. Hydrogen's greatest feature as a fuel is that it causes no pollution.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 12

 Chapter 2 - Energy

A hydrogen fuel cell works by combining hydrogen gas with atmospheric oxygen. The resulting chemical
reaction generates electric power and the only by product it produces is clean water. At a time when there is
real concern about global warming due to carbon emissions, this makes hydrogen fuel a desirable technology
and perhaps the most feasible alternative to petrol and gasoline.

Hydrogen gas as a fuel is an important secondary fuel.

Advantages:

1) When it is combined with oxygen in air it produces water. While fossil fuels produce pollutants.
2) Its calorific value/unit mass is three times higher than gasoline.

Disadvantages:

1) It burns readily when come in contact with oxygen in air.

2) Its specific volume in gaseous form is very large.
3) If hydrogen is to be stored in liquid form it would need very low temperature and hence cryoge nic storage
vessel is needed.
4) This gas is produced by steam reforming of natural gas. This process is endothermic process.
5) At temperature between 700°C to 1100°C, steam reacts with m ethane in natural gas and product is carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. The energy consumed in this cabon-monoxide and hydrogen. The energy
consumed in this method is more. Tito other 1 methods are in prog ress to produce hydrogen gas.
6) This gas can be used in fuel cells and to run motor vehicles.

Advantages and disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels:

Advantages:

1) Better control of combustion.

2) Much less air is required for complete combustion.
3) They are directly used in I.C. Engines.
4) They are free from solid and liquid impurities.
5) They do not produce ash or smoke.
6) No problem of storage if the supply is available from public supply line.
7) Distribution is easy with the help of pipe lines.
Disadvantages:

1) They are readily inflammable

2) They require large storage capacity if public supply is not available.

Combustion
It is the process of chemical combination of Carbon, Hydrogen and Sulphur with Oxygen which is supplied by
the air. The temperature at which the fuel is bur continuously w ithout further supply of heat is known as
ignition temperature.

Anybody can cause fuels to bum but it takes a good deal of skill to bum the fuel efficiently i.e. without waste.
It is required to ensure that fuel is burnt efficiently because -

(a) Fuel is expensive and inefficient combustion means expensive wastage.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 13

 Chapter 2 - Energy

(b) Inefficient combustion results in pollution of the atmosphere with noxious gases.

Calorific Values
The calorific value or the heat value of a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel defi ned as the number of heat units
developed by the complete combustion of unit normal volume of a given fuel.

It may be expressed as kJ/kg for solid and liquid and kJ/m 3 for gases.

Sometimes it also expressed by the name calorific power.

The following are the two types of the calorific values of fuels:

(a) Gross or Higher calorific value

(b) Net or Lower Calorific Value.

Fuels which contain hydrogen has two calorific values, the higher and the lower. It lower calorific value is the
heat liberated per kg of fuel after deducting the heat necessary to vaporize the steam formed from hydrogen.

Gross or Higher Calorific Value (H.C.V.):

All fuels usually contain some percentage of hydrogen. Heat is produced when a given quantity of a fuel is
burnt along with some hot flue gases. The water takes up some of the heat evolved and it is converted into
steam.

When the heat taken away by the hot flue gases and the steam is taken into consideration that is, if the heat
is recovered from the flue gases and steam is condensed back to water at room temperature usually taken at
15°C, then the total heat produced / kg is known as gross or higher calorific value of fuel.

Global Warming:
Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s
atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be When the heat absorbed or carried away by the
products of combustion is not recovered (which is the case in actual practice) and the steam formed during
combustion is not condensed, then the amount of heat obtained / kg of fuel is lower calorific value.

If the higher calorific value is known, then the lower calorific value may be obtained by sub tracting the amount
of heat carried away by products of combustion (especially steam) from H.C.V.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 14

 Chapter 2 - Energy

Permanently changing the Earth’s climate. Since the early 20th century, Earth’s mean surface temperature has
increased by about 0.8 °C, with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.

Fig. 2.9 Global warming

Causes of Global Warming:

Most Greenhouse gases are generated by mankind, Vehicles burning Fossil fuels and Deforestation. Global
warming is caused by excessive quantities of greenhouse gases emitted into Earth’s near-surface atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases are both man-mad and occur naturally, and include a number of gases, incl uding: carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons and water vapor.

Indicators of Global warming:

There are ten indicators which represent the global warming seven indicators are raising and three indicators
are declining.

Rising Indicators:

1. Air temperature over land.

2. Sea-surface temperature.
3. Air temperature over oceans.
4. Sea level.
5. Ocean heat.
6. Humidity

Troposphere temperature in the “active-weather” layer of the atmosphere closest to the Earth’s surface.

Declining Indicators:

1. Arctic sea
2. Ice glaciers
3. Spring snow cover.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 15

 Chapter 2 - Energy

Impacts of Global warming:

The impacts of global warming are dangerous weather patterns, unstable agricultur e and economy and it
encourages the spreading of diseases such as malaria which is transmitted by mosquitoes preferably. Other
impacts are it changes ecosystems and it may cause frequent flooding and droughts due to changes of weather
patterns.

Limiting the effects of Global Warming:

Mitigation of global warming generally involves reduction s in human (anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse
gases (GHGs). Mitigation may also be achieved by increaser the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through
reforestation.

By building dikes in response to sea level rise. Examples of mitigation include switching to low-carbon energy
sources, such as renewable and nuclear energy, and expanding forests and other “sinks” to remove greater
amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Energy efficiency can also play a major for example, through improving the insulation of buildings. The main
international treaty on climate change is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change
(UNFCCC). In 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0
°C relative to the pre-industrial level.

Fig. 2.10 Ozone depletion process

The Ozone layer is a belt of naturally occurring Ozone gas that sits 15 to 30 kilometers above Earth and serves
as a shield from the harmful ultraviolet B radiation emitted by the sun. Ozone is a highly reactive molecule
that contains three oxygen atoms.

It is constantly being formed and broken down in the high atmosphere, 10 to 50 kilometers above Earth, in
the region called the stratosphere.

Today, there is widespread concern that the ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution
containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine. Such deterioration allows large amounts of ultravi olet B rays
to reach Earth.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 16
 Chapter 2 - Energy

Which can cause skin cancer and cataracts in humans and harm animals as well. Every chlorine atom can
destroy up to 100000 ozone molecules.

The Main Ozone depleting substances are

1) Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC’s): It is used as refrigerant in refrigerators, freezers and air conditioner s in

buildings and vehicles.
2) Bromofluorocarbons (Halons): It is used in some fire extinguishers where materials and equipment’s
would be destroyed by water or other fire extinguisher chemicals.
3) Chlorocarbons: Methyl chloroform, Carbon tetrachloride used in some aerosols, cold cleaning, solvents
and some fire extinguishers.

Effects of Ozone Depletion on Humans and on the Earth

The health effect on humans from ozone depletion is widely varied. Since ozone is the earths, protection
against ultraviolet (UV) radiation, a reduction in the ozone layer causes more UV -B wavelengths to reach the
surface of the earth. UV-B wavelengths damage both proteins and DNA.

The UV-B wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn, aging and wrinkling of skin, cataracts, and blindness. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that each 1 percent drop in ozone levels will yield a 2
percent increase in UV-B wavelengths. This will result in a 3 to 6 percent rise in the incidence of skin cancer.

The EPA also estimates that there could be an additional 200000 deaths from skin cancer in the United States
over the next 50 years due to the increase in ozone depletion.

Ozone Layer Protection:

Following precautionary actions can play the important role for protecting ozone layer.

1) Ending the production of ozone-depleting substances.

2) Ensuring that refrigerants and halon fire extinguishing agents are recycled properly.
3) Identifying safe and effective alternatives to ozone-depleting substances.
4) Banning the release of ozone-depleting refrigerants during the service, maintenance, and disposal of air
conditioners and other refrigeration equipment.
5) Requiring that manufacturers label products either containing or made with the most harmful ozone
depleting substance.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 17