Operation Of Boilers

By
NL Salamat
 Operation Of Boilers
The load control range
The steady regime of boiler operation
The allowable boiler range
The unsteady regime of boiler
operation
 The Load Control Range

The automatic control system of a boiler

responds quickly to the load without the
interference of the operating personnel.
The lowest limit is from 40-50% of rated
load.
Smaller boilers not used for power
stations have much lower control range
 The steady regime of
boiler operation
The steam parameters vary
insignificantly at any load. The lowest
limit is from 30-40% of rated load
The Allowable Load Ranges
The allowable load ranges include
loads from limit of control range to
the lowest load at which the boiler
can function steadily
 The Unsteady Regime of Boiler
Operation
Load variation and fluctuation of steam
parameters occur due to internal or external
disturbances
Internal disturbances are variations in:
Flow rate

Temperature

Fuel consumption rate

Combustion air flow rate

 The Unsteady Regime of
Boiler Operation

External disturbances are variations in:

Steam pressure

Load of the turbo-alternator

The degree of opening of start-up and

shut down device

 Steam Generators
Testing
Cold testing
Hydrostatic Testing
Welding testing
Hot testing
Flow measurement
Temperature measurement
Dryness fraction of steam leaving the
drum
 Hydrostatic Testing

The steam generator is tested at a

pressure 1.5 times the operating pressure.
Before the test is applied, a final
inspection made of all welds.
External connections are completed,
including all fittings within code
requirements.
Connections for flanged safety valves are
closed with an internal plug provided by
the valve manufacturer.
 Hydrostatic Testing
The water used for this test is the ambient clean
water available.
However, venting is necessary at every available
connection to allow water to fill every circuit.
After the boiler is being filled the pressure is
applied usually by a pump made for testing
purposes.
Inspection for several hours (6-8 hours for high
capacity boilers) is necessary to observe any
leakage conditions that might need repair. Lastly
the boiler is then drained.
 Welding Testing
Radiography is one of the methods used for welding testing.
It use short-wave radiation, such as X or gamma rays, to
penetrate opaque substances .
As applied to pipe welds, part of the rays will penetrate the
pipe and some will be absorbed, depending on the thickness
and density of the metal.
If defects or discontinuities exit there will be variation is the
absorption of the rays. When these variation are recorded on
film they produce an image or X-ray shadow picture of the
defect.
 Flow Measurement
Steam, water, air and gas flow should be
measured using orifice, nozzle or venturi
tubes so as to check any flow meters
connects in the boiler lines.
These measuring instruments should be

manufactured according to certain standards,

say ASME Performance Test Codes.
 Temperature measurements
These are carried out by using different
types of thermocouples.

Dryness fraction of steam leaving the

drum: this can be measured by a
separating and a throttling
calorimeter.
 Dryness fraction of the steam leaving the
drum
Throttling Process
C1 C2
Q h1 gZ 1 W h2 gZ 2
2 2
No change in potential
energy
Negligible change in kinetic
energy
No heat transfer to or from
surroundings
No external work is done:
Therefore h1=h2
Pressure downstream side
P2<P1 then the liquid
enthalpy after throttling can
h1 h 2 and if h f2 h f1
Then h1 - h f1 h 2 - h f2
The quantity h 2 - h f is the enthalpy available to the enthalpy of evaporation
Enthalpy of evaporation after throttle enthalpy of evaporation before throttle
h 2 - h f2 h fg2
Then the vapor after throttle becomes superheated.
Dryness fraction of the steam
leaving the drum
Throttling does not always dry the
steam. This is because at about 3.0
MN/sq.m the enthalpy of dry
saturated steam is at maximum.
So depending on the initial pressure
and dryness fraction before throttling
that the exit steam can be
superheated or wet steam.
Let gauge pressure before throttle P KN
m2
Absolute pressure before throttle P1
Let h f1 Specific liquid enthalpy before throttle Kj Kg
h fg1 Specific enthalpy of evaporation before throttle Kj Kg
x1 Unknown dryness fraction before throttle
Specific enthalpy before throttle (h f1 x1h fg1 ) Kj Kg
For the condition after throttle :
P2 Absolute pressure after throttle
Let the temperature after throttle T2
C

Then from steam tables at pressure P2 and temperature T2 C,
specific enthalpy after throttle h 2 Kj Kg
h f1 x1h fg1 h 2
h 2 h f1
x1
h fg1
The combined Separating
and Throttling Calorimeter
 The dryness fraction can be calculated for the
separating calorimeter and the throttling
calorimeter separately, however the combined
calorimeter produce more accurate results.
Let X1=dryness fraction at the throttling
calorimeter
X2=dryness fraction at the separating calorimeter
m=mass of suspended water separated in the
separating calorimeter
M=mass of condensate from throttling
calorimeter
mass of dry saturated steam through throttling
calorimeter=X1M
total mass of steam bled= M+m
mass of dry steam
Dryness fraction
mass of wet steam containing dry steam
x M
1
Mm
 Bringing a Boiler on Load
In bringing a boiler on load the key parameter to be
maintained is temperature.
In this case it is not maintained constant but is changed
according to a predetermined pattern.
This a pattern is a compromise between the desire to
bring the boiler on-load as quickly as possible and the risk
of boiler damage by thermal stresses arising from uneven.
 Bringing a Boiler on Load
There are four stages:
1. Warming up before circulation is
established
2. Warming up after circulation is
established
3. Stage when significant quantities
of steam are being taken
4. Bringing the boiler on load
1.Warming up before circulation is
established
During this phase the limit on the system
is the temperature of boiler tubes.
Until circulation is established there is a
risk of local overheating in regions of
pockets of trapped steam and of serious
uneven heating between adjacent tubes.
Limited input of energy into the system is
needed and light oil burners are used.
The provision of boiler circulation pumps
removes this stage from procedure.
 Warming up after circulation is.2
established
During this phase the main concern is stresses on
the boiler drum arising from uneven heating along
its length or through the thickness of its metal.

These limitations are met by restricting the

permissible rate of rise of drum pressure and hence
of drum temperatures.
Progressively more energy is taken from the system
by steam flow to drains and slightly tighter input is
needed.
Careful control of the energy input is most
important at this stage and this is achieved by
varying the number of oil burners if applicable
Stage when significant quantities. 3
of steam are being taken
The limit now passes to the maximum permissible
value in the superheater tube metal
temperatures.

The steam and fuel flows are increasing since

appreciable energy is being taken from the
system, but the steam flows are not yet adequate
to ensure superheater cooling.

Considerable drainage on the superheater may

still be necessary
Bringing the boiler on load.4
Here the limit is still the superheater
temperature.
During this section there must be smooth
change from the light oil used in the initial
stages of boiler operation to the heavy fuel oil
used under spontaneous operation.
The sequential ignition of these burners
provides the fine control of the energy needed.
As each burner is put into service, care must
be taken to see that it ignites properly, and
that it burns with bright smokeless flame and
does not subsequently go out
 :-Start up systems
The principal firing rate constraints during
start up are as follows:-

Heat transfer surface metal temperature

Heat up rate of thick walled pressure
parts such as drum and steam headers.

Steam temperature and pressure control

 , During start up
when the steam flow is zero are very
low and the cooling effect of the steam
is limited, the super heater metal
temperature is essentially equal to the
flue gas temperature entering the
super heater tube bank.
Several specified systems are
available to aid in steam temperature
and pressure control during start up.
Questions and Answers:

By
NL Salamat
What do you mean by boiler
load?
It refer to the total demand imposed upon the
boiler by the equipment and its connecting
piping system when there is the greatest
requirement (usually at the time of start- up)
 What do you mean by boiler
rating?
It refers to the manufacturer-stated capacity of
a boiler capable of handling the boiler load.

The boilers are rated on the basis of catalog

heating surface area or by performance test or
by both.
 What do you mean by
maximum boiler output?

This refers to the greatest amount of heat

that can be developed at the boiler nozzle for
a brief spell.
It has no connection to normal operating
limitations.
 What is nominal rating?

It is the theoretical heating load a boiler is

designed to handle.
Of course, it does not necessarily indicate
the correct boiler rating.
 What is net boiler rating?

It is the actual heating load the boiler is

capable of handling.
 In which units may ratings be
expressed?
1- Equivalent evaporation (Kg of steam
generated per hr from and at 100 C or for a
specified pressure and temperature)
2- Rate of heat generated (kJ/hr) in furnace
3- for utility plants by their turbine capability in
megawatts
 What are ECR and MCR of a
boiler?
ECR stands for Economic Continuous Rating i.e. it is the
boiler load at which the boiler runs with optimum
efficiency.

MCR stands for Maximum Continuous Rating i.e. it is the

maximum boiler load at which the boiler can run without
any problem. ECR of a boiler is 70-80% of its MCR
 What is overloading of a
boiler?

It is the running of a boiler at a load higher

than its MCR value for a considerable length
of time.
 What are the consequences
of overloading a boiler?
1- Affect the design circulation velocity.
2- Result in higher flue gas temperature.
3- Bring about higher superheated steam temperature that
may lead to superheater coil failure by bulging or
overheating.
A boiler is never guaranteed for running at
overload.
 Why is it not advisable to run
a boiler at part load?

Constant running of a boiler at part load will

cut short its life due to rapid wear and tear
 What do you mean by the
firing regime of a boiler?
This is also called the start-up regime, and is
basically heating the water-steam and gas-air
paths.

The process of steam generation sets in and

the temperature and pressure of the steam is
gradually raised to the specified value.
Does the boiler start-up depend on
the normal state of equipment?

Yes, there are three states:

1- Hot start-up

2- Warm start-up

3- Cold start -up

How will you detect tube failure in a boiler?
And what procedures must be taken?
Tube leakage's, if minor, can be detected by the loss
of working fluid from the system.

It can be detected by the noise produced by the leak.

It can also be suspected in case of loss of boiler

water chemicals.
 How will you detect tube failure in a boiler?
And what procedures must be taken?
After leakage is detected the following procedures must be taken.

1. Boiler is to be shutdown and cooled

2. Boiler drum is to be drained
3. Inspection and detection of leakage's are to be carried out.
4. Leaks are to be repaired and leaky tubes may be replaced.
It is to be noted that in case of an economizer fails,
boilers having no economizer by-pass are to be
shutdown immediately. Conversely, for boilers having an
economizer by-pass, the by-pass should be taken in line
and economizer taken out of service for repairing.
 Why is boiler preservation a necessity? And
how many methods are there for preservation
of boiler? And which boilers are preserved by
each method?

The internal surfaces of boilers are liable to

corrosion by leftover water after operation or by
atmospheric oxygen when they are out of service.
Hence boiler preservation is required to protect
the internal surfaces from corrosion.
Why is boiler preservation a necessity? And
how many methods are there for preservation
of boiler? And which boilers are preserved by
each method

There are two methods

a- Preservation by wet method for boilers that are kept
ready for stand-by service and may be required for
sudden demands of operation. It is also
recommended for large boilers with multiple circuits
that are very difficult to drain.
b- Preservation by dry method for boilers which are
scheduled to be kept out of service for a long period .
 What are the principal types
of boiler shutdown?
1- Emergency shutdown.

2- Shutdown for repairing jobs with cooling of

the whole or part of the boiler unit.

3- Shutdown for repairing jobs without cooling

of the boiler and steam pipelines.
 In which cases must a boiler
be shutdown immediately?

1- Explosion in the furnace damaging the

pressure parts.

2- Flame extinction in the furnace.

 In which cases must a boiler be
shutdown immediately?

3- Deformation of pressure parts that might invite

explosion and endanger the operation personnel.

4- Non-permissible rise of superheated steam

temperature.

5- Failure of feed pumps

 In which cases must a boiler
is shutdown immediately?

6- Failure of both water-level gauges for drum type

boilers

7- When the water level in the drum drops below the

safety mark

8- Rupture of tubes in the water-steam path

In which cases must a boiler be
shutdown immediately?
9- Fuel burning on the heat recovery zone. This is accompanied
by abnormal rise of temperature of the flue gases.

10- Inadmissible pressure drop of gas or fuel oil behind the

control valve.

11- When there is no steam flow through the steam reheater in

case of reheater coil.
What do you mean by normal
shutdown to hot standby?
It is the normal shutdown for a relatively
short spell of time while maintaining the
existing pressure and temperature
conditions substantially.
 What may happen due to low
water in the boiler?

It may be anything from leakage to explosion.

It depends greatly upon:
1-The type of boiler
2-The rate of combustion
3-How low the water level is.
 If you find the water level cannot be
restored immediately, what will you do?
1- All fuel supply should be cut off immediately
2- All steam being discharged from the unit should be shut off.
3- High air flowrate is to be maintained to cool down the furnace
quickly.
4- Steam pressure is to be reduced gradually, if pressure parts
damage is suspected, by opening the superheater start-up
drains.
5- Inspection and repairing of leaks after draining of the boiler,
are to be carried out.
 In case of high water level
what will happen?

It may lead to carryover of BFW and cause

priming
 What necessary steps will you take
in the case of high water level?

1- Water level is to be brought down

immediately by opening the drain valves of
the water-wall system.

2- Steam generation rate is to be reduced.

How will you detect priming?

It is indicated by rapid fluctuations in the

outlet steam temperature.
 What will you do in case of
priming?

1- Rate of steam generation is to be reduced

2- Water level, if abnormally high, is to be
reduced
3- Alkalinity and TDS of BFW are to be checked
4- Investigation of the condition of the drum
internals, when opportunity comes, is to be
carried out.
 How will you detect tube
failure in a boiler?

1- By the loss of working fluid from the system.

2- By the noise produced by the leak

3- by loss of boiler water chemicals.

 What procedures will you adopt in
case a leakage has been detected

1- Boiler is to be shutdown and cooled

2- Boiler drum is to be drained
3- Inspection and detection of leakages are to
be carried out.
4- Leaks are to be repaired and leaky tubes may
be replaced.
 What steps are to be taken in
case an economizer fails?
Boilers having no economizer by-pass are to
be shutdown immediately.
For boilers fitted with an economizer by-
pass, the by-pass should be taken in line
and economizer taken out of service for
repairing.
During steam raising what precautions should
be taken for non-drainable superheater?

1- Temperature of superheater tubes should not be allowed to exceed

the higher allowable limit.
2- No abnormal temperature difference between any two parts should
be allowed.
3- During start-up, the tube metal temperature is kept below the
temperature which the tubes attain at maximum designed capacity.
4- The firing rate should be controlled to avoid accumulation of
condensate in the superheater coils.
 Why is the safety valve of superheater
set at a lower pressure than the safety
valve of the boiler drum?

It is a safety measure to protect the

superheater from starvation.
What will happen to the superheater
in case of starvation?

The superheater coils will get overheated and

this may result in warping of tubes or in
extreme cases, tube failure.
 What is the procedure for
preservation of external surfaces?

1- The boiler should be drained completely.

2-The external as well as internal surfaces of
all pressure parts and metallic surface
should be cleaned thoroughly.
 What is the procedure for
preservation of external surfaces?

3- Using alkaline water, the whole boiler

pressure parts surfaces as well as the gas
side surfaces of the air heater should be
thoroughly washed. BFW is recommended
for this purpose.
 What is the procedure for
preservation of external surfaces?

4- The boiler is to be filled with deaerated

polish water and the unit fired to raise about
7 Kg/cm2 pressure. This pressure should be
maintained till the region is completely dry,
which may require intermittent firing.
 What is the procedure for
preservation of external surfaces?

5-The body of the boiler including the stack

should be closed to prevent the infiltration of
air from outside.
 What is the procedure for
preservation of external surfaces?

6-periodic inspection is to be followed to guard

against condensate on and corrosion of
external surfaces
7-The safety valve escape piping should be
sealed so that no rainwater can enter the
system
Preservation of boilers by wet
method

1- The boiler should be filled with feedwater to

the normal water level. The pH should be
10.5-11.
Preservation of boilers by wet
method

2- Hydrazine to the extent of 200 ppm is to be

dosed with the water. The unit should be
steamed in service to ensure uniform
concentration of boiler water throughout the
unit and to eliminate dissolved oxygen from
water.
Preservation of boilers by wet
method

3- The boiler pressure should be stepped down

gradually and the water level raised as high
as is permissible for safe operation while
delivering some steam to the line.
Preservation of boilers by wet
method

4-The boiler should be filled with deaerated

water until the water spills over and fills the
superheater.
Preservation of boilers by wet
method

5- If the superheater is non-drainable, it must

be backfilled with deaerated water from the
outlet drain prior to filling the drum to
overflow into the superheater.
Preservation of boilers by wet
method

6- Analysis of boiler water should be carried

out frequently. If the hydrazine concentration
in water happens to drop below 50 ppm, the
water in the drum should be lowered to the
normal operating level and an appropriate
quantity of chemicals should be dosed.
Preservation of the internal surfaces
of a boiler by the dry method

1- The boiler should be filled with deaerated

polish water and fired to raise the pressure
to 7 kg/cm2. The firing is discontinued and
the boiler pressure is allowed to drop to 2-3
kg/cm2. The water is to be drained out of the
unit.
Preservation of the internal surfaces
of a boiler by the dry method

2- The drum Blowdown, air cocks, gauge

glass and waterwall box drains, and
excluding superheater box drains should be
opened.
Preservation of the internal surfaces
of a boiler by the dry method

3- All drum manhole doors and all

superheater drains should be opened and
hot air from portable blowers should be
directed into the boxes to complete the
drying of internal surfaces.
 Preservation of the internal surfaces
of a boiler by the dry method

4-After thorough drying, trays containing silica

gel on activated alumni ( 1.3kg/m3 )should be
placed inside the drum.
Preservation of the internal surfaces
of a boiler by the dry method

5- Pressure parts are then to be closed

airtight so that no moisture / air leaks in. Any
line; through which moisture can ingress into
the unit; should be disconnected.
Preservation of the internal surfaces
of a boiler by the dry method

6- Once a month inspection should be

carried out and the desiccant trays
replenished as necessary.
Preservation of the internal surfaces
of a boiler by the dry method

7- Alternatively, nitrogen can be used for dry

storage. This nitrogen must be as pure as is
practically possible.