CYCLE-2:Experiment 1 Steady-State Performance of A 3-Phase Induction Motor
CYCLE-2:Experiment 1 Steady-State Performance of A 3-Phase Induction Motor
CYCLE-2:Experiment 1 Steady-State Performance of A 3-Phase Induction Motor
Motivation
A large percentage of the electrical power generated in the world is consumed by induction
motors, as they are the main drive motors used in the industries. Practicing engineers should be
conversant with the performance characteristics. Equivalent circuit parameters of the machine should
be accurately known for predicting the performance. While motor designer calculates the parameters
using design details, measured values are preferable for prediction. All parameters would not be
constant under all operating conditions, as they would be affected by temperature, winding currents,
saturation, skin effect etc., and these have to be accounted for as far as practicable.
Theory
It can be shown by means of either traditional theory or generalized theory that the steady-
state performance of poly-phase induction motor can be represented by equivalent circuit of Fig.1.1,
which represents one phase of the machine. The symbols are:
V1= input voltage per phase
R1, X1= resistance and leakage reactance of stator per phase
R2, X2= resistance and leakage reactance of rotor referred to stator
Xm= magnetizing reactance
Rc= core loss resistance
I1, I2= stator and rotor currents (referred to stator) per phase
R1 X1 X2
Iφ
I1 I2
Ic Im
V1 Rc Xm R2/s
Fig.1.1
The developed torque is given by,
3I2 2 R 2
T N .m.
( ss )
Where
s = synchronous speed in radians/sec.
s= p.u. slip.
It can be easily seen from the equivalent circuit that at constant voltage V 1, I2 is dependent on
the slip s. The developed torque will depend on the slip, supply voltage and the equivalent circuit
parameters. The typical shape of the torque speed characteristic is shown in fig.1.2, where Ts, Tm and
Tfare starting torque, pull-out (maximum) torque and full load torque respectively. sf is the slip at full
load torque, and sm is the slip at maximum torque. The stable and unstable operating regions are also
indicated in the figure. Input current, power factor and developed power can be computed from the
equivalent circuit. Thus all the performance characteristics will be available with the knowledge of
parameters and the losses.
T Unstable region
Tm
Stable region
Tf
Ts
0.0 N Sm Sf 1.0 N
S
Fig.1.2
The parameters of the machine will not be constant under all operating conditions.
Resistances are affected by temperature and ‘skin effect’. After calculating the hot d.c. resistance, a
multiplication factor of the order of 1.5 should be used to determine the a.c. resistance. Considerable
variation in rotor resistance with speed is observable especially in cage motors, since the rotor current
is at supply frequency at starting and near zero frequency under running conditions. Appropriate
value of R2 should be taken for calculating the performance under these two different conditions. The
leakage reactances X1 and X2 depends on the leakage fluxes produced by stator and rotor currents
respectively. At high current some of leakage flux paths saturate leading to decrease of leakage
reactance. Thus X1 and X2 would assume vastly different values at starting, running and pull out
conditions. The magnetizing reactance Xm and the core loss resistance Re depends on the operating
mutual flux in the machine. Owing to magnetic saturation these also would vary with the air gap flux.
The parameters could be determined by ‘no load’ and ‘blocked-rotor’ tests, the former
determines Rc and Xm while the latter yields R1, R2, X1, X2. Though no load test is sufficient to
calculate Ro and Xm at rated voltage, a ‘synchronous-speed’ test adds to the accuracy, as it ensures
zero slip. ‘Blocked rotor’ tests at different winding currents helps in evaluating leakage reactances at
these currents which could be used for calculations.
The performance of the induction motor can be predicted using the parameters by different
methods depending on the required accuracy. Following methods could be used:
a) The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, for the induction motor could be derived from which all the
performance quantities such as current, torque, power, power factor etc. could be calculated for
different speeds. Here core loss is generally neglected. Suitable parameters could be used at different
speeds.
b) The circle diagram could be drawn using ‘no load’ and ‘blocked rotor’ test readings. This is likely to
give inaccurate results as diameter of the circle being decided by the total leakage reactance will not
be constant at all operating conditions. A circle of constant diameter would yield very approximate
results.
c) For very accurate prediction, the performance equations in terms of input voltage, machine
parameters and speed have to be simulated on a digital computer. A simple computer program would
yield the results. Following equations could be used for simulation:
Z1 R1 jX1
R2
Z2 jX 2
s
jRc X m
Zm
Rc jX m
Z2 Zm
Z Z1
Z2 Zm
V1
I1
Z
I1Z m
I2
Zm Z2
3
Torque, T= ( I 2 2 R2 / s)
s
𝑋
Power factor, 𝑝. 𝑓. = cos (tan−1 (𝑅 ))
X= imag (Z)
Input power 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 3𝑉1 𝐼1 × 𝑝. 𝑓.
Efficiency = Po/Pin
a) Note down the name plate details of the machine and observe the constructional features. Note the
type of rotor used and the winding connections.
220V V Rotor
d.c.
Fig.1.3
Auto Rotor
Xr
W2
Fig.1.4
Data Sheet*
a) Name Plate Details of the Machine
Name of manufacturer: Rated Output:
Rated voltage: Supply frequency:
No. of phases: Rated speed:
No. of poles: Rated current:
Type of rotor: Type of starting method:
Winding connections for stator/ rotor:
In the case of blocked rotor test, the equivalent series impedance referred to stator is given by,
(Voltage per phase)
Z sc Rsc jX sc
(Short circuit current per phase)
The equivalent series resistance referred to stator is
(Input power per phase)
Rsc R1 R2
(current per phase) 2
And X sc X1 X 2 Zsc 2 – R sc 2
The a.c. resistance R1 is known by multiplying d.c. resistance by ‘skin effect’ factor.
Thus, R2 can be evaluated. The separation of stator and rotor leakage reactance is difficult. For
most machines of normal design it is sufficiently accurate to take
X
X1= X2= sc
2
In blocked-rotor test, the magnetizing branch has been neglected.
Report
a) Plot no load power input vs. applied voltage. Find out iron loss at rated voltage. Calculate R c and Xm
at different voltages and plot them vs. voltage.
b) Plot blocked rotor input power vs. input current. Calculate Rsc and Xscand plot them vs. current.
c) Determine the parameters of the exact equivalent circuit at different conditions.
d) Predict the performance of the machine using the above parameters using the methods (a), (b), and (c)
of the ‘Theory’ mentioned earlier
Plot a) Torque vs. speed
And b) Input current vs. speed, for braking, motoring and braking regions. Calculate the starting
current, starting torque, pull-out torque and slip at pull-out.
Experimental Quiz
Motivation
Single phase induction motors have many applications such as driving fans, blowers,
compressors etc. Most of the fractional horse power motors are single phase induction motors. These
account for millions of motors, about 20-30% of the total commercial value.
The knowledge of the performance of such a machine is thus essential.
Theory
a) Principle of operation
The behavior of a single phase induction machine can be studied by (i) double revolving field
theory or (ii) cross field theory. As the double revolving field theory is simpler and gives a clearer
physical concept, it is preferred for the analysis of single phase machines.
In double revolving field concept, a pulsating mmf produced by the stator (main) winding of a
pure single phase machine can be resolved into two oppositely rotating mmfFf and Fb of constant
and equal magnitude which can be mathematically expressed by;
𝑁𝐼
𝐹= [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) + cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)]
2
= Ff+Fb
Where N= effective number of turns for main winding.
I= main winding current.
However fluxes ϕf and ϕb produced by the mmf’sFf and Fb respectively are of equal magnitude
only at standstill. Under running condition (at all speeds) ϕf>ϕb. Each component of flux produces
electromagnetic torque i.e. forward torque Tf is produced by forward flux ϕf and backward torque Tb
by backward flux ϕb. Net torque produced by induction machine being = (Tf – Tb), which is positive
along the direction of rotation.
The electromagnetically generated torque Jf and Jb can be mathematically expressed in term of
induction machine equivalent circuit parameters as described later.
The behavior of single phase motor can also be explained using the symmetrical component
theory by first deriving the equivalent circuit for three-phase induction motor connected to a single-
phase supply as shown in Fig.2.1. Here the terminal relations are;
V= Va- Vc Ia + Ic = 0 Ib= 0
IA
VA A
V
VC VB Rotor
C B
IC
Fig.2.1.
I2 I3
r2'/2s
Zf Xm/2
X2'/2
V1
I4 I5
r2'/2(2-s)
Zb Xm/2
X2'/2
r2'/2
Xm/2
X2'/2
r2'/4 r2'/2
X2'/2 X2'/2
Fig.2.3. Equivalent circuit of a pure single phase Fig.2.4. Equivalent circuit of an induction motor
induction motor under no load (s~0) under blocked rotor condition (s=1)
(d) Torques
The forward torque Tf in synchronous watts, following the reasoning results from
polyphase induction machine analysis is.
Tf I32 .r2 / 2s (synchronous Watts)
The backward torque Tb is;
Tb I52 .r2 / 2(2 s) (synchronous Watts)
Where I3 and I5 are as shown in Fig.2.2.
The torque speed characteristic of single phase induction motor due to each component
field and their resultant have been shown in Fig.2.5 (corrected to actual flux condition).
Thus, Xm=2Vab/Inl
Squirrel cage
rotor
Fig.2.6. Connection diagram for blocked rotor and light run test on single phase IM
1. Main winding 2. Auxiliary winding C.S. Centrifugal switch
Data Sheet
(a) Name plate details of the machine,
(b) Main winding resistance (a.c. value), r1= …… ohms
References
(a) A.F. Puchstein, T.C. Lloyd and A.G. Conrad, Alternating Current Machines, Asia, Third
Ed.,(1968).
(b) V. Deltoro, Electromechanical Devices for Energy Conversion and Control System, Prentice-
Hall (1975).
(c) C.G. Veinott, Theory and Design of Small Induction Motors, McGraw-Hill (1959).
(d) A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley and A. Kusko, Electric Machinery, McGraw-Hill, Third
Ed.(1971).
(e) P.C.Sen Principles of Electrical machines and Power Electronics, John Wiley.
CYCLE-2: Experiment 3
Motivation
The terminal voltage of an alternator changes with load. The consumer’s voltage,
however, must be maintained within pre-specified limits. This demands that the machine be
designed with low voltage regulation. But a machine with low voltage regulation is
uneconomical and is subjected to much mechanical and electrical stresses in case of accidental
short circuits. However, in most cases low voltage regulation is not necessary since automatic
voltage control equipment is normally used to avoid voltage fluctuations with load. The voltage
regulation is an important characteristics of an alternator and its predetermination is essential for
its normal operation as well as for designing suitable excitation control schemes.
Theory
The voltage regulation of an alternator is the per unit voltage rise at its terminal when a
given load at a given power factor is thrown off, the excitation and speed remaining constant.
Regulation is governed by the armature resistance, leakage reactance and to a large extent by the
armature reaction can be pre-determined by one of the following methods:
If the generator is short circuited the whole voltage E is absorbed in the synchronous
impedance of the machine, that is, E= Isc* Zs. Thus for a given field current, the ratio of open
circuit armature voltage to the short circuit current gives the synchronous impedance of the
machine. From the nature of open circuit and short circuit characteristics, it is obvious that the
value of synchronous reactance is not constant but decreases as the saturation sets in. since Zsis
Xar Xl Re
E
Xs
V
L
O
A
D
V
IaZs
IaXs
IaRa
Ia
SCC
Isc Zs
F1
Field current
varying with excitation, for proper application the value of Zs chosen should correspond to the
degree of saturation at which the machine is operating. In practice Zs is chosen corresponding to
the rated value of field current as shown in Fig.3.3. However for laboratory purposes Zs is chosen
corresponding to the field current for the rated value of open circuit voltage.
Make the connection as shown in fig.3.4. Start the d.c. motor and adjust it to synchronous
speed. Keeping the speed constant, starting from zero increase the field current of the alternator
in steps till saturation is achieved to a good extent. Note the simultaneous readings of the field
current and the open circuit armature voltage of the alternator.
L A F
A1
M
Z1 Z2
A2
A X1
V A
C B
X2
Fig.3.4. Open circuit and Short circuit Test
c) Load Test
Make the connection diagram as shown in fig.3.4 except that instead of short circuiting the
three terminals (of the alternator) after the ammeter, connect these terminals to a 3-phase load.
Start the d.c. motor and bring it to synchronous speed. Adjust the alternator field current to get
the rated terminal voltage. Now change the load such that the current through the alternator
varies from zero to full-load current. At every load condition, note the terminal voltage, current
and the input power to the DC motor. This will allow you to compute the efficiency and voltage
regulation at UPF condition. Calculate these theoretically from the equivalent circuit parameters
and compare the two.
c) Measure the armature resistance by using a low voltage d.c. supply. Take effective resistance as
1.5 Rdc.
Data Sheet
Name plate details of d.c. motor alternator set
Name of manufacturer:
BHP/kW: Class of insulation:
Voltage: RPM:
Frequency: Ampere:
Rating: Power Factor:
Excitation: Connections:
Rated Speed=
S. No. If Vtper phase
S. No. V I Rdc
Approximate effective resistance Ra= 1.5 Rdc
Experimental Quiz
a) What do you understand by saturated and unsaturated synchronous reactances? Which of the two
values is higher?
b) What are the typical values of synchronous reactance in p.u.?
c) The synchronous impedance method gives a regulation that is higher than the actual value.
Explain.
d) Explain why armature reaction is always compensated in d.c. machines but not in alternators.
e) Define short circuit ratio of an alternator and show its approximate relationship with the
synchronous reactance.
f) Discuss the effect of short circuit ratio on the design and performance of alternator.
References
a) M.G. Say, The Performance and Design of Alternating Current Machines, ELBS and Pitman,
London (1969).
b) A.E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley and A. Kusko, Electric Machinery, McGraw-Hill, Kogakusha Ltd
(1966).
c) A.F. Puchstein, T.C. Lloyd and A.G. Conrad, Alternating Current Machines, Asia, (1968).
d) P.C.Sen Principles of Electrical machines and Power Electronics, John Wiley.
CYCLE-2: Experiment 4
Motivation
Normally in a power system majority of loads work at lagging power factors while for
economic operation it is essential that the system power factor be made as close to unity as
possible. The property of a synchronous motor that its power factor varies with the variation of
its excitation can be used with advantage in improving the power factor of a system. Thus the
study of variation of armature current and power factor of a synchronous motor with its
excitation (which is known as V-curves) is very important.
Theory
For a synchronous motor the armature current phasor is given by;
V E
Ia
Za
Where V is applied voltage phasor and is constant.
E is induced emf phasor, the magnitude of which depends on the d.c. excitation.
Za is synchronous impedance
From the above relationship it is clear that the magnitude and angle of the phasorIa
depends on the value of d.c. excitation. The phasor diagrams of Fig.4.1 shows that synchronous
motor draws lagging current when it is under-excited and leading current when over-excited.
The approximate plots of armature current vs. field current have been sketched in Fig.4.2.
Because of their shapes these plots are called V-curves and inverted V-curves respectively.
IaZs
E IaZs
V IaRa V V
IaRa IaRa
IaXs IaZs
IaXs E
IaXs
Ia Ia
Ia
ϕ δ δ δ
ϕ
(a) Leading p.f. (b) Unity p.f. (c) Lagging p.f.
Fig.4.1.Synchronous motor with Constant Output and Variable Excitation.
L A F
L A1
O
V
A Z1 Z2
D
A2
A
A
W1 X 1 X2
Synchronous
Synchronizing
V Motor
Switch
3-phase
A
Supply
W2
Fig. 4.3.Determination of V-curve of Synchronous Motor.
Now load the synchronous motor by connecting load to the d.c. generator and again
repeat the experiment for constant output of 25%, 50% and 100% of full load.
Data Sheet
Name plate details of the synchronous machine and d.c. machine.
Name of the manufacturer:
Machine no.: Class of insulation:
BHP/kW: RPM:
Voltage: Amperes:
Frequency: Phases:
Rating: Connections:
Experimental Quiz
(a) Why is it impossible to start a synchronous motor with its d.c. field energized?
(b) Can a synchronous motor be started as an induction motor?
(c) At what power factor is the current a minimum when the synchronous motor is running on
constant power output?
(d) Under conditions of normal excitation, describe the effects of increased load on a
synchronous motor’s power factor and armature current.
(e) Can a synchronous motor fall out of synchronism even without overloading its shaft?
(f) Discuss the effect of fluctuations in supply voltage and frequency on synchronous motor's
operation.
(g) Explain the phenomenon of hunting in a synchronous motor.
(h) Why are the synchronous motors normally provided with damper windings?
(i) What are the applications of synchronous motors in the field of electric drives?
(j) Explain the difference in the operation of a synchronous motor as a (i) motor, (ii)
synchronous condenser.
(k) What are the various methods of braking of synchronous motors?
(l) What is meant by inertia constant of synchronous machine? What effect has it got on
machine dynamics?
(m) Mention different types of synchronous motors- conventional and unconventional.
References
(a) A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley and A. Kusko, Electric Machinery, McGraw-Hill
Kogakuha(1971).
(b) M.G. Say, The Performance and design of Alternating Current Machines, ELBS and Issac
Pitman, London (1969).
(c) A.F. Puchstein, T.C. Lloyd and A.G. Conrad, Alternating Current Machines, Asia, Third
ed.,(1968).
(d) P.C.Sen Principles of Electrical machines and Power Electronics, John Wiley.
CYCLE-2: Experiment 5
Motivation
In many industrial applications, the speed control is required to be varied either in steps or
smoothly. In certain special applications such as textile and mining industry a group of motorsare
required to be run at different speeds with extremely good accuracy. In such applications DC
shunt motor is being used because of its characteristics and easy speed control. However, the use
of squirrel cage induction motor is desirable due to its well-known advantages over all other
motors namely rugged construction, low maintenance and high efficiency. The problem however
is that the speed of induction motor cannot be controlled easily. It requires additional expensive
equipment. The knowledge of a system whereby speed is controlled by varying the frequency is
important for applied engineers. The system is best suited for applications such as mining,
chemical industries and textiles.
Theory
From Faraday’s law, the air gap component of armature voltage in an AC machine is
proportional to the peak flux density in the machine and electrical frequency. Thus, neglecting
the voltage drop across the armature resistance and leakage reactance, the stator voltage can be
written as;
f Bpeak
Va e Vrated Eq.5.1
f rated Brated
This is constant voltage per hertz (V/f) operation. It is typically maintained from rated frequency
to the low frequency at which armature resistance drop becomes significant component of the
applied voltage. For frequencies higher than the rated f, with the voltage at its rated value, the
air-gap flux density will drop below its rated value (referring Eq.5.1). Thus, to maintain the rated
flux density the voltage has to be increased, which may result in insulation failure. Therefore, for
frequencies above the rated frequency, the terminal voltage is kept at rated value. Assuming that
machine cooling is not affected by rotor speed, the maximum permissible terminal current will
remain constant at its rated value Irated. Therefore for frequencies below rated frequency the
machine power will be proportional to feVratedIrated. Fig.5.1 shows the typical characteristics with
variable frequency drive.
Power
Torque
Speed
Fig.5.2. Operating regions with V/f operation.
Load test: Switch on the field DC supply of separate DC generator. Start the AC drive and
increase the speed till motor frequency reaches 25 Hz. Now switch on the load on DC generator
step-wise and record the result in Table.5.1.
Reduce the load on the generator to minimum and then increase the speed of motor till
frequency reaches to 50 Hz. Now switch on the load at DC generator step wise and record the
results in Table.5.2.
Induction
S1 S3 S5 Motor
3-phase variac
S4 S6 S2 Resistive
S 4’ S 6’ S2’ G V Load
A DC Gen
Fluck Fluck
Multimeter Multimeter
220V dc
Supply
Fig.5.3. Connection diagram of variable frequency AC drive
Data Sheet
Name plate details of the machine
Name of the manufacturer: Rated output:
Rated voltage: Rated current:
Supply frequency: No. of phases:
Rated speed: No. of poles:
Table.5.1
S.No. Speed of I.M. Input Line Power input Frequency Power factor
current
IL
Table.5.2
Experimental Quiz
(a) What will be the change in torque speed characteristics of the induction motor if there is
change in V/f ratio?
(b) Can higher starting torque be obtained at very low frequencies? Comment on the basis of the
observations.
(c) Can constant torque speed characteristics be achieved at different frequencies?
(d) What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method of speed control?
(e) How are the equivalent circuit parameter affected by frequency?
(f) What is the effect of variation of frequency on maximum torque, starting torque, slip at
maximum torque, if V/f is kept constant?
(g) At constant V/f, is the developed power at all frequency same at rated input current?
References
(a) S.K.Bhattacharya “Electrical Machines” Tata McGraw-Hill Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2009.
(b) Arthur Eugene Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Stephen D.Umans “Electrical Machinery” Tata
McGraw-Hill Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2009.
(c) G.K.Dubey “Fundamentals of electric Drives”, Narosa Publishing.
(d) Say.M.G. “Alternating Current Machines”, Fifth Edition,London, Pitman (1983).
(e) I.J.Nagrath and D.P.Kothari, “Electric Machines”, TMH, New Delhi, 2004.
(f) P.C.Sen Principles of Electrical machines and Power Electronics, John Wiley