Implementing Problem Solving in Mathematics Classrooms:

What Support do Teachers Want?

Judy Anderson
The University of Sydney
<[email protected]>

Providing teachers with support for the implementation of problem-solving approaches in

classrooms is critical if classroom practices are to change. Finding the most appropriate
professional development program can be challenging given the constraints of time, cost
and personnel. Involving teachers in decisions about their professional learning needs is
crucial if they are to embrace such approaches. In this paper, primary and secondary school
teachers’ responses to surveys about the problem-solving professional development needs of
their colleagues, are presented. In general, teachers agreed that considerable support was
necessary, particularly in the form of time and resources so that teachers can share teaching
ideas, reflect on practice, and develop new understandings about these approaches.
Teachers have been required to implement problem solving into the teaching and
learning of mathematics for some time. Stacey and Groves (1989) noted that every
Australian state and territory included problem solving as part of their curriculum aims by
1988. To support problem-solving approaches in classrooms, resource materials and
professional development opportunities have been available for teachers. One notable
example was the Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching Program Professional
Development Package [MCTP] (Lovitt & Clarke, 1988). Although there has also been an
increase in research on problem solving (Lester, 1994), the recent TIMSS Video study
(Hollingsworth, 2003) into Year 8 mathematics classrooms suggested there was little
evidence of teachers using challenging problems. Discussions with primary teachers and
secondary mathematics teachers reveal general support for problem-solving approaches.
Teachers agree that problem solving is important and that students need to develop a range
of problem-solving skills (Anderson & White, 2004). So why is there little evidence of the
use of challenging problems in Year 8 mathematics classrooms? What issues exist for
teachers to explain the lack of implementation? What changes or support would teachers
welcome? This paper explores these questions based on the responses of groups of
practicing teachers to similar questions presented in surveys.

Implementing Problem Solving in Mathematic Classrooms

Evidence of Change
The call for reform in mathematics classrooms has expected teachers among other
things “to create supportive learning environments, to utilise worthwhile mathematical
tasks, to manage students’ mathematical discourse, and to promote sense making” (Jones,
2004). In the curriculum documents of most Australian States, these aspects are
incorporated into strands or themes, such as Working Mathematically in NSW (BoSNSW,
2002), which also include problem solving. According to Guskey’s (2002) model of
teacher change, if teachers have been provided with relevant professional development to
support these reforms, and if they have responded to the advice by changing their practice,
we would expect students to have improved problem-solving outcomes (Figure 1). So is
the increased emphasis on learning about problem solving evident in student outcomes
from international studies?

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 Change in Change in Change in
Professional Teachers’ Student Teachers’
Development Classroom Learning Beliefs and
Practices Outcomes Attitudes

Figure 1. A model of teacher change (Guskey, 2002, p. 383).

The recently released results from the Programme for International Student Assessment
[PISA] (Thomson, Cresswell & De Bortoli, 2004, p. xi) indicate that Australia’s 15-year-
old students are performing quite well compared to other countries since “in problem
solving, more than 25 per cent of Australian students were performing at the highest
proficiency level”. However, 9 per cent were not achieving at the most basic problem-
solving level. It should be noted, “the assessment of problem solving was designed to
assess the degree to which students could solve problems situated in contexts that were
discipline-free and drew on students’ knowledge from a variety of sources” (p. 153). As
such, these problems may not be typical of the problems solved in mathematics lessons.
In the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study [TIMSS] 2002/3
(Thomson & Fleming, 2004), 5 per cent of Year 4 students reached the advanced
international benchmark compared to 38 per cent in Singapore, while 7 per cent of
Australian Year 8 students reached this benchmark compared to 44 per cent of Singapore
students. The Year 8 advanced benchmark states that “students can organise information,
make generalisations, solve non-routine problems, and draw and justify conclusions from
data”. Five per cent and seven per cent are rather small proportions of these two student
populations who are able to work at this level.
Kaur (2001) explored the reasons for the success of Year 8 students from Singapore in
both the Third International Mathematics and Science Studies [TIMSS] and TIMSS-R and
noted the emphasis in the mathematics curriculum on “the development of mathematical
concepts and skills, and the ability to apply them to solve problems” (p. 141). She reported
that in lessons, teachers place a major emphasis on students solving non-routine problems.
In contrast, research into teaching approaches in a random sample of 87 Year 8 classrooms
in Australia suggests that few complex problem-solving opportunities are being provided
(Hollingsworth, 2003). In her response to the TIMSS 1999 Video Study, Stacey (2003, p.
119) described the average Australian lesson as constituting “a syndrome of shallow
teaching, where students are asked to follow procedures without reasons”. It has been
proposed that one factor that has influenced the lack of adoption of problem-solving
approaches has been the teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about mathematics teaching and
learning (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999).
Providing Support for Teachers
Increasing the level of support for teachers through appropriate professional learning
experiences is one strategy that may address the lack of adoption of problem-solving
teaching approaches. It is noted that in Singapore, where teachers do place an emphasis on
problem solving, they are entitled to 100 hours of in-service training each year (Kaur,
2001).
Professional development can take many forms that include conferences, workshops,
regular collaborative meetings between groups of teachers, networking between schools,
and school and university partnerships. Several Australasian studies have focussed on the

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impact of professional partnerships between academics and teachers using the model of
‘critical friend’ to explore teachers’ practices, and determine the level of implementation of
problem-solving approaches. In her study of five primary school teachers, Smith (2000)
investigated teachers’ pedagogical practices and developed a teaching/learning framework
for promoting thinking and understanding. Open-ended tasks provided the vehicle for
thinking, reflecting and communicating mathematically. Keast (2003) has also described
one primary school teacher’s journey as she used more problem-solving approaches
including open-ended tasks. The teacher’s reflection and involvement in professional
development opportunities seemed to provide a catalyst for the change.
Jaworski (1994) explored investigative teaching with a small group of teachers and
developed a characterisation of this style of teaching which she called the “teaching triad”.
She defined investigative teaching as teaching which encouraged students to interact and
work out things for themselves, with teachers importantly talking with and not at students.
She also defined it as “a deep level of enquiry into the motivations and beliefs of the
teachers concerned” (p. 204). Working closely with two teachers in each of three schools
for approximately six months, provided a stimulating professional development
opportunity for those involved. Ongoing, extended discussions with the teachers enhanced
reflection and supported their development as investigative teachers.
Together these studies suggest that the support of an academic mentor is a productive
strategy to assist teachers in implementing problem-solving or investigative approaches,
but this needs to be explored on a larger scale if change is to be realised for more teachers.
One way to design relevant and worthwhile professional learning opportunities for teachers
is to seek advice about their needs.
What support do teachers want?
In an evaluation of a larger study of school structures and professional development
that supported or impeded change in mathematics and science classrooms, Gamoran and
his colleagues (NCISLA, 2002) identified several key factors from teacher surveys and
interviews. Resources and leadership were critical to supporting and sustaining
instructional reform. In particular, teachers and administrators identified time for planning
and learning together, expertise from within and outside the school, and social resources
from supportive communities of teachers. Leadership needed to be responsive to resource
allocation and distributed throughout the school, with teachers given leadership
opportunities.
As part of a larger survey into teachers’ problem-solving beliefs and practices
(Anderson, Sullivan & White, 2004), primary school teachers were asked to respond to the
following question, “what do you see as the professional development needs of teachers at
your school in relation to problem solving”? To compare the perceived needs of primary
school teachers with those of secondary teachers, a group of secondary mathematics
teachers were asked the same question at the beginning of a workshop on Working
Mathematically. Analysis of teacher responses is presented with recommendations from
both groups of teachers.
Primary School Teachers’ Views
The 130 survey responses from primary school teachers in NSW were read and
comments grouped into three broad areas with further subcategories formed as indicated in
Figure 1.

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 Problem Solving
Professional Development

Teachers Students

Practical
Teaching Advice
Knowledge Confidence and
and Beliefs Competence

Modelling of Resources Approaches

Approaches

General Activities Problem Types

Planning
Figure 2. Classification of primary school teachers’ comments about the problem-solving professional
development needs of school staff.
Teachers. Twenty-six comments (20% of responses) were made about teachers’
knowledge and beliefs or their confidence and competence. Of these, 18 referred to
teachers’ beliefs about mathematics or problem solving and the role of problem solving in
learning mathematics. It was suggested by some respondents that teachers in schools
needed to rethink their approaches to teaching mathematics and to move from more formal
approaches to innovative, creative methods. However others indicated that teachers needed
to be more aware of the benefits of problem solving in the mathematics curriculum, since
in their view problem solving is not seen as legitimate mathematical activity.Problem
solving needs “credibility raising - it’s not seen by teachers of Years 4 to 6 as serious
maths”.
Another group commented on teachers’ confidence and competence suggesting that
teachers needed support and encouragement. One teacher described the lack of control of
students’ learning that can happen in problem-solving classrooms. She stated
A lot (of teachers) are scared to do it because they are not sure themselves of what they should be
telling the children to do. They feel they are losing a “grasp” on exactly what the children are doing.
This notion of loss of control associated with a lack of confidence to allow students to
explore and investigate freely is an important issue in being prepared to adopt problem-
solving approaches, particularly if problem solving is considered to be a process of inquiry
(Schwan Smith, 2000). In addition, a teacher’s competence in relation to problem solving
was considered to be a real issue for one respondent who suggested
Teachers themselves need to develop competence in problem solving processes and then through
staff inservicing and interaction, devise appropriate problem-solving strategies for their students.
The comments about teachers also suggested that there is a need to consider teachers’
beliefs and knowledge about problem solving, and that teachers need to be encouraged and
supported in their efforts so that they could overcome a lack of confidence.
Practical Teaching Advice. Seventy-six per cent of respondents commented on the
need for practical teaching advice related to three key suggestions: modelling problem-
solving approaches; increasing school resources; and providing information about
incorporating problem-solving approaches into the teaching of mathematics through
appropriate activities, relevant planning, and the use of a range of problem types.
Some respondents suggested the need to have problem-solving approaches
demonstrated to staff by expert teachers. The modelling could take several forms including

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peer mentoring, external experts, or instructional videos. One teacher recognised that staff
at her school had skills that should be shared with others. She stated
We would like to see a few staff meetings incorporate peer mentor training, as we have some
members of staff who have a lot to offer in regards to problem solving.
These comments indicate that while teachers were aware of recommendations to teach
problem solving, it may be difficult for teachers to know what this actually looks like, how
to manage a class while students are doing problem solving, and what the role of the
teacher might be. This supports Lester’s (1994) suggestions that advice to teachers needs to
include a clear description of the teacher’s role as well as an indication of what a problem-
solving classroom looks like. Recently Jones (2004, p. 354) recognised that “there is little
research on the role of the teacher in problem-solving instruction” so this is an area that
both teachers and researchers recognise as important.
Another significant professional development requirement for many respondents was
the availability and accessibility of good resource materials. Twenty-one teachers
mentioned resources including books, posters, commercial products, software, and concrete
materials. Some suggested the need for demonstration of materials while others indicated
the need for more equipment in classrooms. This is an interesting point since suitable
materials have been written to support problem-solving approaches and yet according to
Clarke (1997), this is not sufficient to encourage adoption of such approaches. Stacey
(2003) also commented that the success of good tasks is dependent on the “choice, timing,
and detail of their implementation” by the teacher.
The 76 comments about problem-solving teaching approaches were further categorised
into those relating to general classroom activities, planning and implementing the
curriculum, and specific information about particular problem types. Thirty-nine comments
were made about the need for practical, hands-on workshops demonstrating problem-
solving approaches. Many teachers described sharing of ideas between teachers and
discussing relevant approaches for different year levels. Others described the need for new
ideas, fresh approaches and the latest trends. Teachers seemed to be seeking ideas that
could be readily implemented. Teachers recognised the skills of their peers and indicated
they would value time to share this knowledge and experience. This would support the use
of reflection as a necessary component for changing practice and adopting new approaches
(Jaworski, 1994).
Nineteen teachers commented on support to integrate problem solving into daily
mathematics lessons and incorporate problem solving into the curriculum. Concerns were
raised by several of these respondents in relation to adding problem solving into an
overcrowded curriculum. It was apparent from some of these comments that problem
solving was viewed as an added topic or an additional focus for teachers to incorporate into
the curriculum. Several teachers indicated that time to implement new ideas was an issue
and that schools needed to recognise this and to make more time available. This included
the need for time to plan and implement as well as time to reflect on the success, or
otherwise of potential changes.
Respondents wanted ideas about using particular problem types and the role of each in
promoting and developing students’ problem-solving skills. The comments about particular
problem types were influenced by the survey, which listed problem types for teachers.
These included application problems, open-ended problems and unfamiliar problems. In
particular, there was a desire to learn more about the use of open-ended and unfamiliar
problems and to be provided with more examples of these types of problems.

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 Students. Nineteen respondents (15%) recorded comments about professional
development issues that focused on the diverse needs of students in the full range of
classrooms from Kindergarten to Year 6. Most of these comments related to students’
abilities and in particular about the need to develop the problem-solving abilities of lower
achieving students. Another set of responses indicated that language was an issue for many
students and this impacted on their ability to interpret and hence solve many problems.
Additional needs of staff included management of students and appropriate grouping
procedures.
Secondary School Teachers’ Views
A group of twelve secondary mathematics teachers attending a workshop on Working
Mathematically were asked to complete a survey that posed two questions:
1. Why do we see little problem solving in Year 8 mathematics classrooms?
2. What do you see as the professional development needs of teachers at your school
in relation to problem solving?
It is acknowledged that this group of teachers had an interest in Working Mathematically
and that their views are not necessarily representative of the range of views of secondary
mathematics teachers. However, they provide insights into the issues that teachers face as
they try to implement problem-solving approaches. Teachers’ responses were classified in
a similar way to those for the primary teachers in the previous section. As there was
considerable overlap in the issues and needs identified in the responses to each of these
questions, one diagram is used to represent the main areas and subcategories (Figure 2).

Problem Solving
Professional
Developm

Teachers Time Practices Students

Knowledge Motivation Accountability Curriculum Knowledge Behaviour

Figure 3. Classification of secondary school teachers’ comments about the problem-solving professional
development needs of school staff.

Three of the four main areas of need were similar to the primary school teachers’
responses. A fourth area that was mentioned by half of the respondents related to the
perception that using problem-solving approaches would take up valuable time that needed
to be spent of other sections of the syllabus. In particular they described a belief that the
curriculum is overcrowded. Associated with this view was accountability of the teachers to
cover the syllabus to prepare students for examinations, in particular the high stakes testing
that occurs in Years 10 and 12. This view was captured in the following teacher’s
comment:
The emphasis of accountability with external exams such as SC and HSC and the amount
of work required by the syllabuses is such that teachers push through the content rather
than “losing” time on enrichment areas such as problem solving.

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 In relation to the comments about teachers, respondents mentioned knowledge and
confidence but also lack of motivation to teach in new ways. This is related to the
credibility of the use of problem-solving approaches as noted by one teacher who suggested
there was a “need to show ‘evidence’ to teachers of the advantages of rich tasks”. It was
also recognised that textbooks frequently determine what teachers do with students so if
problem solving is to be promoted, textbooks would need to change. Interestingly one
respondent suggested that many secondary teachers enjoyed more traditional practices
when they were at school and cannot understand why students do not respond to these
practices. The secondary teachers mentioned student behaviour as a constraining factor. In
common with the primary school teachers, most of the secondary teachers mentioned the
level of understanding of the students. It is clear that for many teachers, a sound basic
knowledge of mathematics is required before students are able to engage in investigations
and problem solving.
Discussion
The comments made by both groups of teachers indicate that commonly held beliefs
about problem solving as an added extra in the curriculum and that students are only able
to solve problems after they have acquired basic skills and procedures need to be
challenged if change is to occur. The possibility of teaching through problem solving,
needs to be explored in professional learning experiences. However, teachers did identify
issues that should be further considered. Opportunities for teachers to plan and learn
together in collaborative environments would further support the development of
knowledge and confidence in teaching problem solving. Teachers need to be convinced
that providing opportunities for students to engage in rich learning experiences may
eliminate poor behaviour and disengagement. How schools and systems address low staff
morale and lack of motivation is a challenging issue.

Conclusion and Implications

Given the evidence that students in Year 8 mathematics classrooms experience little
complex problem solving, as well as the results from PISA and TIMSS, there is
considerable room for change. Regardless of which approach Australian teachers might
choose to improve student-learning outcomes, “there needs to be a greater emphasis on
explicit mathematical reasoning, deduction, connections and higher-order thinking in
lessons” (Stacey, 2003, p. 122). One way to support teachers’ efforts is to provide
professional development that challenges commonly held beliefs, but at the same time
provides the resources for teachers to spend time investigating ways to implement new
approaches.
Research into the teachers’ role in the problem-solving classroom is also required so
that teachers have a clear image of what it looks like in practice. It is time to explore ways
that teachers build learning communities within their schools to research their practice, an
approach that could be supported by outside experts or academic partners. This is only the
beginning. If change is to occur on a larger scale, new ways to research and communicate
the findings in meaningful ways are required. Whichever approach is adopted, school
systems will need to support the initiatives with the necessary funds and resources.

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