(iii) There is no net gain or loss of energy : The amount of energy required to bring about a physical

change is generally equal to the amount of energy required to reverse the change. Thus, there is not net
energy change involved.
Example : If 1 g of water of 1000 C on changing into steam needs 2260 J of heat energy, then 1 g of steam
at 1000 c on changing into water at 1000 C, gives out 2260 J of h eat energy. Thus, the net energy change
is zero.
(iv) There is no change in the weight of substance : During a physical change it is only the energy which
is added or removed. No matter is added during a physical change. Similarly, no matter is removed during a
physical change. Therefore, mass of the substance remains same.

Some Examples Involving Physical Changes :

Physical Change Observation Change in Physical Property

1. Switching on an electric The bulb glows and gives The physical appearance of the
bulb out heat and light energy. bulb changes.
2. Rubbing a permanent The steel rod gets The steel rod acquired the property
magnet on a steel rod. magnetized. If it is brought of attracting pieces of iron.
near iron nails, they get
attracted.
3. Action of heat on iodine The brownish grey crystals Change in state and colour.
of iodine change to form
violet vapours. On cooling
the vapours condense on
cooler parts on the test tube
to form crystals.
4. Dissolving of common salt The white crystalline salt Change of state.
in water disappears in water.
However, the water tested
exactly like common salt.
Moreover, common salt can
be recovered by
evaporation.

Some Common Examples of Physical Changes :

Formation of dew.

Evaporation of water.

Crystallisation of sugar from its solution.

Ringing of an electric bell.

Breaking of a glass pane.

Making of ice cream.

A rock rolling down a hill.

Bending of a glass tube by heating.

Melting of wax.

Sublimation of camphor.

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 (b) Chemical Change :
Definition : A change which alters the specifies properties of a material by bringing about a change in its
molecular composition, followed by a change in state, is called a chemical change.
Following points needs special consideration :
(i) A chemical change results in the formation of one or more new products : The products formed
have different properties than the original substance. Thus, the composition of the molecules of products is
different from the original substance.
Example : Heating of sugar
When sugar is gently heated in a test tube, it melts. It gradually changes to brown colour, giving a large
amount of steamy fumes. In the end a black mass is left which consists of carbon. Thus, new substances,
viz. carbon and water (steam)m are formed. In this change, the arrangement between the molecules of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen breaks. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms separate from carbon atoms and
join together to form water. The carbon atoms are set free and are left as black residue.
heat
Sugar  → carbon + Steam
(ii) The weight of the substance undergoing chemical change usually changes :
Example : During the heating of sugar, the weight of the black residue is far less than the actual weight of
the sugar. However, this is an apparent change in weight. If we take the weight of steam into account and
add to it the weight of carbon, then total weight will be equal to the weight of sugar crystals. Thus, strictly
speaking, total weight of substances taking part in a chemical change remains constant.
(iii) The chemical change is permanent and irreversible : It means the change will not reverse by
altering the experimental conditions.
Example : The sugar, which has decomposed on heating to form carbon and steam will not change to
sugar on cooling.
(iv) During chemical change energy is either absorbed or given out : The various atoms in a chemical
compound are joined by attractive forces commonly called bonds. The making or breaking of the bonds
always requires exchange of energy. Thus, some amount of heat is either absorbed or given out during a
chemical change.
Some Examples Involving Chemical Changes :

Chemical Change Observation Equation

1. Burning of magnesium in air When a magnesium ribbon is Magnesium + Oxygen →
heated in a flame of Bunsen Magnesium oxide
burner, it catches fire and burns
with a dazzling white flame to
form white ash.

2. Rusting of iron When iron (silver grey) is left Iron + Oxygen (from air) + Water
exposed to moist air for a few vapour → Rust
days, reddish brown powdery
mass (rust) is found on its
surface

3. Burning of LPG When LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Butane (LPG) + Oxygen →

Gas) is bumt, it bums with a pale Carbon dioxide + Water
blue flame and liberates
colourless gas carbon dioxide
along with steam.

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 Some Common Examples of Chemical Changes :

Burning of wood or charcoal
Burning of candle

Digestion of food
Curdling of milk

Formation of biogas (Gobar gas)
Burning of petrol or diesel

Smoking of cigarette
Drying of paint

Rusting of iron
Ripening of fruit

Clotting of blood
Fading of the colour of a dyed cloth
`
Baking of cake
Photosynthesis

Formation of wine
Butter turning rancid

Decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen.

Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen

(c) Difference Between Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical change Chemical Change

1. The change takes place only in the 1. The change takes place in the state,
state, texture, colour, electrical or texture, colour, electrical or magnetic
magnetic properties of solubility, etc. properties along with the change in its
However, molecular properties molecular properties (i.e. its molecular
(composition) do not change. arrangement changes).

2. The specific properties of the substance 2. The specific properties of the substance
remain unaltered after the physical change completely after the chemical
change. change.

3. Now new substances are produced. 3. Always new substances are produced.

4. There is no change in weight, if a 4. There is always a change in apparent

substance is undergoing a physical weight, when a substance undergoes a
change. chemical change.

5. There is no net absorption or release of 5. There is always a net absorption or

energy (such as heat or light energy) release of energy during a chemical
during a physical change. change.

6. It is temporary change and is usually 6. It is a permanent change and cannot be

reversed by removing the cause of the reversed by removing the cause of the
change. change.

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 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 6.1

1. Which of the following substances when mixed with sand cannot be separated by sublimation ?
(A) NaCl (B) NH4Cl (C) Camphor (D) Iodine

2. Which of the following is a physical change ?

(A) Evaporation of alcohol (B) Melting of ice
(C) Rusting of iron (D) Both (A) & (B)
3. What will be the sublimate, when a mixture of sand, sulphur, common salt and iodine is sublimed ?
(A) Sand (B) Iodine (C) Sulphur (D) Common salt
4. Mixture of sand and camphor can be purified by -
(A) distillation (B) filtration (C) sedimentation (D) sublimation
5. A mixture of alcohol and water can e separated by
(A) separating funnel (B) fractional distillation
(C) simple distillation (D) sublimation
6. To separate the various coloured pigments present in a substance which method is used ?
(A) sublimation (B) Chromatography (C) Centrifugation (D) Evaporation
7. Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The properties of carbon dioxide are -
(A) similar to carbon
(B) similar to oxygen
(C) totally different from both carbon and oxygen
(D) much similar to both carbon and oxygen
8. A mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride can be separated by
(A) chromatography (B) hand picking (C) by sublimation (D) centrifugation
9. Which of the following is not a chemical change ?
(A) Rusting of iron (B) Cooking of food (C) Freezing of water (D) Digestion of food
10. Which of the following method is used for separation of different components of petroleum ?
(A) Fractional distillation (B) Sublimation
(C) Chromatography (D) Simple distillation

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 6.2

1. What is chromatography ?
2. Write applications of centrifugation.
3. How will you separate iron fillings, ammonium chloride and sand from their mixture ?
4. What is fractional distillation ? Draw a labeled diagram of the apparatus used for separating a mixture of
alcohol and water.

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 ANSWER KEY

(OBJECTIVE DPP 4.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D C D D C D A D C
B

(OBJECTIVE DPP - 5.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D C C D A C C B A B

(OBJECTIE DPP - 6.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. A D B D B B C C C A

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ATOMS AND MOLECULES

INTRODUCTION
It was proposed by Indian philosopher, maharishi Kanad, that if we go on dividing matter, we will get
smaller and smaller particles of matter. Finally, we will get the smallest particle of matter, which cannot
be divided further. John Dalton called these particles by the name atom, which means ‘indivisible’. It
was further proposed that the particles of matter (atoms) normally exists in a combined form and various
combination of particles give u s various kind of matter. This combined form of atoms is called molecules.

All matter is made up of small particles called atoms and molecules. Different kind of atoms
and molecules have different properties due to which different kind of matter also show
different properties.

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

The laws of chemical combination are the experimental laws which led to the idea of atoms being the
smallest unit of matter. The laws of chemical combination played a significant role in the development of
Dalton’s atomic theory of matter.
There are two important laws of chemical combination. These are :
(i) Law of conservation of mass
(ii) Law of constant proportions
(a) Law of Conservation of Mass or Matter :
This law was given by Lavoisier in 1774. According to the law of conservation of mass, matter can neither
be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction.
The law of conservation of mass means that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of products in equal to
the total mass of the reactants. There is not change in mass during a chemical reaction.
Suppose we carry out a chemical reaction between A and B and if the products formed are C and D then,

A + B → C + D

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 Suppose ‘a’ g of A and ‘b’ g ob B react to produce ‘c’ g of C and ‘d’ g of D. Then, according to the law of
conservation of mass, we have,
a+b=c+d
Example :
We calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is heated, a chemical reaction takes place to form Calcium Oxide (CaO)
and Carbon Dioxide (CO2). It has been found by experiments that if 100 grams of calcium carbonate is

decomposed completely, then 56 grams of Calcium Oxide and 44 grams of Carbon dioxide are formed.

CaCO3 + Heat CaO + CO2

(100 gm) 56g 44g

65g + 44g = 100g

Since the total mass of products (100g) is equal to the total mass of the reactants (100g), there is no
change in the mass during this chemical reaction. The mass remains same of conserved.

Maharishi kanad told that if we keep dividing matter on and on, we will get the smallest
particles called as paramanu.

(b) Law of constant Proportion / Law of Definite Proportions :

Proust, in 1779, analysed the chemical composition (types of elements present and percentage of
elements present) of a large number of compounds and came to the conclusion that the proportion of each
element is a compound is constant (or fixed). According to the law of constant proportions : A chemical
compound always consists of the same elements combined together in the same proportion by mass.

The chemical composition of a pure substance is not dependent on the source from which it
is obtained.

Example :
Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It can be obtained from various sources (like river, sea,
well etc.) or even synthesized in the laboratory. From whatever source we may get it, 9 parts by weight
of water is always found to contain 1 part by weight of hydrogen and 8 parts by weight of oxygen. Thus, in
water, this proportion of hydrogen and oxygen always remains constant.

The converse of Law of definite proportions that when same elements combine in
the same proportion, the same compound will be formed, is not always true.

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 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

Dalton put forward his atomic theory of matter in 1808. The various postulates (or assumptions) of
Dalton’s atomic theory of matter are as follows :

(i) Al the matter is made up of very small particles called “atoms”.

(ii) Atoms cannot be divided.

(iii) Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.

(iv) Atoms are of various kinds. There are as many kinds of atoms as are elements.

(v) All the atoms of given element are identical in every respect, having the same mass, size and
chemical properties.
(vi) Atoms of different elements differ in mass, size and chemical properties.

(vii) Chemical combination between two (or more) elements consist of the joining together of atoms of
chemical elements to form molecules of compounds.

(viii) The number and kind of atoms in a given compound is fixed.

(ix) During chemical combination, atoms of different elements combine in small whole numbers to form
compounds.

(x) Atoms of the same elements can combine in more than one ratio to form more than one compound.

Dalton’s atomic theory provides a simple explanation for the laws of chemical combination
and was the first modern attempt to describe the behaviour of matter in terms of atoms.

E.g. he postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory that “atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed” was a
result of the law of conservation of mass and the postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory that “the elements
consist of atoms having fixed mass, and that the number and kind of atoms in a given compound is fixed,”
came from the law of constant proportions.

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 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 7.1

1. Which postulate of Dalton’s Atomic theory suggests the law of conservation of mass ?
(A) Atoms cannot be divided.
(B) All the meter is made up of very small particles called atoms.
(C) Elements consist of atoms combined in a fixed ratio.
(D) Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
2. The elements present in baking soda are -
(A) sodium, carbon and oxygen (B) sodium, carbon and hydrogen
(C) sodium, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (D) potassium, carbon and oxygen.

3. All samples of carbon dioxide contain carbon and oxygen in the mass ratio 3 : 8. This is in agreement with
the law of
(A) conservation of mass (B) constant proportions
(C) (A) and (B) both (D) none of these

4. When 5 g of Calcium is burnt in 2 g of Oxygen then 7 g of Calcium oxide is produced. What mass of
calcium oxide will be produced when 5 g of calcium reacts with 20 g of oxygen ?
(A) 7 g (B) 2 g (C) 25 g (D) 4 g

5. The law of conservation of mass was given by

(A) John Dalton (B) Proust (C) Lavoisier (D) None of these

6. If the mass of reactants is equal to the mass of products then which of the following statements is true ?
(A) Law of conservation of mass holds good.
(B) Mass can neither be created nor be destroyed.
(C) There is no change in mass during a chemical reaction.
(D) All the above

7. Hydrogen & Oxygen combine in the ratio of 1 : 8 by mass to form water. What mass of oxygen gas would
be required to react completely with 3 g of hydrogen gas ?
(A) 24 g (B) 27 g (C) 21 g (D) 3 g

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8. Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory explains the law of constant proportion ?
(A) Atoms cannot be divided.
(B) All the matter is made up of very small particles called atoms.
(C) Elements consist of atoms combined in a fixed ratio.
(D) Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.

9. The term ‘Paramanu’ for the smallest particles of matter (padarth) was given by -
(A) Dalton (B) Maharishi Kanad (C) Proust (D) Lavoisier

10. When calcium carbonate is heated, it gives -

(A) CaO & CO (B) Ca & CO2 (C) CaO & CO2 (D) None of these

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 7.2

1. “If 100 grams of pure water taken from different sources is decomposed by passing electricity, 11 grams of
hydrogen and 89 grams of oxygen are always obtained.” Which chemical law is illustrated by this statement
?

2. Dalton’s atomic theory says that atoms are indivisible. In this statement still valid ? Give reasons for your
answer.

3. Potassium chlorate decomposes on heating to form potassium chloride and oxygen. When 24.5 g of
potassium chlorate is decomposed completely then 14.9 g potassium chloride is formed. Calculate the
mass of oxygen formed. Which law of chemical combination have you used in solving this problem ?

4. In an experiment 1.288 g of copper oxide was obtained from 10.3 g of Cu. In another experiment 3.672 g of
copper oxide gave on reduction 2.938 g of copper. Which law of chemical combination can be illustrated by
this example ?

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