THE SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

THE
SCHOOL TEXTBOOK:
GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY
AND SOCIAL STUDIES

William E. Marsden
University of Liverpool

~ ~~~~~~n~~~up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
 First published in 2001 in Great Britain by
Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016

Transferred to Digital Printing 2007

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Copyright © 2001 W. E. Marsden

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data:

Marsden, William E.
The school textbook: geography, history and social
studies. - (The Woburn education series)
I. Textbooks - Great Britain - History
I. Title
371.3'2'0941

ISBN 0-7130-0221-2 (cloth)

ISBN 0-7130-4043-2 (paper)
ISSN 1462-2076

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Marsden, William E.
The school textbook: geography, history and social studies / William E. Marsden.
p. cm. - (Routledge education series, ISSN 1462-2076)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-7130-0221-2 (cloth) - ISBN 0-7130-4043-2 (pbk.)
I. History-Study and teaching (Elementary)-Cross-cultural studies. 2.
Geography-Study and teaching (Elementary)-Cross-cultural studies. 3. Social
sciences-Study and teaching (Elementary)-Cross-cultural studies. 4.
Textbooks-Cross-cultural studies. I. Title. n. Series.

LB1583 .M335 2001

372.89'044-dc21 2001026286

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 Contents

List of Illustrations VI

Preface VII

Acknowledgements IX

1 Introduction 1

2 Reviewing the American Experience 13

3 British Historical Perspectives 33

4 The British Anti-Textbook Ethos 55

5 Matter: Continuity and Change in Subject Content 71

6 Method: Continuity and Change in Pedagogical Processes 93

7 Mission: (1) Bias, Prejudice and Stereotyping 128

8 Mission: (2) Nationalism and Internationalism: Schooling

for War and Peace 148

9 Mission: (3) Propaganda, Indoctrination and Censorship 167

10 Choosing and Using Textbooks 190

11 National Curricula, National Standards and Textbooks 215

References 239

Index 299
 Illustrations

The illustrations comprise extracts taken from the following school

textbooks.
Page
Figure 1. A.I. Herbertson, The Oxford Geographies: The Senior
Geography, p. 1a. 78
Figure 2. T. Pickles, The World, pp. 88-9. 80
Figure 3. G.G. Chisholm, Longmans School Geography,
pp.292-3. 99
Figure 4. J .R. Langler, Pictorial Geography for Young Beginners,
p.4. 102
Figure 5. A.I. Herbertson, An Illustrated School Geography,
p.117. 104
Figure 6. H.I. Mackinder, Elementary Studies in Geography:
Our Own Islands, pp. 34--5. 108
Figure 7. L.W. Lyde, Man in Many Lands: An Introduction to
the Study of Geographic Control, p. 83. 109
Figure 8. A.B. Archer and H. Thomas, Geography: First Series,
Book 4, p. 52. 110
Figure 9. L. Brooks and R. Finch, Golden Hind Geographies:
The British Homeland, pp. 34--5. 112
Figure 10. H. Rugg and L. Krueger, Man and His Changing
Society: The First Book of the Earth, pp. 3-4. 115
Figure 11. R.C. Honeybone and M.G. Goss, Geographyfor
Schools: Britain and Overseas, pp. 136-7. 117
Figure 12. R.I. Unstead, Looking at History: The Middle Ages,
pp.36-7. 124
Figure 13. R. Unwin, Openings in History: Medieval Britain,
Section 17. 126
Figure 14. C.RL Fletcher and R. Kipling, A School History of
England, p. 240. 140
Figure 15. J.H. Yoxall, The Pupil Teacher's Geography, p. 32. 152
Figure 16. Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, Building America: Illustrated Studies
of Modern Problems, Vol. XI, p. 10. 176
Vll
 Preface

The impetus for this book stemmed from a Congress of the International
Geographical Union in 1996, at which American members of the IGUs
Commission on Geographical Education gave notice of an international
project on the theme Geography Textbooks and Education Reform, draw-
ing on the experience of different countries. I was invited to write a British
chapter. To my astonishment, in undertaking the background research, I
discovered that no comprehensive text had ever been written in Britain on
the subject of the school textbook. This seemed to me good enough reason
to attempt to plug the gap.
A key decision was how much to cover. My main academic interest and
indeed relevant skills lay in geographical and historical education, and in
historical perspectives on school curricula. As there was relatively little
domestic guidance on how to write a book about textbooks I decided also
that the international perspective, most particularly drawing on the American
experience, was as essential as the historical perspective, in providing neces-
sary contexts. While the book draws upon 'international perspectives', it
should be emphasised that I am writing from the standpoint of what I
believe to be lacking in the British educational situation and from this par-
ticular slant. At the same time, I hope that the British context will be of
some interest to readers in the United States and elsewhere.
A more specific choice was of which school subjects to cover. As my
teaching and research interests have long been in both geography and history,
I had little trouble in starting with these. Bearing in mind the importance
of the American dimension in the book, however, it seemed essential to
consider also social studies textbooks, particularly in that context. There
is additional justification for this three-fold choice in that as a group
geography, history and social studies textbooks have for long exhibited
common features, and have equally been strikingly different from those in
mathematics, science, modern languages and English, among others.
I have focused on two centuries of continuity and change. Chapters
follow mostly a chronological structure, starting with the early nineteenth
century, then usually combining the late-nineteenth and pre-First World
War period of the twentieth century, followed by the inter-war period, and
finally that of the post-Second World War. In some cases this last period is
divided between the pre- and post-1960s decades, the 1960s being an
important threshold time in curriculum history. Some chapters address
more particularly the American dimension, obviously Chapter 2 and much
IX
 The School Textbook

of Chapter 9, and some the British, obviously Chapter 3 and Chapter 11.
But in most comparative studies are made of both. The European context
also figures quite frequently, though in a more sporadic way. For the latter,
I have tended to rely on the considerable number of publications in English.
In autobiographical mode, I might mention that my work over thirty
years in teacher education was involved with fulfilling two responsibilities:
one was that of teaching pre-service students and mediating the associated
relationships with schools; and the second was the academic research
world. While I took both seriously, I regret retrospectively that I kept these
roles too separate. For all the time I have been in teacher education, I have
authored or co-authored school textbooks, and also many articles and
academic monographs. I feel more than a little guilty however that, like
many of my peers, I kept the former activity rather under my hat. It was
not referred to, for example, in either of my methodological texts on geo-
graphical education. This book is therefore to an extent seeking to achieve a
redress. It is my hope in fact that it will be of interest to both theoreticians
and practitioners.

x
 Acknowledgements

In the first place, for the third time I acknowledge with gratitude the
support of the Nuffield Foundation Small Grant Scheme for Social Science
Research, which was devoted in particular to covering the expenses of
many visits to the British Library, British Newspaper Library, and other
repositories. Obviously these collections did not cover some of overseas
material I required. For help with this I must thank most warmly the
support of colleagues in two institutions in particular. The first is the Georg-
Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research in Braunschweig,
where the Director, Professor Dr Ursula Becher, and her colleague Dr Falk
Pingel, were unfailingly welcoming and supportive. The same was the case
with David Ment, Director of Teachers College Library Collections, at
Columbia University, and his colleague Bette Weneck, Manuscript Curator.
As I combined my visit to New York with a brief holiday, their help in expe-
diting my search and the photocopying of relevant materials from their
superb historical collection was vital. In this country, I also am pleased to
thank librarians and others at the British Library, the British Newspaper
Library, the University of London Institute Library, and at the University
of Liverpool.

Among other individuals I must acknowledge, the obvious starter is the

editor of the Woburn Press Education Series, Professor Peter Gordon,
whose support over four books I have written for the Press has always been
unobtrusive, constructively non-interventionist and encouraging. I also
owe a particular debt to Dr Peter Knight of the University of Lancaster,
who has read and commented on a number of chapters with great insight,
both as an historian and as a researcher interested in the textbook field. I
have also been helped greatly by Dr David Lambert of the University of
London Institute of Education, whose recent research on textbooks and
textbook use is so promising. I also acknowledge the stimulus of two geo-
graphical education colleagues who have stood out from the trend of so
many peers and over a long period have written constructively about text-
books, namely John Lidstone and David Wright. Graham Butt's study of
the National Curriculum Geography Working Group, Eleanor Rawling's
and Rex Walford's comments on the same, and Rob Phillips' on the History
Working Group have also been much appreciated. The support of colleagues
in the IGU Commission on Geographical Education, too numerous to
mention, has always been an encouragement. Here I would obviously pick
Xl
 The School Textbook

out the American initiators of the textbooks and educational reform pro-
ject, Sarah and Bob Bednarz and Jo Stoltman, who really started me off
thinking about writing this book. Jo Stoltman has also helpfully commented
on my discussion of the American standards debate.

Xll
 1
Introduction

Sir Oracle in pedagogy cries: Throw text-books out of the window. Teach every
subject as if there were no text-book in the universe.'
(E.E. White, (1901) The Art of Teaching, p. 117)

BACKGROUND: COMPARATIVE RESEARCH INTO TEXTBOOKS

Textbooks are still the most widely used resource for teaching and learn-
ing in British schools (see Westaway and Rawling, 1998, p. 36). Even in
the post-Plowden (1967) heyday of progressivism in primary education,
hostile in principle to textbooks, government inspectors found three-fifths
of upper junior classes used them in their geography and history lessons
(DES, 1978, pp. 73-4). Yet the most conspicuous feature of attitudes in
British educational circles towards school textbooks has remained a high
level of negativism and/or neglect. Stray remarked that 'textbooks have
rarely been taken seriously as an object of study' (1994, p. 1), while Wilkes
described them as ' ... the most despised literary genre of all' (1997, p. 44).
Graves observed that research output was 'pitifully small' (1997a, p. 62).
While criticism of textbooks has always been evident, it has in recent
decades in Britain become more strident, both formally, in the educational
literature, and informally, as 'a puzzling and continuing feature of many
conferences and conversations' (Wright, 1996a, p. 13). In pre- and in-service
courses, the advice given to students and teachers, if any, has been either
to discourage or even renounce textbook use (Lidstone, 1992, p. 177). The
received wisdom remains that textbooks undermine professionalism, typify
an undesirable transmission model of teaching and learning, and are gener-
ally incompatible with progressive educational practice. Such opinion
embodies at the very least a thought chasm between elite definitions of what
is deemed to be educationally appropriate, and the views of practising
teachers, reliant to varying degrees on textbooks, and a factor in explain-
ing why research in education 'does not seem to have been very well
received by the teaching community' (Lidstone, 1988,p. 282). On a broader
front it prompted Hargreaves to suggest that teachers are able to be effective
in their practice in almost total ignorance of the research infrastructures
of the educational theorist (1996, p. 2). 'Is there any hope of ending this

1
 The School Textbook

disheartening and debilitating lack of a dialogue?' he queried (1999a,

p.240).
Research into textbooks has long been a more respected locus of interest
in the United States than in Britain, though Cronbach and his team in the
1950s were indeed anticipating Hargreaves' concerns, regretting the yawn-
ing gaps to be discerned between educational ideology and classroom prac-
tice, 'inhabiting two separate worlds of discourse' which had lost contact
with each other (1955b, p. 188). Much ofthe theoretical debate was empty
because not based on evidence. If most teachers were over-reliant on text-
books and used them mechanically, while educational specialists were
at the same time advocating high levels of teacher initiative and a more
critical and flexible use of textbooks, then there was some neglect of duty
in not developing the latter skills. Equally, if teacher initiative was shown
to have educational advantages, and publishers were producing only
teacher-proof materials, then they too were failing in their duty (p. 216).
'Textbook bashing' remained 'a favourite pastime' across a broad spectrum
of educational opinion (Fleming, 1992, p. 55), but one which coexisted with
a more pragmatic and constructive approach to textbook research. Many
significant publications (see below), culminated in Chambliss and Calfee's
monograph which, unlike the British literature, affirmed that it was not
the intention to identify any 'villains' but, more constructively, was rather
to probe the potential of textbooks for 'nurturing children's minds' (1998,
p. xiii).
Three types of critical reaction to textbooks can be identified. The first
bemoans their presence and campaigns for prohibition. The second accepts
their necessity, but demands measures for effecting reform (Patton, 1980,
p. iv; Chambliss and Calfee, 1998, p. 1). In general, a majority of American
writers have taken the second stance. In Britain the first has been more
evident. The third and more extreme variant is to ignore the textbook as a
subject worthy of serious study, as has also happened in this country.
In the light of the enormous literature to be surveyed here, it may appear
perverse to complain of neglect. It is a fact, however, that no comprehensive
indigenous British survey of textbooks appears yet to have been published.
If this book is indeed the first to plug the gap, then it comes 80 years behind
what was claimed to be the original American contribution, Hall-Quest's
The Textbook: How to Use and How to Judge It (1920, p. vii). Even before
then Sellery was formally advising American history teachers how to use
textbooks (1911). By contrast, Catling and Wurr's advice 90 years later on
how to use geography textbooks could be construed as an exotic item for
the British journal Teaching Geography (2000). It was one of only a hand-
ful of articles to be published on textbooks in the 25 years of the existence
2
 Introduction

of that journal, aimed at secondary school practitioners. As will be demon-

strated in Chapter 4, other educational journals and methodological articles
over the same period appeared inhibited in publishing contributions to this
topic.
Bearing in mind the paucity of home-grown intellectual support for a
scholarly survey of textbooks, the question is where to look for transfer-
able insights. To an extent the domestic historical experience can and will
be used as a source (see Harper, 1980). More pertinent, however, have been
the wide-ranging endeavours of educationists in the UnitedStates. Colleagues
in mainland European countries have also regarded the textbook as a worthy
subject for research. An outstanding example is Choppin's major series of
publications on different types of textbooks, culminating in Les Manuels
Sealaires (1992a). The latter was written with not dissimilar purposes to
this text in mind. It offered, among other things, a significant historical per-
spective, and was a pioneering attempt to achieve an overall synthesis.
Equally, Johnsen's extensive study, Textbooks in the Kaleidoscope (1993),
a Scandinavian publication now translated into English, has been helpful
in drawing attention to a wealth of European literature.
The task of considering all the European material would, however, have
been overwhelming and impractical, not least in the light of this author's
linguistic limitations. There also continue to be cultural differences between
Anglo-American educational conventions and those of mainland Europe. For
example, the concept of pedagogy, deployed here in the Anglo-American
sense of its association with the art and science of teaching, means some-
thing similar to the European term didactics, which in turn in Britain carries
connotations of 'dogma and dullness' and dead tradition (see Hamilton,
1999, p. 135). None the less, specific information and ideas have been
drawn from relevant foreign language publications such as, to take one
instance, a comparative study ofthe European dimension in geography text-
books from five different countries, including England (Weinbrenner, 1998).
European literature appearing in English has been widely addressed with, in
addition to Choppin, and Johnsen, the invaluable publications of the Georg-
Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research in Braunschweig,
Germany (1995). Some of these have been produced in association with
the Council of Europe and UNESCO (see Bourdillon, 1992, and Pingel,
1999). Berghahn and Schissler's interesting comparative collection of
articles on international history textbook research (1987) and, more gener-
ally, Selander's collection Textbooks and Educational Media (1997), have
also proved useful sources.
Neglect of research into textbooks in Britain cannot be attributed to a
shortage of historical source material. Goldstrom identified the school book
3
 The School Textbook

as a key resource in research into the social history of schooling (1972,

p. 3), as also did Ball (1983, p. 251). Choppin concurred, suggesting that
school textbooks 'represent one of the richest and least interrupted sources
of evidence, not only for histories of education, but also of histories of
thought, science and culture ... ' (1992b, p. 347). In making this observa-
tion, Choppin calculated that 80,000 textbooks had been produced in two
centuries of schooling in France, where an outstanding national research
collection has been assembled under the aegis of the French Emmanuelle
project. The Scandinavian interest in textbook research is reflected not only
in Johnsen's monograph, but also through the International Association for
Research on Textbooks and Educational Media (IARTEM) (Johnsen, 1995,
pp. 128-30).
While it is contended that in general textbooks have been persistently
under-researched in this country, this is less the case in relation to specific
aspects, where there has, among other things, been address to issues of
national identity, racist and sexist bias, and the analysis of text. Lunzer and
Gardner (1979), and Newton's (1990) texts on language issues were gen-
uinely indigenous sources, more so than De Castell and colleagues (1989),
whose text, while published in this country, was a compilation of readings
from predominantly overseas writers. There have also been articles referring
to problems of the language used in geography and history textbooks, by
Rosen (1967); Bernbaum (1972); Edwards (1978); Marsden (1979a);
Davies (1986 and 1988); Wishart (1986); Williams (1978 and 1981); Slater
(1989) and, more recently, under the heading of discourse analysis, by
Bennett (1996), and Lester and Slater (1998).

RESEARCHING TEXTBOOKS IN THE CONTEXT OF

CURRICULUM HISTORY

During the 1960s, many American educationists, among others Miel

(1964), Goodlad (1966, p. 91) and Kliebard (1968), were drawing atten-
tion to the lack of historical study of the curriculum field. In Britain, little
if anything in the way of an overall historical perspective on the field
appeared in the post-war literature until the mid-1970s, with the possible
exceptions of Bramwell's Elementary School Work 1900-1925 (1961),
which focused on curriculum change in that period, and Goldstrom on the
social content of school books (1972).More substantial breakthroughs were
evident from the late 1970s. First, Gordon and Lawton's Curriculum Change
in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1978) discussed the processes
of change in various curriculum areas. About the same time, the History of
4
 Introduction

Education Society of Great Britain published Post-war Curriculum Devel-

opment: An Historical Appraisal. In the associated conference papers an
attempt was made to trawl existing literature, to draw on the American
experience, and to suggest how messages from the past might legitimately
be used in the contemporary situation (Marsden, 1979b).
During the 1980s, historical study of the curriculum gained the wider
support of some curriculum theorists (see Reid, 1986), and was most com-
prehensively evident in the many variations on the theme of subject histories
by Goodson (for example, 1983, 1985, and 1988a). Part of the new interest
in curriculum history derived from the influence of the 'new sociology' of
education (see Chapter 4), and from theoretical developments in curriculum
studies (Baker, 1996, p. lO9). However the issue was approached, it was
clear that previous textbooks were crucially important sources in inter-
preting the history of the curriculum, whether in furnishing information
about how teaching and learning was conducted in the past, or as materi-
als that maintained their position over time, in some cases outstaying their
welcome, as part and parcel of the continuity of curriculum development.
Choppin indeed emphasised the need to illuminate from old textbooks 'an
understanding of social evolution', placing 'current practice in a more
objective light', and establishing 'criteria of analysis which can claim some
permanent value' (1992b, p. 346).
In Britain archive collections of old textbooks have been an essential
source of historic material, notably at the University of London Institute of
Education, the University of Liverpool (the one most used for this study),
the University of Cambridge, the University of Durham (history textbooks
(see Batho, 1984», and in the Fleure Archive of the Geographical Associ-
ation held at the University of Sheffield. Obviously, the British Library
holds an immense textbook archive, though by no means a complete one.
Symptomatic of an increasing interest in Britain in historical study was
the emergence of the 'Textbook Colloquium' group in the 1980s, dedicated
to research into textbook history. From 1989 it produced the Paradigm
journal. This has served to bring together what once were spasmodic and
dispersed initiatives.
An important research focus of the historical work in general has been
the political and social content of past textbooks, not least in geography
and history, and children's literature, highlighting the dangers of bias and
prejudice perceived in the promotion of nationalist, imperialist and racist
ideologies through these sources. The interest in the history of the school
subjects has been reinforced recently by Kent (2000) and Walford (2001).
The study of bias and prejudice in textbooks post-war was pioneered in
Dance's text, History the Betrayer: A Study in Bias (1960) though, as will

5
 The School Textbook

be shown in Chapters 3 and 7, it was by no means the first to address such

matters. The Library Association compiled a major bibliography covering
bias in history textbooks (Smith, 1962). Similar accounts of bias in past
textbooks appeared during the 1970s, including Chancellor for history
(1970), and Vaughan for geography (1972). Many more were to follow in
the 1980s and 1990s, including Gilbert (1984); Ahier (1988); Marsden
(1988a, 1989, 1990); Walford (1989); Tidswell (1990); Hopkin (1994);
Stray (1994); Graves (1996 and 1997); Ploszajska (1996); and Wright
(1988, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c); and in some ofthe studies in Price's collection
on The Development ofthe Secondary Curriculum (1986). The same has been
true of other subjects, not least modem languages (see Byram, 1993). From
such work stemmed attempts to offer criteria for avoiding stereotyping, bias
and prejudice in current curriculum materials.
In itemising significant topics for international research on geography
textbooks, Wright included analysis of text, maps and diagrams, and visual
resources; historical research into change and continuity over time; pupil
responses; interviews with authors; how used; coverage of controversial
issues, particularly related to racism and sexism; stereotyping; cross-disci-
plinary comparisons; pupil activities; and pupil attitudes towards textbooks
(1983a, 1983b, 1988 and 1996a). Clammer's agenda for textbook research
was complementary if more general, related to his perception of a need for
a more thorough historical, comparative and internationalist approach (1986).
Notwithstanding some pioneering work on the history of the curriculum,
and even allowing for the significant monographs by Chancellor (1970),
Goldstrom (1972) and Ahier (1988), there has been little to compare with
the major American texts on the history of American school books. The
scope of published bibliographies highlights the contrasts. Thus an anno-
tated bibliography of textbooks in education, prepared as part of the little-
known Keele Textbook Project, included a mere 130 items, the majority of
which were from overseas, and mostly American (Parker, 1972). More sub-
stantial American examples were Grambs' bibliography (1980, pp. 71-5),
and that of Woodward, Elliott and Nagel (1988), which included well over
500 citations. In Britain, a later compilation of information on textbooks
including a research bibliography, hopefully brings promise of research to
come in this area (Wood and Lambert, 1997).

THE TEXTBOOK: ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS

Historically, there seems to have been no consistently accepted definition

of a 'textbook'. There are semantic problems. Even the nomenclature of

6
 Introduction

textbook, text-book or text book has meant different things to different

people at different times. In investigating the historical background, Stray
drew attention to the fine distinctions between school books, schoolbooks,
textbooks and text books. The school book, he claimed, was an appellation
emerging in the seventeenth century, and a commonly used item in the
eighteenth. Textbooks under that heading appeared in the 1830s, but text
books were of much earlier vintage, and denoted texts, usually in Latin or
Greek, used for instruction. Stray defined textbooks as authoritative peda-
gogic versions of an area of knowledge, and schoolbooks as books with
appended notes to assist understanding as, for example, school editions of
Shakespeare's works. There were overlaps, as he observed, between these
categories and children's books (and of course primers and readers), which
were designed to be attractive to children and serve instructional purposes
as well (1994, pp. 2-3).
There have been other interpretations. Hamilton traced back in time and
temporally linked the emergence of the concepts of school 'instruction' and
'curriculum' with the introduction of 'textbooks'. He cited a fundamental
shift from reliance on teachers to one on textbooks over the period between
1450 and 1650 (1993, p. 47 and p. 52). Marten claimed the earliest history
textbook was written by an Etonian in 1561 (1938). In his pioneering study
of the origins of school subjects in England, Foster Watson similarly used
the term text-book for works of this period, such as Ocland's Anglorum
Praelia of 1580 (1909, pp. 79-81). He claimed that by the second half of
the seventeenth century every important department of knowledge had been
expounded 'in an English text-book, and in almost all cases text-books had
been simplified and adopted for school use in English' (p. 535). Michael
produced a comprehensive guide to school literature texts from 1700 to
1830 (1999). He too regularly referred to pre-nineteenth-century texts
related to English teaching as textbooks, noting that early grammars and
'rhetorics' were in some cases written by schoolmasters and were intended
as school textbooks (1979, pp. 194-5).
These earlier texts for schools were not, however, produced on a mass
scale. In the sense of it being a mass-produced 'cultural commodity',
Stray's account of the origins of the textbook is probably correct. For
example, the 1830s first witnessed titles of the type' A Textbook of ... ' The
distinction between a textbook and a school book remains, with the latter
often in practice a school library book, and intended to be used as a work of
reference. The textbook, on the other hand, is characteristically purchased
in class sets (see Firth, 1929, p. 150).
Turning to the American literature, according to Hall-Quest, textbooks
proper were essentially course books (1920, pp. 44-5). The key elements
7
 The School Textbook

of any textbook were its systematic organisation of subject-matter, framing

the prevailing concepts of the subject, offering the student direction, and
providing support to the teacher (pp. 4-11). McMurray and Cronbach later
took a similar view, defining textbooks as printed text materials which were
placed in the hands of every pupil. A textbook was a simplified version of
an organised body of knowledge matched to the limitations of a targeted
immature learner. It was arranged as a course of study, so that the chapters
would be studied in sequence, later ones presuming understanding of earlier
(1955, pp. 17-18). Buckingham also defined textbooks as publications
designed for classroom use, carefully prepared by 'experts', placed in the
hands of the learner, and providing 'a means of supplying indirect experi-
ence in large and well-organized amounts' (1960, p. 1517). Deighton
distinguished textbooks from handbooks, which he suggested presented
information without pedagogic explication (1971, p. 210).
Older conceptions of what textbooks should provide have changed in
recent decades, with the increasing popularity of packages of curriculum
materials, expanding well beyond the conventional bound pupil book. The
trend had been present in the United States from the inter-war period, and
much later became evident in Britain. There has also been a shift in both
geography and history textbooks towards a declining ratio of text to illus-
trations and pupil activities with, as Walford commented, extended prose
becoming in some cases so minimal as to meritthe alternative titles of activ-
ity book or work book, rather than textbook (1995, p. 6) (see Chapter 6).

CURRICULUM CHANGE AND THE TEXTBOOK

Three factors have perennially impacted on curriculum change. They

derive first from academic subject influences; secondly from educational!
philosophic principles; and finally from external social forces (Bramwell,
1973). Gordon and Lawton's historical study of curriculum change (1978)
was likewise based on what were essentially the same elements: changing
subjects, changing educational methods, and the impact of outside forces,
whether reflecting official legislation, external examinations, or pressure
groups. Changing curriculum practice has in turn dictated modifications in
materials such as textbooks. It would still be widely accepted that textbooks

• comprise a body of content;

• embody a range of pedagogic principles and processes; and
• reflect external and sometimes imposed sets of social purposes.
(See Marsden, 1995, p. ix)

8
 Introduction

Consideration of these three elements will take place in later chapters.

Here it can be argued that they accord with the frequently cited trio of
ideologies of education, namely cultural transmission, associated with the
classical humanist tradition and the passing down of subject knowledge and
understanding; progressivism, based on principles of unfettered child
development; and social reconstructionism. These have alternatively been
described as subject-centred, child-centred and society-centred ideologies
(see Skilbeck, 1976).
The balance accorded to each of these ideologies has in practice changed
over time. They have coexisted but in different mixes reflecting shifting
priorities. A recurring question is whether or not a balance should be main-
tained, or that one element might justifiably be emphasised at the expense
of the others. Certainly in educational theory, policy and practice, it has
frequently been assumed that these elements tend to be competitive rather
than complementary. Over many decades (see, for example, Davis, 1934),
product (content or subject matter) has been polarised as somehow antipa-
thetic to process (or method), and either or both of these have been claimed
to be subversive of desired social purposes (or mission). The nature ofthe
balance has altered in accordance with changes in the educational system,
as in Britain where, broadly speaking, the stress on matter has been strongly
associated with the secondary grammar school tradition; on method with
progressive primary school practice; and on mission with the emergence of
the secondary modem and later the secondary comprehensive school. In
the United States, responding to what the general public perceived to be
the curricular excesses of previous decades, Goodlad stated that: 'To the
extent that this reaction to child-centered and society-centered theories is
itself perceived to be an overemphasis on subject matter in determining
curricular ends and means, today's movement already is breeding tomorrow's
counter-reaction ... ' (1966, p. 87).
These distinctions are particularly important in this study, in that for
long textbooks have been stereotyped, among other things, as suitable
mainly for brighter secondary grammar school pupils, reckoned to be
more responsive to ingesting the content which it has been seen as their
main function to supply. At the other pole, they have been assumed to
be unsuitable for other pupils, and presented monolithically as demoti-
vating, dissonant with progressive activity methods, and/or unresponsive
to the priorities identified as central to the mission of the non-selective
school.

9
 The School Textbook

TEXTBOOKS IN GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND SOCIAL STUDIES

The focus of this study is on textbooks in geography, history and, with partic-
ular reference to the American dimension, social studies. To a much lesser
extent separate elements of the social sciences in Britain, namely economics,
sociology and political science will be considered, in part because in
England and Wales such subjects have still to gain a foothold in most phases
of schooling, and in which, below the 16-19 level, few influential text-
books have emerged. Apart from reasons of space, in justifying restricting
the coverage to textbooks in geography, history and social studies, it can
be argued that they have long been closely associated in the make-up of
school knowledge. Where a social studies framework has been chosen, it
has normally taken on board geography and history as key contributors.
Together, geography, history and the various elements of the social studies
have been defined as the 'social subjects'. Textbooks in these three areas,
while varying in a number of ways, have often been similar in presenta-
tion, and have reflected complementary social purposes. They display much
greater differences with textbooks in the sciences, mathematics, English,
modern languages, and the creative arts subjects, largely excluded from
consideration in this text.

OUTLINE

This book is intended as a ground-clearing exercise, as comprehensive a

trawl as is practical within space constraints of the available literature in
English covering the world of school textbooks. It is thought to be the first
of its type in Britain to range through 'the diversity of topics on which any
meaningful consideration of the textbook must be based' (Parker, 1972,
p. 1). Its comparative and historical coverage inevitably mean there is no
prospect of probing each issue in depth. Indeed each chapter could justify
extension into a whole book. But hopefully, the endeavour will provide
a baseline for further research. It is hoped that it will be of interest to
practising teachers as well as researchers, and that it may be regarded as a
comparative historical contribution to what Hargreaves has termed, in
a somewhat different context, 'evidence-based' research, applicable to
teaching (1999b).
Goodlad, in justifying an historical approach to curriculum study,
advised that 'the wise explorer studies the maps of those who went before'
(1966, p. 91). It is contended here that the wise explorer also investigates
the concurrent experience of other cultures. Having raised issues to do with
lO
 Introduction

research in this introductory chapter, Chapter 2 therefore seeks insights

from the infinitely richer experience of the United States in textbook theory
and practice. Chapter 3 draws in an analogous way on the British historical
perspective. Here textbook study, while never as centrally a focus of cur-
riculum debate as in the United States, was not always as downplayed as
it has been in recent decades. Chapter 4 stays with the British scene and,
with some relevant commentary from the American experience, discusses
the roots and development of what is here described as the contemporary
anti-textbook ethos.
Moving on from these external perspectives, the internal characteristics
and qualities of textbooks become the focus of the following five chapters.
As already noted, like the curriculum process of which they are a part, text-
books are inextricably linked with the previously identified trinity of
matter, method and mission, on the balance between which their writers
and publishers presumably have staked their particular claims for consid-
eration in the market place. These will therefore form in tum the substance
of Chapter 5, covering matter (content); Chapter 6, method (educational
processes); and Chapters 7, 8 and 9, which deal with a variety of issues
related to the mission (social purposes) being sought. Chapter 7 considers
bias and prejudice in textbooks; Chapter 8, national identity, nationalism
and internationalism; while Chapter 9 addresses issues of censorship, partic-
ularly in the United States, where it has been an endemic feature, and under
totalitarian regimes in Europe.
The final two chapters concentrate on more practical and topical issues.
Chapter 10 surveys a wide range of materials which have offered guidance
on choosing and using textbooks. Chapter 11 covers contentious issues
related to the nature of the association of textbooks with circumscribed
syllabuses, particularly those connected with the perceived constraints of
the National Curriculum in England and Wales and the complementary
debates over National Standards in the United States.
The kaleidoscope metaphor in the title of Johnsen's text (1993) is indeed
appropriate here too. A major difference is obviously Johnsen's under-
standably negligible consideration of the British scene, and light coverage
of the American. Some valuable comparative insights, however, have been
drawn from his work. He noted, for example, that in mainland European
countries, though taken very seriously, research into textbooks has been
notably variable, focusing mostly on issues of readability and social con-
tent, with little attention paid to such questions as the use of textbooks as
attested by classroom surveys. Content analyses were judged to have been
primarily 'ideological in nature, aimed at improving textbooks' faculty for
instilling tolerance and international understanding'. Methods of research
11
 The School Textbook

ranged from 'impressionistic-polemical analyses to mathematical-statisti-

cal surveys'. Many studies were found lacking an overall perspective, and
marked by ambiguous attitudes toward the production and use of textbooks
(pp. 327-8). In other words, imbalances and paradoxes were found that also
have been characteristic of the more limited British research into the topic.
One of Johnsen's important contentions was that textbooks were about
the people involved with them, and that the primary goal of international
research must implicate the parties who influence the educational culture
of which textbooks remain part and parcel, namely

• the professional experts at the frontiers who must in an essential way

impact on the content of textbooks;
• the authors, editors, designers, consultants and marketing experts who
produce and distribute the books;
• the school authorities, advisers, teachers and others who evaluate, select
and purchase the books;
• the teachers who use the books; and
• the pupils who are assumed to derive benefit from them.

Different authors have written and still write different textbooks for dif-
ferent publishers. They are appraised by different reviewers, and targeted
at different audiences, who in tum use and react to them differently. The
account which ensues seeks not least to query some of the aggregate
assumptions attached in theoretical writings to each of these groups, and to
look more carefully at the individual variations.

12
 References

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