Digital Film Making

Digital Film Making
MAAC
Lecture Companion
Digital Film Making

© Copyright 2013 by MAYA ACADEMY OF ADVANCED CINEMATICS
MAAC Lecture Companion is published as part of the course curriculum of Maya Academy of Advanced Cinematics (MAAC).
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means (electronic, photocopy-
ing, recording or otherwise) without the prior permission of the publisher.
Published as part of the course curriculum
Trademark: All brand names and product names used in this book are trademarks, registered trademarks, or trade names of
their respective holders. Maya Academy of Advanced Cinematics is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this
book.
All the pictures and images used in this book are for instructional purposes only.
Contents
1. Introduction to Cameras..........................................................................6
1.1. Brief History of Films....................................................................................................................6

1.2. Brief History of Camera...............................................................................................................8
1.3. Important Features of Camera..................................................................................................12
1.4. Analogue Camera Vs Digital Camera.....................................................................................16

2. Camera Operations.................................................................................19

2.1 Introduction to Photography.....................................................................................................19
2.2 Dslr Camera...............................................................................................................................19
2.3 Camera Parts.............................................................................................................................20
2.4 Important Technical Terms.........................................................................................................31
2.5 Types of Image Formats...........................................................................................................34
2.6 Aesthetics in Photography.......................................................................................................36
3. Composition and Framing......................................................................39
3.1 Introduction to Composition.....................................................................................................39

3.2 Rule of Third..............................................................................................................................40
3.3 Golden Section.........................................................................................................................42
3.4 Important Aspects of Composition.........................................................................................43
3.5 Framing......................................................................................................................................49
3.6 Important Aspects of Framing.................................................................................................50
3.7 Dos and Don’ts In Composition and Framing........................................................................60
4. Cinematography......................................................................................63
4.1 Introduction to Cinematography.............................................................................................63

4.2 Aspects of Cinematography....................................................................................................67
4.3 Famous Cinematographers And Their Works........................................................................77
4.4 Stages of Digital Film Production............................................................................................79

5. Camera Shots and Angles.....................................................................82
5.1 Introduction to Camera Shots................................................................................................. 82

5.2 Different Types of Camera Shots.............................................................................................82
5.3 Introduction to Camera Angles................................................................................................85
5.4 Different Types of Camera Angles...........................................................................................85

6. Camera Movements..................................................................................91
6.1 Introduction to Camera Movement.............................................................................................91

6.2 Types of Camera Movement......................................................................................................91

7. Lighting in Cinematography...................................................................102
7.1 Objective of Lighting...................................................................................................................102

7.2 Lighting Design...........................................................................................................................102
7.3 Lighting Styles.............................................................................................................................104
7.4 Three Point Light Setup...............................................................................................................105
7.5 Lighting Scheme..........................................................................................................................107
7.6 Lighting Continuity........................................................................................................................108
8. Costume and Set Design........................................................................110
8.1 Introduction to Costume Design..............................................................................................110

8.2 Role of Costume Designer.......................................................................................................116
8.3 Introduction to Set Design..........................................................................................................116
8.4 Set Designing for Theatres.........................................................................................................117
8.5 Set Designing for Films................................................................................................................117
9. Screenwriting and Screenplay...............................................................120
9.1 Introduction to Screen Writing..................................................................................................120

9.2 Story Development....................................................................................................................121
9.3 Aspect of Story Development....................................................................................................122
9.4 Character Development.............................................................................................................124
9.5 Synopsis and Loglines...............................................................................................................124
9.6 Treatment and Themes...............................................................................................................124
9.7 Screenplay...................................................................................................................................125
10. Post Production and Editing.................................................................127
10.1 Introduction to Post Production..............................................................................................127

10.2 Processes Involved In Post Production................................................................................127
10.3 Introduction to Editing..............................................................................................................129
chapter 1 Introduction to Cameras
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
➢ Understand brief history on cinema
➢ Understand the evolution of camera from an ancient camera obscura to a modern day
digital camera
➢ Understand the important features of the camera like lenses, shutter etc
➢ Understand the aspects of a film camera and digital camera and their advantages and
disadvantages
1.1 Brief history of Films

In Europe and America the history of films began in the 19th century with the invention of the first
movie camera. It took decades to establish films as an important method of communication, self
expression and entertainment. Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor. In 1891 he invented
the first movie machine, called the Kinetoscope. Later the Lumiere brothers i.e. Louis and Auguste
Lumiere invented the camera projector called the cinematographe. They were French inventors.
American filmmaker Edwin S. Porter’s created an eight-minute film called “The Great Train Robbery”
in 1903. It was then shown as an entertainment for the masses.
In a short period of time American filmmakers became world eminent. Most of the famous studios were
located in New York. Between the years 1910 and 1920 the American film making industry shifted
to Hollywood. Later several other European countries established themselves as great filmmaking
centers. Germany was the birthplace of the expressionist movement in films. In 1925 in Russia Sergei
Einstein’s film “Battleship Potemkin” established the idea of montage in motion pictures. Directors
like Rene Clair and Abel Gance helped France gain world attention as a rich source of films. A lot of
film artistry and aesthetics were developed in Europe during World War II. During 1950s and 1960s, a
group of French directors, initiated a film movement called the new wave. From the 1970s American
films have been distinguished by the big-budgets, special-effects, eye for detail. Its attraction of a
larger international audience paved the way for their advancement in technology and Visual Effects.
MAAC Lecture Companion 6

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1.1.1 Brief History of Indian Cinema
In India the year 1896 was significant as it witnessed the arrival of motion picture or cinema. The
Lumiere Brothers screened six short films through “cinematographe”. It was held in Bombay.
It attracted large audiences and this paved the way for the screening of more foreign films, for
example, Vitagraph by James B. Stewart and Moto-Photoscope by Ted Hughes. In India cinema came
with the aid of the colonizers.
Harischandra Sakharam Bhatavdekar made two short films as early as in 1897. In 1900 the Indian
entertainment went huge changes with the emergence of Dadasaheb Phalke. He took Indian
cinema to greater heights. He directed the ground breaking silent era film “Raja Harischandra” in 1913.
Refer to Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Dadasaheb Phalke and a still from the film “Raja Harischandra”.
The rapid growth of the Indian cinema led to the end of the silent era and grand introduction of the era
of the talkies. Films were primarily made in Hindi, Tamil, Bengali and Telugu and these films proved
to be phenomenal successes. During 1940s films in India were made in various languages but were
mostly based on religion and mythology.
The scenario changed as India’s struggle for freedom gained momentum. Indian cinema was then
based on contemporary social issues. They were no longer a source of entertainment but also a mode
of education for the masses. The golden period of the history of Indian cinema was during the 1950s.
Recently Indian cinema completed its 100th year in 2013 Refer to Figure 1.2

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Figure 1.2 100 years of Indian cinema
1.2 Brief history of camera
1.2.1Still Camera
It can be said that photography was not invented in a day, but evolved from one stage to another. The
word photography comes from the combination of two Latin words which mean “writing with light.”
In 1939 the word “photography” was used by Sir John Herschel. He was an English mathematician,
astronomer, chemist, and inventor. The Chinese were the first people to write about the idea of the
pinhole camera or “camera obscura” (In Latin it means “dark room”). About 2,400 years ago (4th
Century B.C.) the famous philosopher Aristotle talked about a pinhole image formation in his work.
The Evolution of Still camera can be seen at a glimpse as per the next image Refer to Figure 1.3.

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Figure 1.3 Evolution of Still camera
1.2.2 Camcorder
It is an electronic device which combines video camera and recorder into one. The Evolution of
Camcorder can be seen at a glimpse as per the next image Refer to Figure 1.4.

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Figure 1.4 Evolution of Camcorder
1.2.3 Film Camera

Film camera\ Movie camera\ Cine camera is a type of camera which records sequence of photographs on
strips of film rolls. The Evolution of Film Camera can be seen at a glimpse as per the next image Refer to
Figure1.5.

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Figure 1.5 Evolution of Movie/Film Camera

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1.3 Important Features of Camera
1.3.1 Lens
A camera lens is an optical lens made of glass. This is used with the camera to capture the image
with the help of light. The lens used in digital, manual, handy cam or film camera is the same. The
difference is only in the design or the quality of image. As per the camera mechanism, the light
information helps in capturing the image through the lens on a film or on digital memory cards. In
some cameras the lens is fixed permanently while in some they can be changed. There are different
cameras based on the focal length, aperture etc. There are different types of lens, they are wide
angle, telephoto, fish eye, tilt shift and macro lens Refer to Figure1.6.
Figure 1.6 Different types of camera lenses
1.3.2 Imager
The imager of the camera contains the photosensitive devices. The imager converts and develops the
electronic video signal from the light captured through a digital process. This is an important feature
for cameras.

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1.3.3 Recorder
This is an important feature of DSLRs, camcorders and handy cams. It records the video signal and
stores it in the camera.
1.3.4 CCD
The CCD is a collection of minute light-sensitive diodes, which gather electrons (electrical charge)
when they are hit with light particles (photons). These diodes are called photosites. In short each
photo site is responsive to light -- brighter is the light hitting a single photo site greater would be the
electrical charge that will accumulate at that site Refer to Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Charged couple device
1.3.4.1 Single CCD

This system is usually used in consumer level camcorders and has been widely used on digital
cameras .As Single CCD can only sense the luminance, it has to rely on a Color Filter Array (CFA) to
mask out all other colors except the specific color for each pixel to be passed-thru. There are two main
type of filter structure: stripe and mosaic. In general, mosaic filter provide better horizontal resolution.
There are two methods for reproducing color with filter. One is primary color filter, and the other is
complementary color filter.
1.3.4.2 3 CCD
3-CCD system uses a beam splitting prism to divide light passing through the lens into 3 individual
components and each is sent to its own CCD. This technology reproduces color in great reliability and
high accuracy but slightly reduced light sensitivity.
Normally 3-CCD system is used in professional and pro consumer range products but now you can
find even it on some consumer level DV camcorders.

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1.3.5 Pixel
Pixel is a fundamental unit for all digital images. The pixel contains the digital data. It is made up of
three primary digital color i.e. RGB. The word PIXEL was invented by combining the words Picture
Element Refer to Figure1.8.
Figure 1.8 Image made of Pixel
1.3.6 Camera Resolution

The amount of detail that the camera can capture is called the resolution, and it is measured in pixels.
The more pixels your camera has, the more detail it can captureRefer to Figure1.9 and 1.10

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Figure 1.9 Resolution gates of different camera resolutions
Figure 1.10 Different resolutions of the same image
1.3.7 Camera Shutter

In a camera the shutter button when pressed, it opens the shutter of the camera that then captures
the picture. The capturing of the image depends on for how long the shutter was open, which is called
the exposure time. The quality also depends on how much light was allowed to enter the camera. The
shutter speed is important and this can be increased or decreased. In cameras, shutter speed means
the duration for which the shutter remains open when taking a photograph. It is also called f-number;
it controls the amount of light that reaches the film or the digital sensor Refer to Figure 1.11.

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Figure 1.11 Effect of different shutter speeds on photograph. Fast shutter speeds
freeze a moving subject on photograph.
1.4 Analog Camera vs Digital Camera

The key difference between a digital camera and a film-based camera is that the digital camera has
no film instead; it has a sensor that converts light into electrical charges. The image sensor employed
by most digital cameras is a charge coupled device (CCD) Refer to Figure 1.12.
Figure 1.12 Film / Analog Camera Vs. Digital Camera

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Now let’s take a look at the advantages and disadvantages of film and digital cameras.
1.4.1 Analogue\Film Camera
¾¾ Pros
●● Film Roll cameras are cheap.

●● The detail that can be achieved in a 35mm photograph can only be matched by a high end
digital camera.
●● The quantity of information stored in a 35mm negative is essentially the same whether
the film was exposed by a costly or a cheap film camera.
●● Negatives and Photographs are efficient storage media.
●● Film cameras don’t need batteries.
●● One can scan photographs and can store them digitally.
¾¾ Cons
●● The availability of a film roll depends on the popularity of digital medium in a city.
●● Whether can dampen films, negatives if they remain exposed for a longer period.
●● There is a development charge from film negative to a colored photograph.
●● The number of images shot in a single film roll is less than digital mediums.
1.4.2 Digital Cameras
¾¾ Pros
●● There are no development charges; one can shoot images for free.
●● If the digital memory is full one can take backup, erase the memory and shoot again.
●● One can change film speed instead of carrying cameras with high and low speed film
rolls. One can also change the ISO in a DSLR instead of carrying film roles of different
ISO.
●● In digital mediums the camera memory has a larger storage capacity.
¾¾ Cons
●● DSLR require batteries.

●● Again DSLR’S should be handled carefully as they are delicate devices.
●● Townships might have greater popularity of film rolls than DSLR’S.

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Conclusion
This entire process of film making and photography has been an evolving process
with new technological advancement. Though DSLR cameras have made the work
easy for photographers in many ways, manual cameras are something still widely
used as a strong medium for learning.
Things to Remember
¾¾ Film and still cameras evolved with the advancement of technology, giving a broader
perspective to image and video quality.
¾¾ Lenses are used with the camera to capture the image with the help of light.
¾¾ Pixel is a fundamental unit for all digital images. The pixel contains the digital data.
¾¾ The amount of detail that the camera can capture is called the resolution, and it is measured
in pixels.
¾¾ The basic difference between digital and analogue camera is that digital camera’s captures
the image with digital sensors. In analogue cameras images are captured on film rolls.

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Exercise
1. Edwin S. Porter’s created an eight-minute film called “The Great Train Robbery” in 1903.
a) True
b) False
2. The amount of detail that the camera can capture is called the resolution, and it is measured in
pixels.
a) True
b) False
3. The key difference between a digital camera and a film-based camera is that the digital camera has
no film.
a) True
b) False
4. A camera lens is an optical lens made of glass.
a) True
b) False
5. Single CCD is commonly used in consumer level camcorders and has been widely in used on digital
cameras.
a) True
b) False

chapter 2 Camera Operations
Learning Objectives
➢ Understand different parts of digital cameras
➢ Understand terms related to photography and digital cameras
➢ Understand artistic principles related to photography
2.1 Introduction to Photography

Photography is the art of capturing information by recording light information on a radiation-sensitive
medium. These are photographic film rolls and digital image sensors, memory cards etc. There are
many cameras available in the market. Digital Camera, DSLR, Film Camera, SLR, Semi SLR, Handy
cam, Webcam etc.
2.2 DSLR Camera

Digital single-lens reflex cameras (digital SLR or DSLR) are digital cameras that use a mechanical
mirror system and pentaprism to direct light from the lens to an optical viewfinder on the back of the
camera. Wikipedia defines a pentaprism as follows, “A pentaprism is a five-sided reflecting prism
used to deviate a beam of light by a constant 90°, even if the entry beam is not at 90° to the prism.”
The beam reflects inside the prism twice, allowing the transmission of an image through a right angle
without inverting it as an ordinary right-angle prism or mirror would Refer to Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1State of the art digital cameras for still photography and movie shoot.

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2.3 Camera Parts

The important camera parts are Lens, viewfinder, shutter, flash, battery chamber, ISO control button,
LCD screen etc Refer to Figure 2.2
Figure 2.2 DSLR

2.3.1 Lenses
with the help of light. The lens used in digital, manual, handy cam or film camera is the same. The
difference is only in the design or the capacity. As per the camera mechanism, the light information
helps in capturing the image through the lens on a film or on digital memory cards. In some cameras
the lens is fixed permanently while in some they can be changed. There are different cameras based
on the focal length, aperture etc Refer to Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Lenses

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There are different types of lens, they are wide angle, telephoto, fish eye, tilt shift and macro lens.
2.3.1.1 Wide Angle Lens
In a wide angle lens the focal length is shorter than that of normal lens Refer to Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Wide Angle Lens
As a result the photographs have distortion in perspectives. The perspective lines converge more due
to wider field of view Refer to Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 Wide Angle Lens Photo

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2.3.1.2 Telephoto Lens

A lens that has a longer focal length and a narrow angle of view is called a telephoto lens. The view
is similar to using binoculars. The image is magnified making the subject appear closer than actual
Refer to Figure 2.6 and 2.7.
Figure 2.6 Telephoto Lens
Figure 2.7 Zoom with telephoto lens

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2.3.1.3 Fish Eye Lens

A fisheye lens is a wide-angle lens that takes an extremely wide, hemispherical image Refer to Figure
2.8.
Figure 2.8 Fish Eye Lens
2.3.1.4 Tilt Shift Lens

Lenses that provide shift of the object in a still image without moving the camera are known as shift
lenses. In some cases those which can also tilt are called tilt-shift lenses. It helps the photographer to
control the appearance of the perspective of the image Refer to Figure 2.9, 2.10.
Figure 2.9 Tilt Shift Lens

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Figure 2.10 Tilt Shift lens photo by Andy Mitchell
2.3.1.5 Macro Lens

The lens that is used for close-up photography of very small objects are known as macro lens Refer
to Figure 2.11 and 2.12.

Figure 2.11 Macro Lens Figure 2.12 Macro Lens photo

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Sometimes a lens hood or lens shade is used to block the sunlight or any other dominant light source.
It is done to prevent glare and lens flare Refer to Figure 2.13 and 2.14.
Figure 2.13 Lens Hood

Figure 2.14 Photograph with and without lens hood

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2.3.2 Shutter Button

In a camera the shutter button when pressed, it opens the shutter of the camera that then captures
the picture. The capturing of the image depends on for how long the shutter was open, which is called
the exposure time. The quality also depends on how much light was allowed to enter the camera. The
shutter speed is important and this can be increased or decreased Refer to Figure 2.15.
Figure 2.15 Shutter Button
2.3.3 Flash
A flash is an external device or inbuilt device in cameras. It produces a flash of artificial light (1/1000
to 1/200 of a second) at a color temperature of about 5500 degree Kelvin. It helps to illuminate a dark
or under lit scene. It can also be used to change the quality of light Refer to Figure 2.16, 2.17.
Figure 2.16 Flash light

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Figure 2.17 Photograph with and without flash
2.3.4 Viewfinder
The place through which the photographer looks through to focus and compose his frame is known as
viewfinder Refer to Figure 2.18.
Figure 2.18 Viewfinder in camera

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2.3.5 LCD Panel

It is a unique feature of all digital cameras. These are display panels which are used to review the
clicked photograph. It also serves as a bigger viewfinder. It also has menu buttons Refer to Figure
2.19.
Figure 2.19 LCD panel
2.3.6 Sensor
The image sensor converts an optical image to a digital electric signal. It is used mostly in DSLR
cameras and other imaging devices Refer to Figure 2.20.
Figure 2.20 Camera sensor
2.3.7 Aperture
An aperture is an opening through which light is allowed to enter the camera Refer to Figure 2.21.

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Figure 2.21Different aperture f/1.4 to f/16

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2.3.8 FOV (Field of View)

The field of view is the angular or linear view of our surroundings that we can see at any given
moment Refer to Figure 2.22.
Figure 2.22 Field of view
2.3.9 Focal Length

The focal length is a measure of how strongly the system focuses or diverges defocuses light in an
optical system Refer to Figure 2.23.
Figure 2.23 Focal length

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2.4 Important Technical Terms
2.4.1 Shutter Speed (Slow and Fast)

In cameras, shutter speed means the duration for which the shutter remains open when taking a
photograph. It is also called f-number), it controls the amount of light that reaches the film or the digital
sensor Refer to Figure 2.24.
Figure 2.24Photograph at different shutter speed

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2.4.2 Exposure
Exposure is the total amount of light allowed to fall on the photographic medium during the process of
taking a photograph. The medium can be film or digital sensor. It is measured in lux seconds Refer to
Figure 2.25.
Figure 2.25 Photograph with different exposure setting

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2.4.3 ISO
ISO stand for International Organization for Standardization. In earlier times film roles were numbered
between 100 to 1600. That number referred to the film’s sensitivity to light. The higher the number, the
more sensitive the film was to light. Low sensitivity meant that the film has to be exposed to light for
a longer period of time to expose the image. In DSLR cameras lower exposure to a higher sensitive
digital sensor leads to lower image quality. The higher the ISO, the more grains the image will have
Figure 2.26 Photograph with different ISO setting

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2.4.4 Color Balance
Color balance refers to the adjustment of the intensities of the digital colors primarily RGB. This is
useful to get images with particular neutral colors. This method of color adjustment is also known as
gray balance, neutral balance, or white balance Refer to Figure 2.27.
Figure 2.27 Photograph with different Color Balance
2.5 Types of Image Formats
2.5.1 JPEG
JPEG is a commonly used image format. But saving an image in this format compresses the quality of
the image considerably and also adds blur to the overall image sharpness.
2.5.2 RAW
These are also known as digital negatives. They are the image formats which are similar to the digital
data stored in the sensor of the camera itself. They are not processed data. Thus they are known as
RAW.

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2.5.3 HDRI
High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard photographs,
often using exposure bracketing, chrome ball and then merge them into an HDR image.
2.5.4 PSD
Default Photoshop format that supports most Photoshop features.
2.5.5 BMP
It is the standard windows image format. It supports RGB, bitmap, grayscale and index color modes.
2.5.6 GIF
Graphics interchange format, commonly used to display index color graphics and images in HTML
documents over the World Wide Web.
2.5.7 EPS
Encapsulated post script can contain both vector and bitmap graphics and is supported by all
graphics, illustration and page layout programs.
2.5.8 PNG
Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format is used for lossless compression and for display of images
on the web. Unlike GIF, PNG supports 24 bit images and produces background transparency without
jagged edges.
2.5.9 TIFF
Tagged-Image File Format (TIFF, TIF) is used to exchange files between applications and computer
platforms. TIFF is a flexible bitmap image format supported by virtually all paint, image-editing, and
page layout applications.
2.5.10 TGA
The Targa (TGA) format supports images of any dimensions with between 1 and 32 bits of color. It is
designed for True vision hardware, but it is also used in other applications.
2.5.11 PDF
Portable document format, displays and preserves fonts, page layouts, and both vector and bitmap
graphics.

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2.6 Aesthetics in Photography
Depth of Field
Depth of field is the distance between the objects that are closer to the camera and objects that are
far away from the camera. The objects that are closer to the camera tend to be sharper in quality.
Although the camera can focus on any particular object in the image, it can only follow one distance at a
time. The focused object is sharp and the other object in the distance tends to blur away Refer to Figure
2.28.
Figure 2.28 Photograph with Depth of Field

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Bokeh Effect
Bokeh is an aesthetic quality of the blur, in out-of-focus areas of an image or out-of-focus points of
light. Photographers sometimes deliberately use a shallow focus technique to create images with
prominent out-of-focus regions. Bokeh is often most visible around small background highlights,
such as specular reflections and light sources, which is why it is often associated with such areas.
However, bokeh is not limited to highlights; blur occurs in all out-of-focus regions of the image
Refer to Figure2.29
Figure 2.29 Photograph with Bokeh Effect
Conclusion

Understanding the different parts of the camera is equally important as understanding
the principle of photography. Understanding of the camera, coupled with appropriate
knowledge of exposure, light, shutter speed and lenses one can click interesting and
dramatic photographs. Even one who is attempting to make a film with the help of a
DSLR should shoot and edit his own film. This in turn helps in understanding the
aesthetics of film making as well as understanding the art of editing.
Things to Remember
¾¾ Digital cameras use a mechanical mirror system and pentaprism to direct light from the lens
to an optical viewfinder on the back of the camera.
¾¾ The focal length is a measure of how strongly the system focuses or diverges defocuses
light in an optical system.
¾¾ In cameras, shutter speed means the duration for which the shutter remains open when
taking a photograph.

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¾¾ Exposure is the total amount of light allowed to fall on the photographic medium during the
process of taking a photograph.
� Depth of Field and bokeh effects enhances the overall look and feel of the image.
Exercise
1. FOV stands for ______________.
a) Field of View
b) Far of View
c) Further of View
2. ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization.
a) True
b) False
3. A fisheye lens is a wide-angle lens that takes an extremely wide, hemispherical image.
a) True
b) False
4. DSLR stands for _________________.
a) Digital single-lens reflex cameras

b) Data single-lens cameras
c) Digital self loading reel cameras
5. A flash is an external device or inbuilt device in cameras.
a) True
b) False

chapter 3 Composition and Framing
Learning Objectives
➢ Understand the important features of composition and framing
➢ Make an artwork aesthetically strong based on color, shape, balance etc.
➢ Understand rule of third
➢ Make an image interesting by adding asymmetrical shapes, color varieties etc.
3.1 Introduction to Composition

Composition means creating an art form by the combination of different visual elements to form
a wholesome picture. These visual elements are a set of artistic principles. Composition is very
important in photography, film making and illustration in short any form of art which is visually
represented. Eventually we will discuss these principles in this chapter. These guide lines help us to
create balance in a picture and also draws the viewers attention to the subject. Below are the images
of two famous artworks Refer to Figure 3.1 and 3.2.
Figure 3.1 Painting by John Sergeant Figure 3.2 the Tetons and the Snake River (1942)
by Ansel Easton Adams
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The different principles of composition help us to determine the Centre of interest in the art work, be it
a photograph or a painting. The two most efficient rules of determining the centre of interest in an art
form are as follows:
3.2 Rule of Third

As per the rule of thirds an image is divided into equal thirds and the object of interest is placed on any
one of the four intersections Refer to Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 A subject as per the Rule of thirds
As per the rule of thirds divide the height and width of an image into 3 equal parts. Place the centre of
interest on the intersections marked by the blue circles Refer to Figure 3.4,3.5.
Figure 3.4 Grids and Intersections for Rule of thirds

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Figure 3.5 The same subject as per the Rule of thirds
The centre of interest is always placed on the intersections of the grids Refer to Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 Right vs. wrong centre of Interest

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3.3 Golden Section

The golden section is a mathematical way of dividing a frame into symmetrical divisions. In this meth-
od the centre of interest is determined by dividing each side of the frame into 13 divisions and then
count along 8 divisions Refer to Figure 3.7, 3.8.
Figure 3.7 Composition as per the Golden Section
Figure 3.8 Golden section plotting

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3.4 Important Aspects of Composition

The aspects of composition are the rules based on which composition of a frame can be fine tuned.
3.4.1 Balance and its Use

Balance in a composition means that the visual elements in the frame should have some sense of
influence. It is a natural feeling that large objects will influence more and smaller ones will influence less.
So when we put these two elements in an image they complement each other. A brighter object can be
complemented with darker object. Contrasting shapes can also form a composition Refer to Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9 Balance in Objects

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3.4.2 Dominance
Dominance refers to the importance of an object in an image. The amount of emphasis given to that
particular object gives it a dominant status in the frame. Dominance can be again bifurcated into two
types where an object is 100 percent dominant, secondary dominance where we have objects in the
middle ground and subordinate dominance where we have elements in the background as well Refer
to Figure 3.10, 3.11.
Figure 3.10 Singular dominant object in the scene
Figure 3.11 Objects of multiple dominance

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3.4.3 Travelling Object

Travelling object refers to subjects in motion in the frame. Sufficient space should be placed in front of
the object to amplify the motion Refer to Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12 Wrong vs. Right composition for a object in motion
3.4.4 Leading the Eye in Picture

One can use diagonal, shapes and elements to direct the viewer’s eyes into the composition. Railway
track, fences are excellent visual elements to lead the viewers eyes Refer to Figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13 Diagonal shapes and elements leading the eyes

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3.4.5 Paths for Eyes toTravel

One has to arrange objects in the frame so that the viewer’s eyes keep travelling the frame and does
not venture out Refer to Figure 3.14.
Figure 3.14 Viewer’s eye leading out of the image
The red line leads the eye in and the blue leads it out, thus the viewer looses interest.
The next image has is a good example to show the path for eye to travel in an image as the red line
leads the eye in and surrounding trees act as a block and does not allow the viewer to wander out of
the image Refer to Figure 3.15.
Figure 3.15 Viewer’s eye not leading out of the image

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3.4.6 Positioning and Linking Together in the Objects

In any composition with multiple objects of similar shapes and sizes is avoided as each object tries
to stand out against the background to achieve dominance in the image. Linking various objects of
different size and shape can bring harmony in the image Refer to Figure 3.16.
Figure 3.16 Grouped objects create more focus
3.4.7 Shapes in Composition

Interesting and asymmetrical shapes can heighten the viewer’s interest in an image. One should avoid
using squares, triangles and rectangles in a composition Refer to Figure 3.17, 3.18.
Figure 3.17 Rectangles and triangles create boring composition

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If we frame images with multiple shapes it appeals more to the viewer.
Figure 3.18 Composition with asymmetrical shapes
3.4.8 Color Perspectives

In landscape photography the sky gets warmer as it comes nearer to the horizon and the land gets
cooler as it pushes towards the horizon. There are two types of color in our environment i.e. warm
and cool colors and their association increases the depth of the composition. The next image shows a
standard color wheel which shows the cool and warm colors Refer to Figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19 Color Wheel

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Next we take a look at images with different color depths Refer to Figure 3.20.
Figure 3.20 Color Depth
3.5 Framing
Framing is a technique which is used to fix the viewer’s attention on the subject. It makes the image
aesthetically pleasing and keeps the viewer’s focus on the frame. It adds depth in an image Refer to
Figure 3.21.
Figure 3.21 Framing of an image

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The above image is a nice example of framing. It has elements leading the eyes inside the frame.
The tree on the right is dull and dark, so it blocks the viewer’s eyes to venture out. The eyes lead to a
brighter spot which again in turn fixes the viewers eyes at the centre. The canopy of the leaves also
help in keep the view fixed on the centre, even the characters are walking towards the brighter spot.
3.6 Important Aspects of Framing

The frame of an image is determined by many factors and they are together called aspects of framing.
They are as follows:
3.6.1 Depth of Field

Although the camera can focus on any particular object in the image, it can only follow one
distance at a time. The focused object is sharp and the other object in the distance tends to blur away
Figure 3.22 Depth Of Field

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3.6.2 White Space\ Empty Space

Negative space simplifies the image and draws the viewer’s attention to the subject. Empty spaces
works very well in photography Refer to Figure 3.23.
Figure 3.23 Use of empty or negative space in framing
3.6.3 Color and Lighting

Color and lighting enhances the mood in the frame. The main idea of lighting in films is to draw
attention of the audience to the subject. The mood of the film must be crafted with lighting. Sometimes
natural light does not give good exposure. Presenting an enhanced view of reality involves using
highly stylized lighting. With proper lighting setup the image will have more texture, depth and
contrast. Shadows are equally important as they can to enhance the look of the look and punch-up the
drama Refer to Figure 3.24.
Figure 3.24 Lighting Mood and conditions

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3.6.4 Lines and Shapes

Combination of asymmetrical and uneven shapes creates interesting framing Refer to Figure 3.25.
Figure 3.25 Lines and shapes
3.6.5 Simplicity
One can focus on small and every day things to create interesting framing. These details and events
from everyday life can make the viewer feel nostalgic and relate to an emotional level Refer to Figure
3.26.
Figure 3.26 Simplicity in photograph

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Next we will see how to enhance a simple frame.

Let us first see a simple image of an evening along the lake Refer to Figure 3.27.
Figure 3.27 Evening along a lake
This image basically has two elements, the lamp and the bushes towards the camera which can be termed
as foreground and the distant mountains which can be termed as background Refer to Figure 3.28
Figure 3.28 Two elements frame foreground and background

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Next we will add a boat in the middle of the lake Refer to Figure 3.29.
Figure 3.29 A boat in the middle of the lake
The addition of the boat now bifurcates the image into 3 distinct elements, the lamp and the bushes
towards the camera which can be referred as foreground, the boat which was placed in the middle as
the midground and the distant mountains which can be referred as background Refer to Figure 3.30.
Figure 3.30 Three distinct elements, frame foreground, mid and background

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The overall depth of the scene increase from the lamp to the horizon and overall the framing looks
more balanced and complete Refer to Figure 3.31.
Figure 3.31 Three distinct elements
3.6.6 Eye Level

One should get down to the level of the subject while taking its photograph. For example when one is
shooting a child, one should not shoot from his own height. This makes the child look like just a sub-
ject. If the shot is taken from the child’s level it gives a perspective of his world and makes him a part
of the surroundings Refer to Figure 3.32.
Figure 3.32 Camera at eye level of the subject

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The below photographs are of a leaf and the ant, where both seem to be of this world. They are given
emphasis and an attempt to view the world from their perspective. It is not how small they are but big
the world is Refer to Figure 3.33.
Figure 3.33 Camera at eye level of the subject
3.6.7 Frame Dimension and Direction

Photography framing is bound by dimensions of the frame. Before the advent of digital photography,
the photographs were with 3:2 height and width ratio. This is a standard for 35 mm film. Later with the
advancements in digital photography 4:3 height and width ratio has become more common even at
consumer level. This makes the image more horizontally expanded Refer to Figure 3.34.
Figure 3.34 Frame dimensions

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3.6.8 Horizontal vs. Vertical View

The natural human vision is more of a horizontal nature. That is the reason why most photographs are
composed and framed horizontally. Even the shape of the camera, viewfinder, or LCD panel gives a
natural approach to horizontal framing. Vertical images are more common for portrait photos where
one is directing the viewer to look at one subject at a time. Horizontal panels allow photography and
framing of multiple objects at a time Refer to Figure 3.35, 3.36.
Figure 3.35 Horizontal framing can incorporate multiple subjects
Figure 3.36 Vertical framing has less detailing

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Portrait Photography can efficiently by using both type of framing without losing details or interest
Refer to Figure 3.37
Figure 3.37 Horizontal and Vertical (Portrait) photography
3.6.9 Positioning within theFrame (Single and Multiple Subject)

A single subject is placed usually at the centre of the frame but if the subject is kept off-center, it breaks
the symmetry of the composition. This is basically adding drama to the scene with the help of visual
psychology. Multiple subjects need to be balanced and placed accordingly in a frame Refer to Figure
3.37, 3.38, 3.39.
Figure 3.37 Single vs. multiple subjects in a frame

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Figure 3.38 Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical placement of objects
Figure 3.39 The subject at the centre vs. the subject kept off centre
3.6.10 Visual Weight

Visual weight is the centre of interest, i.e. the subject in the frame. Frames are often emphasized with
vibrant colors and shapes to draw attention.Refer to Figure 3.40.
Figure 3.40 Visual weights through vibrant colors

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Many a times even the Face of the subject acts as an interesting visual element Refer to Figure 3.41.
Figure 3.41 Face as an interesting visual element
3.7 Do’s and don’ts in Composition and Framing

Composition and framing is about presenting a creative vision in an attractive and appealing
manner. There are a few do’s and don’ts based on which better aesthetic look can be achieved in ones
artworks. They are as follows
Do’s
1. The idea of creating an artwork is to express oneself, not to satisfy others.
2. For photography one should travel a lot to study different subjects, places and people.
3. Make compositions while taking an image; don’t waste time on idle planning. Take as many
photographs to experiment on compositions and framing.
4. Use lenses to match the framing and composition, not the other way around.
5. Avoid distracting backgrounds. Focus on the subject.
6. The photo should not have brighter edges so that the subject matter is over shadowed.
7. Find ways to enhance the light in the framing.
8. Understanding and achieving good framing takes time. One has to keep on experimenting.
9. Look for subjects which has well defined contour, color, shape etc. unless asked to photograph a
dull object.
10. Use the camera techniques with apt. One should not settle for less than ones best.

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Don’ts
1. One should not photograph any and every subject. One should focus to bring the best out in that
subject.
2. Don’t use tripods at first. The contraption takes time to arrange so one might have the urge to shoot
whatever he sees.
3. Do not compromise on good photography techniques.
4. One should not attempt to put all visual elements in one photo.
5. Don’t misuse the subject, either a person, landmark or nature.
6. One should not photograph objects with vibrant colors in harsh sunlight.
7. One should not always shoot a small subject from a higher perspective. For example a fallen leaf,
child or animal.
8. One should avoid symmetrical shapes and monotonous colors.
9. Out of focus foregrounds should be avoided, unless one wants to focus deliberately on the midground.
10. One should avoid using flash lights every time. It generates a flat lighting mood.
Conclusion
Anything done well with skill and care is an expression of art. Any form of art has
always been subject to individual interpretation. It is not always possible for an
artist to make the audience realize his true emotions behind that artwork. One should
always learn the rules and also be prepared to break any for the sake of self
expression. But one should always focus on healthy substance in their art works.

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Things to Remember
¾¾ Try to make the in image interesting by adding multiple shapes, color varieties, mid ground
objects etc.
¾¾ The subject should be kept off centre and as per the rule of thirds to create interesting
image.
¾¾ One should experiment with multiple subjects to achieve perfection.
Exercise
1. Dominance refers to the importance of an object in an image.
a) True
b) False
2. _______________simplifies the image and draws the viewer’s attention to the subject.
a) Negative space
b) Camera
c) Costume
3. One has to arrange objects in the frame so that the viewer’s eyes keep travelling the frame and
does venture out.
a) True
b) False
4. ___________________ shapes in composition is boring.
a) Symmetrical
b) Asymmetrical
c) Lateral
5. As per the rule of thirds an image is divided into equal thirds and the object of interest is placed on
any one of the four _________________.
a) Intersections
b) Corners
c) Points

chapter 4 Cinematography
Learning Objectives
➢ Understand role of cinematography for films
➢ Understand the importance of colors, lights, costumes and camera framing
➢ Know renowned cinematographers
➢ Understand different stages of digital film making
4.1 Introduction to Cinematography.
4.1.1 Cinematography
Cinematography means the camera placement, framing and light design while recording a film scene.
It is an important aspect of photography as well. The American Society of Cinematography defines
cinematography as “A creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of an original
work of art rather than the simple recording of a physical event. Cinematography is not a subcategory
of photography. Rather, photography is but one craft that the cinematographer uses in addition to
other physical, organizational, managerial, interpretive and image-manipulating techniques to effect
one coherent process.” Refer to Figure 4.1.

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Figure 4.1 Film Set with light and camera setup
In motion pictures cinematography is a unique feature. The art form dates back to the 19th century.
With the advent of time it has made great advancements in technology and aesthetic principles. The
art of cinematography emerged especially during the silent movie era. In earlier motion pictures there
were no sounds apart from background music, there were no dialogues hence these films were highly
dependent on lighting, acting and set designing to convey the story Refer to Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Old motion Picture shoot setup

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In 1919 one of the first trade societies was formed. It is known as The American Society of
Cinematographers (ASC). This society recognizes the cinematographer’s contribution to filmmaking
Figure 4.3 ASC Brochure
4.1.2 Cinematographer/Director of Photography

In layman’s language a cinematographer is a person who physically handles the camera and designs
the light setup at the shoot locations. He is the one who will be shooting the feature film personally.
He is also known as Director of photography (DOP). He is responsible for both artistic and technical
decisions Refer to Figure 4.4.

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Figure 4.4 Director of Photography in action
As the art of cinematography evolved, a separation between director and camera operator was
needed. The director needs to supervise the entire production, pre to post, acting, choreography, set
designing, editing, post production etc. So to ease the work load a specialized person was introduced
who would handle the camera and light designs. Again the DOP needs to be a specialist in optics, film
stocks, filters, lenses, light types and settings. The director might not be of a technical background. His
expertise is more aesthetics and art based Refer to Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5 Camera and Light setup

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4.2 Aspects of Cinematography

Numerous aspects contribute to the art of cinematography. They are as follows:
4.2.1 Film Stock
In earlier times film cameras had film rolls. Now the new digital cameras use image sensors to capture
image and memory cards to store data. But during the time of film rolls the selection of a film stock
was one of the first decisions. The film stocks were classified as follows 8 mm (amateur), 16 mm (semi
professional), 35 mm (professional) and 65 mm (Feature length). The larger the film gauge, the higher
the overall image resolution, clarity and technical quality Refer to Figure 4.6 and 4.7.
Figure 4.6 Film Stock
Figure 4.7 Memory cards and disc storage
4.2.2 Filters
Filters are used to improve mood or dramatic effects in a scene. Filters can be used in front of the lens.
The filters are made up of two pieces of optical glass glued together. The most distinctive filters are
diffusion and color filters. Diffusion filters have an image or light treatment material between the
glasses. In color filters, there is a translucent color medium between the glasses. They are used to
block out certain color wavelengths of light from reaching the film Refer to Figure 4.8, 4.9.

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Figure 4.8 various ffilters for camera lenses
Figure 4.9 Output using various filters
4.2.3 Lenses
with the help of light. The lens used in digital, manual, handy cam or film camera is built on similar
technology hence their behaviour is similar in nature. The difference is only in the design or the
capacity. As per the camera mechanism, the light information helps in capturing the image through the lens
on a film or on digital memory cards. In some cameras the lens is fixed permanently while in some they can
be changed. There are different cameras based on the focal length, aperture etc. There are different types
of lens, they are wide angle, telephoto, fish eye, tilt shift and macro lens Refer to Figure 4.10

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Figure 4.10 Lenses
4.2.4 Depth of Field

Although the camera can focus on any particular object in the image, it can only follow one
distance at a time. The focused object is sharp and the other object in the distance tends to blur away.
Figure 4.11 Depth of Field

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4.2.5 Aspect Ratio

The ratio of the width and height of an image is known as the Aspect ratio.This can be shown as a
ratio of two numbers, for example 4:3. It can also be shown in a decimal format, for example 1:33:1 or
simply 1.33. Different ratios have different aesthetic appeal Refer to Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12 Different aspect ratios
4.2.6 The Rule of Thirds

As per this rule the image is divided into equal thirds and the centre of intersection is placed on any
one of the four intersections. As per the rule of thirds divide the height and width into 3 equal parts.
Place the centre of interest on the intersections marked by the blue circles. The centre of interest is
always placed on the intersections of the grids Refer to Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.13 Framing as per rule of thirds

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4.2.7 The 180 Degree Rule

In filmmaking the 180 degree rule suggests the screen association between two characters in a frame.
A made-up line exists between the two characters. In a shot the camera can only be placed on one
side of the axis. In that shot if the camera is placed on both side of the axis it is called jumping the line
or crossing the line which is very disturbing to the viewer Refer to Figure 4.14.
Figure 4.14 Framing as per The 180 Degree Rule
4.2.8 Script and Storyboards

Script is basically the story of the film, television series or commercial. It is later re written as a
screen play which contains camera angles, shots, dialogues, time, duration etc. Storyboarding is the
presentation of a sequence of graphic images or drawings created to describe the content of a film
(animated and live action), short films, television commercials or teleserials. These drawings are Pre
Visualizations of the content in that film or commercials. It describes in details the time of the day,
location, actions performed by characters colour schemes. In case of animated or live action film it
also mentions other visual elements present before the actual shoot begins. Once the script and the
screenplay are written, the next step is to make a storyboard. This visually tells the story like a comic
book Refer to Figure 4.15.

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Figure 4.15 Script and Storyboards
4.2.9 Framing Camera Angles

Framing is a technique which is used to fix the viewer’s attention on the subject. It makes the image
aesthetically pleasing and keeps the viewer’s focus on the frame. It adds depth in an image Refer to
Figure 4.16.
Figure 4.16 Framing Camera angles

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4.2.10 Camera Movement

Camera movements are used to heighten the interest and to convey the right mood in the scene.
They are also used to guide the audience. Camera movement as the name suggests is the physical
movement of the camera in the scene Refer to Figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17 Camera movement Equipments
4.2.11 Lighting
Lighting in film helps the audience to focus on the subject, identify the action area and understand
the mood of that particular scene. Shadows and contrasts can enhance the drama and tension in the
scene Refer to Figure 4.18.
Figure 4.18 Light moods

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4.2.11 Costumes
Costumes are the dresses and apparels worn by actors during the film. The costumes should be
according to the time period, cultural background, social status, profession etc Refer to Figure 4.19.
Figure 4.19 Costumes for Films
4.2.12 Set Designing

Set designing refers to the building of artificial sets for historical films, because the original backdrops
doesn’t sexist in reality anymore. For outdoor locations ample of travelling and research is done to find
the perfect location. Even when a location or a house is chosen it is fitted with appropriate props and
furniture’s as per the story Refer to Figure 4.20.
Figure 4.20 Set Designing

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4.2.13 SFX, VFX and Post Production

➢ Elements of weather like rain, lighting, special make up for characters, animatronics, and
optical illusions in film making are together termed as Special Effects abbreviated as SFX Refer to
Figure 4.21.
Figure 4.21 Costumes and animatronics used in films
¾¾ The various processes by which the shoot footage can be manipulated and enhanced with
3d elements are together termed as Visual effects abbreviated as VFX. The shot footage is
also merged with 3d elements; characters shot with green screen as a background can be
replaced with 3d or live shoot backgrounds as well Refer to Figure 4.21.
Figure 4.22 Croma removal in VFX

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� Post production is the final stage of the film making process, where color corrections is
done, the tonal values of the footage is enhanced, the final dubbed sound and background
score are put to use. This process also includes Editing and Digital Integration i.e. DI Refer to
Figure 4.21. Figure 4.23.
Figure 4.23 Post production in films

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4.3 Famous Cinematographers and their works
Figure 4.24 Gordon Willis
Figure 4.25 Sven Nykvist

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Figure 4.26 Vittorio Storaro
Figure 4.27 Vilmos Zsigmond

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Figure 4.28 Santosh Shivan
4.4.Stages of Digital Film Production

4.4.1 Pre Production
¾¾ Film Concept
¾¾ Script
¾¾ Screenplay
¾¾ Storyboard
¾¾ Budget
¾¾ Finalizing the cast & crew
¾¾ Finalizing the locations
¾¾ Creating artworks for set design and costumes
¾¾ Equipments (Camera, Lights, Costumes, Props, Makeup)
4.4.2 Production
¾¾ Film Shoot
4.4.3 Post Production
¾¾ Sound
¾¾ SFX, VFX, Color Correction
¾¾ Final Render
¾¾ Credit
¾¾ Editing
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Conclusion
One has to be careful about the action area and give special care to it. The
cinematographer’s prime job is to make the audience feel the emotions in the story
by making them see what he wants to show. The cinematographer must always
work with accordance to the director.
Things to Remember
¾¾ Color and Light enhances the scenes mood.
¾¾ Ample importance should be given to the camera framing and angles so that it does not
confuse the audience.
¾¾ One should always keep in mind the 180 degree rule.

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Exercise
1. In filmmaking the __________degree rule suggests the screen relationship between two characters
in a frame.
a) 360
b) 125
c) 180
2. ASC stands for __________________.
a) Archaeological survey of California

b) American society of cinematographers
c) Aesthetic society of cinematographers
3. Filters are used to block out certain color wavelengths of light from reaching the film.
a) True
b) False
4. The ratio of the width and height of an image is known as the ______________.
a) Actual ratio
b) Aspect ratio
c) Authentic ratio
5. Shadows and contrasts can enhance the drama and tension in the scene.
a) True
b) False

chapter 5 Camera Shots and Angles
Learning Objectives
➢ Learn efficient methods of image composition
➢ Understand the important of camera angles and shots
5.1 Introduction to Camera Shots

A shot is a series of frames that runs uninterrupted for particular time duration. In layman’s term it can
be said that a shot is the moment a camera starts shooting and until the moment the camera stops.
Shots are important part of filmmaking. They have to be carefully framed while shooting. While editing
the mood and emotion is enhanced with the help of transitions and cuts.
5.2 Different Types of Camera Shots

The varieties of camera shots used in film making are as follows:
5.2.1 Extreme Long Shot

An extreme long shot places the camera is extremely far away from the subject to capture a greater
area of view. It can be used as an establishing shot Refer to Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1Extreme long shot

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5.2.2 Long Shot

In a long shot the camera is kept far away from the subject to capture a larger area of view. A long
shot establishes the place and action of that scene. It can also be used as an establishing shot Refer
to Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Long Shot

5.2.3 Mid Shot
Mid shots are usually framed for a single actor till waist height. For group shots with many people in it,
two shot- with just two actors (a conversation) and over the shoulders shot Refer to Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 Mid Shot

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Over the shoulders shot is a powerful way of shooting a scene as it effectively lends itself to be cut to
a close up shot without any jerk and hence a smooth transition is achieved Refer to Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Over the shot shoulder
5.2.4 Close up Shot

A Close up shot is an important element of films. A close up shot if overused can end up like a talking
heads movie. Mostly close up shot helps to achieve immediate intimacy Refer to Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 Close up shot

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5.2.5 Extreme Close Up

Extreme Close up of a characters face, or lips and eyes to show subtle changes in the expression
helps build a strong connection with the performance and if cut smoothly to a medium shot to reveal
strong body gestures, it can make the action look very effective Refer to Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6 Extreme Close up
5.3 Introduction to Camera Angles

The camera angle means the specific location and position of the camera to film a shot. The scene
can be shot from several camera angles. The different camera angles will have different effects on the
viewer and how they perceive the scene that is shot.
5.4 Different types of Camera Angles

The varieties of camera shots used in film making are as follows:
5.4.1 High Angle
When the subject of the scene or the character is shot from a height more than that of the sub-
ject it is known as a High angle. This shot can establish the mood that the character is being
looked down upon by others. The character is trapped in a situation. Such a shot is used to show a
character is insignificant or powerless. It can also be used to show the surrounding of a character if he is
standing on a higher ground. On the other hand this shot can be used to show a character leaving a
huge architectural structure or as a conqueror standing on the spoils of war Refer to Figure 5.7.

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Figure 5.7 High Angle
5.4.2 Low Angle

This angle increase height of subjects. It heightens importance of subject and the audience might feel
dominated by the onscreen character Refer to Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8 Low Angle

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5.4.3 Oblique Angle

This angle is basically a lateral tilt of the frame. This angle suggests tension, instability, suspense in
the shot Refer to Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9 Oblique Angle
5.4.5 Dutch Angle

The Dutch angle, also known as Dutch tilt is a type of angle where the camera is tilted off to one side so
that the shot is composed with vertical lines at an angle to the side of the frame Refer to Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10 Dutch Angle

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5.4.4 Eye Level

An eye-level shot also known as a neutral shot is when the camera is level or looking straight on with
the subject. It has little to no psychological effect on the audience Refer to Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11 Eye Level
5.4.5 Bird’s Eye

Also known as aerial view or aerial viewpoint; refers to any view from a great height or even at a wide
angle. For instance when looking from an airplane window or from a mountain top Refer to Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12 Bird’s eye View

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5.4.6 Point Of View (POV)

A shot when taken with the camera placed around the character’s eyes which would be showing what
the character would see. Horror films and thrillers often use POV shots to suggest a frightening and
unseen presence in the scene. Films that use many point-of-view shots tend toward dynamic and
non-naturalistic style. POV angles generally are used so that the audiences are encouraged to relate
with characters Refer to Figure 5.13.
Figure 5.13 Point of view angle

Conclusion:
Efficient Cinematography is a combination of the angles and shots described above.

Mise en scene refers to all the objects and characters in a particular frame. It
basically refers to the composition of the frame. We talk about the director who has
placed all the elements of the scene within the frame.
Things to Remember
¾¾ A camera shot is the amount of space that is seen in one shot or frame.
¾¾ Camera shots are used to demonstrate different aspects of a film’s setting, characters and
themes.
¾¾ Oblique angles and Dutch camera angles can increase the drama in the scene.
¾¾ High angle shots can also be used when a character is entering a huge architectural
structure.
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Exercise
1. Oblique angle is basically a lateral tilt of the frame.
a) True
b) False
2. Mid shots are usually framed for a single actor till waist height.
a) True
b) False
3. A shot is a series of frames that runs uninterrupted for particular time duration.
a) True
b) False
4. When the subject of the scene or the character is shot from a height more than that of the subject it
is known as a __________.
a) Right angle
b) High angle
c) Low angle
5. In a ______________ the camera is kept far away from the subject to capture a larger area of view.
a) Long Shot
b) Mid Shot
c) Upper shot

chapter 6 Camera Movements
Learning Objectives
➢ Understand the types of camera movements in films
➢ Use camera movements to enhance the action in the scene
➢ Understand the camera notations used to convey a type of camera movement
6.1 Introduction to Camera Movement

Director’s use camera movement to shape meaning to the shots. Camera movements are used to
shape meaning in films. They are often used to enhance the action or drama in the scene. Camera
movement basically means physical movement of the camera setup during film shoot. It creates a
sensation in the audience by making them feel a part of the scene. There is no particular example of
a film which can be cited as an example which had the first camera movement in film history. By the
early 1900’s cameras were mounted on swivel heads which were used to create pan shots. In silent
film era the camera movement was not a notable feature. It was only during the German expressionist
cinema movement where it was accepted as a major creative expression.
6.2 Types of Camera Movement
6.2.1 Tilt
Tilt is the movement of the camera up or down while keeping its horizontal axis constant. It is similar
to how a person nods his head to say yes Refer to Figure 6.1 and 6.2.

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Figure 6.1 Tilt camera movement
Figure 6.2 Camera tilt first and last frame

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6.2.2 Pan
It is the movement of the camera from one side or another, but keeping its pivot fixed to a point. In
pan the camera is static only the frame is rotated left to right, up down or vice versa Refer to Figure
6.3 and 6.4.
Figure 6.3 Pan camera movement
Figure 6.4 Camera Pan first and last frame

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6.2.3 Dolly
The actual physical movement of the camera towards or away from the subject is called camera dolly.
Heavier cameras were laid on dolly tracks and thus the name Refer to Figure 6.5 and 6.6.
Figure 6.5 Dolly camera movements
Figure 6.6 First and last frame shoot with camera Dolly
6.2.4 Truck
Trucking is the physical movement of the camera from left to right or vice versa. It should not be confused
with camera pan, because in camera tracking the camera is moving perpendicular to the frame. In pan the
camera is static only the frame is rotated left to right Refer to Figure 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9.

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Figure 6.7 Truck camera movements
Figure 6.8 First and last frame shoot with camera Truck
Figure 6.9 Heavy camera mounted on trolleys

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6.2.5 Hand Held

In hand held shots the camera is not mounted on a tripod but carried by the camera man himself. It is
done for the ease of movement. It also give a natural and realistic look to the footage. Sometimes in
war movies and horror films hand held cameras are used to frame jerky camera movements Refer to
Figure 6.10 and 6.11.
Figure 6.10 Hand held Camera
Figure 6.11 Hand held camera shots

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6.2.6 Crane
A crane shot is used to signify the end of a film or scene. This is done by the camera being put on a
crane that can move in all directions Refer to Figure 6.12.
Figure 6.12 Camera mounted on crane
6.2.7 Zoom
It is changing the focal length of the lens to make the subject appear closer or further away in the
frame. This can be used to direct viewer’s attention to some specific part in the scene. Zooming in and
zooming out often used as directing the audience’s eyes. In both situations the camera position is not
changed Refer to Figure 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16.

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Figure 6.13 Zoom in shot
Figure 6.14 First and last frame shoot with camera zoom in

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While working with camera zoom out the result is just the opposite to zoom in.
Figure 6.15 Camera zoom out
Figure 6.16 First and last frame shoot with camera zoom out
6.2.8 Aerial
The camera is taken up in the high air either in a helicopter or a plane to shoot from a greater height.
It gives a huge perspective Refer to Figure 6.17.

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Figure 6.17 Aerial camera shoot
Conclusion
Every camera movement has a different effect on the psyche of the audience. So
one has to be careful about the fact that the camera movements in the shots should
sync with the action and mood of the scene. For example a pan up is always a
hopeful shot, where the camera pans from the ground to the sky.
Things to Remember
¾¾ Synching the camera movement with the shot and the frame.
¾¾ Different camera angles conveys a certain mood.
¾¾ The movement of the physical camera is sometimes important not just the axis of the camera.

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Exercise
1. _________________ done by the camera being put on a crane that can move upwards.
a) Standby shot
b) Crane shot
c) Opposite shot
2. The actual physical movement of the camera towards or away from the subject is called camera
dolly.
a) True
b) False
3. In hand held shots the camera is not mounted on a tripod but carried by the camera man himself.
a) True
b) False
4. Zoom can be used to direct viewer’s attention to some specific part in the scene.
a) True
b) False
5. In_____________ the camera is static only the frame is rotated left to right, up down or vice versa.
a) Zoom
b) Dolly
c) Pan

chapter 7 Lighting in Cinematography
Learning Objectives
➢ Describe the importance of lighting in cinematography
➢ Understand types and stylizations of light setups
➢ Learn the use of 3 point lighting in films
7.1 Objective of Lighting

The main idea of lighting in films is to draw attention of audience to the subject. Cinematography is
not only about making the onscreen actors visible and photographing them but also the mood of the
film must be crafted with lighting. Sometimes natural light does not give good exposure. Even on a full
moon night artificial lights are required to shoot films. Presenting an enhanced view of reality involves
using highly stylized lighting. With proper lighting setup the image will have more texture, depth and
contrast. Shadows are equally important as they can to enhance the look of the look and punch-up
the drama.
7.2 Lighting Design

Sometimes film sets may seem over-lit. This is done to achieve natural look for the film. The reason
why artificial lights are necessary in filmmaking is because in films both film roll and digital sensors do
not respond to light the same way our eyes do. If we shoot a scene without artificial lights, the shadows
will go completely black while the highlights might be completely white. For a scene to look natural, the
only option is to have enough light to make film properly capture the image.

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There are two primary types of light design. They are as follows:
7.2.1 Realistic Lighting Design

This means that the light source is visible on screen. The source of light can be seen by the audience,
be it a window or an artificial light source Refer to Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Realistic light design
7.2.2 Pictorial Lighting Design

This means that though the subject is lit by a source of light, the source itself cannot be seen. This is
done to enhance dramatic effect in the scene. It is often used as symbolism Refer to Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 Pictorial lighting designs

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7.3 Lighting Styles

Every lighting technique has a particular effect on the audience. Sometimes shadows enhance the
mood, and sometimes they might make a happy scene look too dramatic. Backlight is important
else the subject tends to look muddy. Lighting a negative character from the bottom enhances the
negative aspect more. There is no straightforward relationship between lighting technique and the
effect it achieves. The rules and principles keep evolving with new films.
7.3.1 Hard Light

Hard light creates high contrast and fast fall-off of the light Refer to Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3 Hard Light
7.3.2 Soft Light

Soft light creates a diffused or scattered lighting effect. They are mainly achieved by using different
types of deflectors Refer to Figure 7.4.

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Figure 7.4 Soft Light
7.4 Three Point Light Setup

Three Point Lighting setup is a common method of character lighting in films, both live action and 3d
animation. Three point lighting is also used for photography, television serials, interviews etc. The
three point lighting method uses three primary lights. They are called the key light, fill light and back
light. One will need minimum three lights for this method of lighting.
Below is an example where we can see the usage of this method. In a three point light model we have
three lights, the Key, Fill and Back light. The main light is known as the Key light Refer to Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5 Key Light

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The key light is the most important light and its placement influences the placement of other lights. Key
light defines the volume of the subject. But the above image lacks details in the shadow areas. To fix
this we have to add additional light, which we know as fill light Refer to Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 Fill Light
The fill light is used to light up those areas of the image which are in shadow areas. The fill light is
placed opposite the key light. The intensity of the fill light is less than the Key light.
The above image has more volume, depth and detail. But the character cannot be separated from
the background. In order to counteract this we can add a rim light or back light. The intensity of this
light is high, sometimes more than the key light. It creates a line of bright light along the contour of the
character. This separates the character from the background.
Now let us compare all three lights together Refer to Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7 Key, fill and back light

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The rim light has lifts the character from the background. The image has contrast and a good range of
tones from black through to white. We can desaturate the images and take a look at the tonal values
Figure 7.8 Tonal value of the image
7.5 Light Schemes

This basically refers to the amount of light intensity present for various shots. This variation in lighting
intensity can be achieved by using various lights.
7.5.1 High Key

High key uses an abundance of light and has few shadows and low contrast Refer to Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9 High Key

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7.5.2 Low Key

Shots with Low key lighting are purposely under-lit. The darkness in the shoot complements the mood
and the situation in the film Refer to Figure 7.10.
Figure 7.10 Low Key
7.6 Lighting Continuity

Cinematographers always try to maintain even lighting levels from scene to scene. Continuity is
consistency of the light (day\night) and mood it creates (sad\happy) seen by the film audience during a
particular scene. It is one of the most important features of lighting in films. Lighting continuity is major
concern in the production of film and television serials. The director of photography keeps notes on the
types of lights used for a particular scene and mood.
Conclusion
Soothing or dramatic lighting can be achieved by adjusting the relationship between

the color balance and the artificial lights. The location of the light and the placement
of the camera equally help in enhancing the lighting mood and tonal values in the
scene. One has to develop a sharp understanding of colors and their relationships.
Mixing color temperatures can create beautiful color schemes.

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Things to Remember
¾¾ Use of three point lighting adds volume to the character by enhancing depth and adding
texture detail.
¾¾ Use of rim light is important to make the subject stand out from the background.
¾¾ Use of soft or hard light will affect the mood of the scene.
¾¾ Shadow patterns always enhance the drama.
Exercise
1. ____________creates a diffused or scattered lighting effect.
a) Soft light
b) Hard light
c) Cool light
2. In pictorial light design though the subject is lit by a source of light, the source itself cannot be seen.
a) True
b) False
3. The job of the fill light is to illuminate those areas of the image which are in shadow when the key
light is placed.
a) True
b) False
4. In a typical three point light model we have three lights, the Key, Fill and Back light.
a) True
b) False
5. ___________ uses an abundance of light and has few shadows and low contrast.
a) Low key
b) High key
c) Mid key

chapter 8 Costume and Set Design
Learning Objectives
➢ Understand the need for costume design
➢ Use different types of costume designs
➢ Understand aspects of set design for theaters
➢ Understand aspects of set design for films
8.1 Introduction to Costume Design

Costume designing refers to the making and designing of clothes of a character in a film or theatrical
production. This design is the overall appearance of the character. Each costume should be specific
to the nation, time period and social status Refer to Figure 8.1, 8.2.
Figure 8.1 Costumes based on social status (Royal, Celebrity)

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Figure 8.2 Costumes based on social status (Commoners)
Most of the designs are to done to amplify the characters personality. It can also provide a class for the
character and sometimes protection. It is basically a medium to express an art form for films, theatres
etc Refer to Figure 8.3, 8.4.
Figure 8.3 Costumes to define class

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Figure 8.4 Costumes for protection
Four types of costumes are designed in films and theatrical productions. They are historical, fantasy,
dance, and modern Refer to Figure 8.5, 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8.
Figure 8.5 Costumes based on historical periods

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Figure 8.6 Costumes based on Fantasy
Figure 8.7 Costumes for Dancers
Figure 8.8 Ethnic and modern costumes

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8.1.1 Costume Design Process
The basic costume designing stages are as follows:
¾¾ Analysis: The first step is the analysis of the screenplay
¾¾ Design Collaboration: The second step involves brain storming with concept artists
to discuss designs.
¾¾ Costume Research: The next stage is the research done on the costumes based on
nationality, class, period etc.
¾¾ Preliminary Sketching and Color Layout: Basic drawings and designs are done
from the research materials.
Final Sketches: The final concept art of the costumes are discussed and finalized with the
Director and DOP Refer to Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9 Costume design artworks
8.1.2 Costume constructionProcess:

There are two methods by which a costume is constructed. Sometimes both the methods are used
together as well. They are as follows:
� Pattern Drafting: In this method the first the measurements of the actor is noted. They
are drawn out on paper. Then these measurements are transferred onto fabric and sewn
together. This method basically designs using a set of basic pattern blocks Refer to Figure 8.10.

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Figure 8.10 Costumes made by Pattern Drafting
¾¾ Draping: In this method the fabric or the dress form is constructed on a mannequin.These
mannequins have rough measurements of the target actors. In this method the fabrics is
draped around a mannequin, i.e. around a three dimensional object and then worked upon
Figure 8.11 Costumes made by Draping method

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8.2 Role of Costume Designer

A costume designer is a person who designs costumes for a film or a theatrical production. Their
primary task is to create costumes that can balance the scenes with texture and color, etc. They
work in accordance with the Director of Photography and the Director of the film. Freelance costume
designers are hired for a specific production for a specific duration, based on a contract. A residential
designer is hired by a particular theatre for an extended series of productions. An academic designer
or a student can work on their internships with film and theatrical productions Refer to Figure 8.11.
Figure 8.12.
Figure 8.12 Costume designer on floor
8.3 Introduction to Set Designing

The set designers come from a variety of artistic backgrounds, like artists, painters, sculptors,
architects etc. A designer looks at concept. He does research on the visual elements required for
the films and finally creates detailed versions of the scenery. The set designer works with the film
Director Of Photography etc. He also creates sets of drawings that include the ground plan for the scenic
elements. He also uses 3-D CAD model of the set design Refer to Figure 8.11. Figure 8.13.

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Figure 8.13 Set designers
8.4 Set designing for Theatres

In theaters the space is confined only to the stage. Under this space restriction, complete rooms,
streets, cafes and every imaginable set are constructed for plays and theatres Refer to Figure 8.11.
Figure 8.14.
Figure 8.14 Set Design for theatres
8.5 Set designing for Films

Film sets are mostly constructed in studio backstage. Craftsmen, carpenters, designers are employed
for set designing and construction. A prop making workshop is set up in a similar stage. The coordinator
reports to the art director and production designer and is in charge of budgeting and implementing the
designs Refer to Figure 8.11.

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Figure 8.15 Set Design for Films
Conclusion:
One should read the script thoroughly to understand the locations and the settings
needed. One has to understand the geographical, time and cultural settings. One
should do ample research from previously done films and theaters. Locations should
also help in carrying the story forward. One has to even list down the props in the
films as per the time period and geographical settings.
Things to Remember
¾¾ Each costume should be specific to the nation, time period and social status.
¾¾ Preliminary Sketching and Color Layout are important for costume designing where basic
drawings and designs are done from the research materials.
¾¾ Set designer does research on the visual elements required for the films and finally creates
detailed versions of the scenery.

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Exercise
1. _______________refers to the making and designing of clothes of a character in a film or theatrical

production.
a) Costume designing
b) Prop designing
c) Scenery designing
2. In ____________ method measurements of the actor is noted to make costumes.
a) Casual drafting
b) Print drafting
c) Pattern drafting
3. Set designer uses ______________models of the set design.
a) Print
b) Painting
c) 3-D CAD
4. Film sets are often constructed in backstage area.
a) True
b) False
5. Craftsmen, carpenters, designers are employed for ___________________.
a) Spot boy
b) Modeling
c) Set designing

9
Story Development and
chapter
Screenplay
Learning Objectives
➢ Learn the important terms related to story development
➢ Describe screen play
➢ Understand the important points for character development in a story
➢ Use different elements of screen play
9.1 Introduction to Screen Writing

Script writing/screenwriting is the art of writing scripts for mass medias such as movies, television
serials, comic books, graphic novels and games. The person who writes such a thing is known as a
screen writer or a script writer. He has to do research on the story, write narratives, dialogues and
screenplay in a particular format. The writer has a great deal of impact on the creative as well as the
emotional aspect of the screenplay. Script writers are mostly freelancers and they work on a variety
of projects like comics and graphic novel concepts, literary pieces, true stories, historical, fictions and
non fictions, documentaries etc Refer to Figure 9.1.

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Figure 9.1 Example of a Screenplay
9.2 Story Development

There are many opinions about what makes a good story. However there might be a few points which
one should keep in mind while attempting to write a story.
¾¾ It should touch the audience emotionally. It should have a sense of truth and basic universal
aspects of being human. It should move the audience, make them laugh, think, and ponder
over it later.
¾¾ A good story must have substance. This is the base on which the entire structure is erected.
Any audience likes to see a purpose and direction.
¾¾ It should have conflict and resolution. By this we mean that the central character has to face
undefeatable odds. Circumstances, events or other characters should be blocking the main
characters journey.

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¾¾ It should have well defined main characters. The course of action taken that signifies
personal growth and change always influences the audience.
¾¾ A good story creates vivid images. This means that it should have sufficient opportunity to
create scenic beauties, manmade marvels or depict forces of nature. Even the drama and
traits of the characters should leave an everlasting impression on the audience.
¾¾ A good story does not give the solution very simply. The hero or the heroine has to undergo
personal growth, self conflict, dejection, great deeds to overcome the obstacles set in their
path.
¾¾ A good story is a story that we love and love to tell as well. This is another way of writing
a story where we take influences from classics, epics etc. One should also use lot of
personal experience and observations to write a story.
9.3 Aspects of Story Development

The aspects of story development are as follows:
9.3.1 Plot
The plot of a story means what happens in the story. It is the sequence of events. It is the literal step
by step actions in the story.
9.3.2 Three Act Structure

Scripts and screenplays follow a three-act structure. This means the basic story can be divided into
three parts:
¾¾ Introduction and Setup: The introduction of a story establishes the time period,
location (geographical settings), main characters etc.
¾¾ Conflicts and Confrontations:

Conflict: To make a story appealing and exciting, the writer creates obstacles that the
main character will have to overcome. When the main character wants to achieve
something they must overcome obstacles .This creates a drama of opposing forces i.e.
conflict. Conflict is basically struggling for power in big or small ways.

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¾¾ Resolution and Climax: Resolution of the story means that the loose ends are tied
up, the mysteries are revealed and the problems are solved. The climax is the highest
point of interest in a story. The climax is the high point of the action, and is often a turning
point in terms of plot and the story’s characters. Resolution and climax are part of the third
act of the story Refer to Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2 Story Flow
9.3.3 Protagonist and Antagonist

Protagonist is the central or the leading character of the story. The antagonist is the person who
opposes, competes and creates obstacles in the protagonist’s path. The antagonist does not always
have to be a character; it can be an animal, circumstances or even nature Refer to Figure 9.3
Figure 9.3 Protagonist vs. Antagonist

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9.4 Character Development

One of the first and foremost principles of character creation is the story. The idea of the
character comes from this storyline. This aspect of story is common for any medium, be it animation film,
comics or illustrations for books. The story deals directly with the personality, age, physical features
of the character.
9.4.1 Character Traits

The characters in any story help in enhancing the story i.e. they should always carry the story
forward. The character design should give the audience clues about the story as well as their own
personal traits for e.g. confidence, honesty, integrity, hobbies etc. Physical traits are equally important for
character development for e.g. tall, short, dark, fair, blonde, brunette etc.
9.4.2 Back Story

Back story of the character refers the background of the character. These are basically a set of
questions one should ask before heading for the design table. Some of these questions are what is
the nationality or cultural background of the character? Is the character an orphan or does he has a
family? Is the character brave or timid? Is the character funny or serious? Is his life a tragedy or
struggle?
9.4.3 Character Arc

This refers to the traits of the character as they unfold through the story. Characters at the beginning
of the story have certain viewpoints and beliefs. Due to the circumstances and events their beliefs
and viewpoints change. For example the protagonist might be scared while facing obstacles at the
beginning of the story, but exhibit great courage at a climax and overcome challenges as a resolution.
9.5 Synopsis and Loglines

A brief summary of the plot or a story is called a synopsis. It should contain all the major points
of story. It can range between paragraphs to just a few lines. Loglines is basically one-sentence
summary of your script. A logline helps a writer to maintain focus on the story as he writes.
9.6 Treatment and Themes

The treatment is a rough overview of the script and is similar to a short story. It describes the main
actions. Sometimes brief dialogues can be included to emphasize important situations of the story.
The theme is the central idea of the story. Short stories are based on a single theme whereas novels,
films have multiple themes.

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9.7 Screenplay
The written work of screen writers for a film or television program is called screen play. These
screenplays can be original works or adaptations from existing pieces of writing. In them the
movement, actions, expression, and dialogues of the characters are also narrated. A play for television
is also known as a teleplay.
Screenplay Elements
¾¾ Scene Heading: One line description of the time of the day, location. It is also called a
Slug line.
¾¾ Sub Header: A sub header is used when there is a inter cut but not a new scene.
¾¾ Action: The action that is taking place in the shot is written down.
¾¾ Character: The characters taking part in the shot are mentioned.
¾¾ Dialogue: Dialogues, voice over’s mentioned.
¾¾ Transition: Transitions between two scenes are mentioned. Some of these transition
types are cut, dissolve, fade etc.
¾¾ Shot: A shot is a series of frames that runs uninterrupted for particular time duration. In
layman’s term it can be said that a shot is the moment a camera starts shooting and until the
moment the camera stops.
Conclusion
Screenwriters are not directly involved in the film shoot. Sometimes they can be
called as advisers, or for script reading sessions for the actors. Sometimes the
director himself is the script writer. Script writing and screen play are integral part of
film making.

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Things to Remember
¾¾ Make the outline of the story first. Don’t jump into writing a finished script at a go.
¾¾ Brainstorm on the plot and choose a tagline first, this helps in expanding the story later.
¾¾ A good story must have substance along with well-defined main characters.
¾¾ A good story will always have conflict and resolution.
Exercise
1. Protagonist is the central or the leading character of the story.
a) True
b) False
2. The plot of a story means what happens in the story.
a) True
b) False
3. ____________ of the story means that the loose ends are tied up, the mysteries are revealed and
the problems are solved.
a) Resolution
b) Plot
c) Shot
4. A brief summary of the plot or a story is called a _____________.
a) Essay
b) Synopsis
c) Paragraph
5. To make a story appealing and exciting, the writer creates obstacles that the central character will
have to overcome. This is known as _____________.
a) Conflict
b) Tryst
c) Content

10
Post Production and
chapter
editing
Learning Objectives
➢ Describe the importance of post production and it’s stages
➢ Use types of film editing
➢ Understand the importance of continuity in editing
➢ Understand the importance of creating a montage
➢ Learn tips on editing for films
10.1 Introduction to Post Production

Film production is generally split into three stages. They are pre-production, principal shooting and
post production.
Post-production is a part of Films, Television episodes, Photography etc. It starts once the actual shoot
of the film or the episode is done. In photography the treatments done after the photo is taken is can
also be termed as post production. Post production involves video/image editing, sound design, color
corrections, tonal adjusts and Vfx. At times the entire process of post production takes longer than the
actual film shoot.
The planning and filming leads up to the post production work. The raw footage, is treated, color
corrected, edited into a finished movie. Editors edit, arrange all of the footage together as per the
storyline and script. Musicians and music composers add background music. Post production studios
add Vfx, CGI backgrounds to enhance the look and feel of the movie.
10.2 Processes involved in Post Production

Post-production consists of a number of processes grouped under one name. The process of post
production mostly varies for live action film to VFX film to 3d animated film. It is during this process
where all the errors and unwanted part of the footage is treated or edited

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10.2.1Various Processes involved in Post Production
¾¾ Vfx: Films which are shot with green screen/ chroma screen are added with computer
generated digital backgrounds, characters, crowds etc. This is done to enhance the scene
contents.
¾¾ Color Correction: This refers to the color correction done on the scene while in
compositing stage, where the CGI is seamlessly merged with the shoot footage. This is
done to match the color levels of the digital content and the film footage. Also at times even
the original film footage is color corrected to remove unwanted light source during the shoot
and also to match the overall lighting continuity of the film.
¾¾ Editing (Sound\Video): In this stage the raw film footage or video footage, is sorted out,
arranged and finally rendered as a continuous film or video output. This done with reference
to the storyboard and the script.
¾¾ Background Score\Sound Design: Music composer, musicians, sound engineers

design, creates and merges the sound with the edited footage. This includes soothing,
dramatic, horror, suspense music scores added to enhance the mood and keep the
audience more engaged.
¾¾ Dubbing: The voice of the actors is dubbed because during shoot the sound is interrupted
by additional noises and disturbances.
¾¾ Digital Integration/Color Grading: This is the final stage where the tonal values,
colors are adjusted.
10.2.2 Image Formats

The raw movie footage is not a processed data. This film footage is collected from the film camera
image sensor, DSLR or motion picture scanner etc. They are called RAW image format because they
are unprocessed and thus not ready for viewing of the audience. The process of converting a raw
image file into a viewable format is sometimes called developing a raw image. The purpose of raw
image formats is to save, with minimum loss of the shoot data. This RAW footage is processed by
a raw converter where adjustment can be done on the footage. Then they are saved in formats like,
TARGA, TIFF, JPEG (minimum usage). There are many other raw image formats used by different
digital devices. Raw images and footages are sometimes called digital negatives. They are collected
from the digital camera image sensors. Thus they are same role as negatives in old motion picture
and still photography cameras.

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¾¾ JPEG: JPEG is a commonly used image format. But saving an image in this format
compresses the quality of the image considerably and also adds blur to the overall image
sharpness.
¾¾ RAW: These are also known as digital negatives. They are the image formats which are
similar to the digital data stored in the sensor of the camera itself. They are not processed
data. Thus they are known as RAW.
¾¾ HDRI: High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple

standard photographs, often using exposure bracketing, chrome ball and then merge them
into an HDR image.
10.3 Introduction to Editing

Film editing is a integral part of the post production process. The term has been derived from the
process of working with film rolls. In today’s world the process uses digital technology. The RAW
image format is derived from the digital camera image sensors. This is the footage which is put
through the editing process. This raw footage format contains the full resolution out from each of
the camera’s image sensor. The film editor works with the raw footage. He will select the shots and
combine them into sequences to create a complete movie. The job of an editor is not to just
mechanically put scenes of a film together, cutting scenes, or editing dialogues and music in scenes. A
film editor must creatively work with images, story flow, dialogue, music etc. He will make the film into
a cohesive composition. They have a dynamic role in the making of a film.
10.3.1 Types of Editing
¾¾ Offline Editing: In this process of editing the raw footage is copied and edited, without
affecting the original footage from the shooting. After editing the original media will be
assembled in the online editing stage.
¾¾ Online Editing: Online editing majorly starts after the offline edit is done. Online edit can
be termed as the finishing for edit. It has to do a very little with the actual edits as per the
storyboard and focuses more on the overall color correction, image quality and final touch ups.
¾¾ Linear Editing: Linear video editing is a video editing post-production process of

selecting, arranging and modifying images and sound in a predetermined, ordered
sequence. Regardless of whether it was captured by a video camera, tapeless camcorder,
or recorded in a television studio on a video tape recorder (VTR) the content must be
accessed sequentially. For the most part video editing software has replaced linear editing.

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¾¾ Non Linear Editing: A non-linear editing system (NLE) is a video (NLVE) or audio
editing (NLAE) digital audio workstation (DAW) system that performs non-destructive editing
on source material. The name is in contrast to 20th century methods of linear video editing
and film editing.
10.3.2 Edit Cuts
¾¾ Editor’s cut: The editor’s cut is the first version of the final film. The film editor usually
starts working while principal photography starts. Now since it is the first version of the edit,
the editor’s cut might be longer than the final film. Sometimes editing starts parallel to the
shoot. The editor will have to refine the cut while the shooting still continues. This process of
editing can sometimes take months to years.
¾¾ Director’s cut: Once the final shoot of the film is done the director collaborated with the
editor to mould the editor’s version into the final film output. This is the director’s cut.
¾¾ Final cut: The final version of the editing which is presented to the distributors,
supervised by the producers is called the Final Cut.
¾¾ Extended Cut: This version is often a DVD release after the theatrical release of the
same film. The extended cut contains footages from the editor’s table. They were removed
in the final cut, but their inclusion often enhances the story more.
10.3.2 Continuity and Hookup
Continuity is a film editing term. It means that a sequence of shots should be visibly continuously. Only
the camera angles change in the course of a single event. The other aspects like costumes, position
of character, props, and light directions should remain constant.
10.3.3 Montage
In motion pictures, montage is an editing technique. It consists of a series of shots that are edited
into a sequence to condense narrative where is majorly revolves around the main story. It is used as a
symbolic meaning and used to advance the story. Background scores are often used to enhance the
mood.

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10.3.4 Tips on Editing

1. Once should always start with an end in mind. This means that one should have a target. This target
can be set by the storyboard, script etc.
2. One should learn the basics of shooting videos. This helps for an individual film maker because he
can minimize errors while shooting, which cannot be fixed in editing.
3. One should avoid too many transitions like fade in, fade out, dissolves etc. The reason being these
effects are time consuming and too much of usage will increase the duration of the film. Again they
might look monotonous.
4. One should give equal importance to sound editing, because sounds can enhance the mood in the
videos.
5. One should not attempt to use all the video effects found in the editing software. One should only
use the apt ones.
6. One should always start basic editing with a temporary sound track. This gives pace to the footages.
7. Moving camera actions always enhance the mood and drama.
8. One should maintain continuity in editing. It creates smooth action between shots.
9. One should avoid jump cuts for films where as it may work in favor for TVC.
10. One can use reverse shot cutting while editing a scene where two characters are conversing.
Conclusion:
One should always do the shooting with multiple camera angles and positions so
that the editing footage is more. The biggest challenge is to touch the audience on
an emotional level, so the whole focus should be on the story telling. The entire
process of post production should always help to enhance the story telling in the film
and should not be used as a mere tool. Editors check the technical aspects, as well
as the storyline and ways to enhance the actors’ performances.

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Things to Remember
➢ Editors edit, arrange all of the shooting footage together as per the sto ryline and script.
➢ Post production studios add vfx, cgi backgrounds to enhance the look and feel of the movie.
➢ Adding visual effects (vfx) enhances the overall look and feel of the film.
➢ Color correction helps in removing unwanted light information, enhancing tonal value and main
Taining the overall light continuity.
➢ There are three types of editing: offline, online and linear.
➢ There are four types of edit cuts: editor’s cut, director’s cut, final cut and extended cut.
➢ One should pre plan the shoot of the film and be careful during editing to maintain hookups
And continuity.
Exercise
1. The voice of the actors is dubbed because during shoot the sound is interrupted by additional
noises and disturbances.
a) True
b) False
2. Post production starts once the actual shoot of the film or the episode is done.
a) True
b) False
3. Online editing is also known as __________ video editing.
a) Linear
b) Nonlinear
c) Parallel
4. TARGA is an image format.
a) True
b) False
5. The editor’s cut is the _______ version of the final film.
a) First
b) Final
c) Second

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Digital Film Making

1.1. Brief History of Films....................................................................................................................6

3. Composition and Framing......................................................................39

3.1 Introduction to Composition.....................................................................................................39

4.1 Introduction to Cinematography.............................................................................................63

5.1 Introduction to Camera Shots................................................................................................. 82

6.1 Introduction to Camera Movement.............................................................................................91

7.1 Objective of Lighting...................................................................................................................102

8. Costume and Set Design........................................................................110

8.1 Introduction to Costume Design..............................................................................................110

9. Screenwriting and Screenplay...............................................................120

9.1 Introduction to Screen Writing..................................................................................................120

10. Post Production and Editing.................................................................127

10.1 Introduction to Post Production..............................................................................................127

1.1 Brief history of Films

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1.1.1 Brief History of Indian Cinema

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Figure 1.2 100 years of Indian cinema

1.2 Brief history of camera

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Figure 1.3 Evolution of Still camera

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Figure 1.4 Evolution of Camcorder

1.2.3 Film Camera

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Figure 1.5 Evolution of Movie/Film Camera

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1.3 Important Features of Camera

Figure 1.6 Different types of camera lenses

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Figure 1.7 Charged couple device

1.3.4.1 Single CCD

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Figure 1.8 Image made of Pixel

1.3.6 Camera Resolution

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Figure 1.9 Resolution gates of different camera resolutions

Figure 1.10 Different resolutions of the same image

1.3.7 Camera Shutter

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1.4 Analog Camera vs Digital Camera

Figure 1.12 Film / Analog Camera Vs. Digital Camera

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1.4.1 Analogue\Film Camera

●● Film Roll cameras are cheap.

1.4.2 Digital Cameras

●● DSLR require batteries.

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4. A camera lens is an optical lens made of glass.

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2.1 Introduction to Photography

2.2 DSLR Camera

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2.3 Camera Parts

Figure 2.2 DSLR

Figure 2.3 Lenses

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