Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

Review

Corrosion of alloys used in dentistry: A review

Deepti Upadhyay a,∗ , Manoj A. Panchal b , R.S. Dubey b , V.K. Srivastava c,1
a
Department of Chemistry, UP College, Varanasi 221001, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Center of Advanced Study, Institute of Technology,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
c Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India

Received 19 February 2006; received in revised form 14 April 2006; accepted 4 May 2006

Abstract
For regaining the normal functions of the dentition, artificial materials are often used to restore the missing part or structure, these are known as
dental materials. Metals and alloys, e.g., gold alloys are commonly used dental materials, due to their high strength and other desirable properties.
Due to high cost of gold, alloys are being increasingly used in dental applications. Many substitutes for gold alloys have also been employed and
some of them possess superior mechanical properties. Increasing knowledge about interaction of dental materials with oral tissues has resulted in
evolution of high performance dental materials to meet the various requirements of the oral environment. Leaching of metallic ions and food habits
are the main cause of corrosion of metallic dental implants and restorations. Therefore, corrosion has been considered as the most important factor
in the selection of metallic materials, hence it deserves special emphasis and must be evaluated in ever-changing oral environment.
The main objective of the present review is to describe the importance of corrosion of dental metals and alloys. Different dental materials together
with oral environments and various types of corrosion have been described and related reported findings have also been reviewed briefly.
© 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Dental; Metal alloys; Corrosion; Pitting; Leaching; Cavitation

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Metals and alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Oral environment and effects on metals and alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4. Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1. Uniform or general corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.2. Galvanic or two-metal corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3. Crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4. Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5. Intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.6. Selective leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.7. Erosion corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.8. Stress corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 542 2368427; fax: +91 542 2368428.
E-mail addresses: upadhyay [email protected] (D. Upadhyay), vk [email protected] (V.K. Srivastava).
1 Tel.: +91 542 2368157; fax: +91 542 2368174.

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.msea.2006.05.003
2 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

1. Introduction dered gold, and crystalline gold. Although no other metal can
withstand the fluctuating oral conditions like gold but the alter-
The field of dental materials is highly catholic in nature, in native alloys available in the market also possess the properties
the sense it covers a wide variety of materials from fairly exotic approaching near to the ideal properties needed for dentistry. A
resin systems, elastomers, metals, alloys to ceramic materials, variety of alloys with physical properties suitable for specific
and many others. Metal alloys have high strength and have applications have been developed to meet the requirements of
been found to be competitive among other dental materials. various functions and properties. A general classification of den-
For selecting a material for dental application, it is necessary tal materials, their class and broad application areas are listed in
to remember that the choice of material depends on a number Table 1 and their compositions are given in Table 2 [2,3].
of factors like corrosion behavior, mechanical properties includ-
ing strength and fabricability, cost, availability, biocompatibility, 3. Oral environment and effects on metals and alloys
and aesthetic values. The corrosion behavior of metallic materi-
als usually is the most important property because of biocompat- Structures in the mouth are constantly exposed to an ever-
ibility and cytotoxicity of the products of the corrosion process. changing physical and chemical environment that includes tem-
However, from aesthetic considerations, appearance is the most perature and components like saliva, salts, foods, liquids, and
important factor to be considered. The mechanical properties of drugs. Plaques and food adhere to teeth and filling materials,
the materials are equally important even though the materials which means several forms of bacteria and their products are
may have enough corrosion resistance. Cost and availability are always present inside mouth. Mechanical forces also vary with
also important for the selection of the materials. respect to the type of food consumed, temperament of person,
To better understand the effect of corrosion in the mouth, it and location in the mouth.
is essential to become familiar with metals and alloys normally The average biting force of a person with natural dentition
used, their composition, the environment in which they must is approximately 77 kg in the posterior part of mouth. It repre-
function and also its effect. The main interest of the present arti- sents approximately 0.193 GPa on a single cusp of molar tooth.
cle is to review briefly the corrosion behavior of various dental Similarly the temperature in the mouth fluctuates rapidly. When
alloys as reported by various research workers. one drinks coffee immediately after ice cream, change in tem-
perature is as great as 65 ◦ C and pH also changes widely in the
2. Metals and alloys mouth. Moist environment in the mouth also varies and affects
dental materials. Under these circumstances, corrosion of met-
Metals have been used as dental materials for over a century. als and alloys in the mouth is expected and it does occur. Some
Generally, most metals are strong enough to withstand maxi- experimental observations reported by different researchers are
mum possible oral forces. Despite the fact that metals showed summarized below.
deterioration, before the availability of techniques to evaluate Laing et al. [4] observed that the tissue reaction was pro-
materials performance in biological systems, other high perfor- portional to the amount of constituent elements released by
mance materials could not be developed to improve implant life corrosion of a pure metal or alloy. On the other hand, inter-
and properties. Advent of innovative technologies and aseptic metallic compounds, e.g., Ag–Sn and Cu–Sn have oxidized
surgical procedures enabled researchers to ascertain the reason films on their surface protecting them from corrosion in liv-
of failure of dental materials and consequentially development ing tissue [5]. Also, electro-deposited gold is provided with
of high performance and cost effective materials. a passive protective surface [6]. Several corrosion products of
The irritability or cytotoxicity of a metal to cells is closely metal alloys like nickel carbonyl, nickel subsulfide, and nickel
related to its location in the periodic table. Gold is the commonly sulfide have been shown to produce carcinogenesis [7,8]. The
used metal because of its high resistance to tarnish and corrosion presence of components of the posts in dark gingival discol-
[1]. In its pure form, gold is too soft for most dental applications. orations has been reported adjacent to restorations [9]. Many
Under certain circumstances where mechanical properties are heavy metals likes nickel, chromium, and beryllium are clas-
not important, pure gold is used in the form of gold leaf, pow- sified as carcinogenic, hazardous, and priority toxic pollutants

Table 1
Types and classes of metallic dental materials and their applications [2,3]
S. no. Type Class Principal application

1. Amalgam Low copper Posterior restoration of teeth

High copper Posterior restoration of teeth
2. Noble alloys Gold (non-heat-treatable) Restoration of single teeth
Gold (heat-treatable) Fixed bridges
Palladium–silver Restoration of single teeth
3. Base alloys Nickel Restoration of single and missing teeth, partial denture frameworks
Cobalt Partial denture framework and implants
Iron Orthodontic appliances and endodontic instruments
 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11 3

Table 2
Composition of dental restorative materials [2,3]
S. no. Type Class Composition

1. Amalgam Low copper 63–70% Ag, 26–28% Sn, 2–7% Cu, 0–2% Zn, Mercury—100% Hg, set amalgam contains
Ag2 Hg3 , Ag3 Sn, and Sn8 Hg
High copper 40–60% Ag, 22–30% Sn, 13–30% Cu, 0–5% In, 0–1% Pd
2. Noble alloys Gold (non-heat-treatable) Mercury—100% Hg, Set amalgam contains Ag2 Hg3 , Ag3 Sn, Ag–Cu eutectic, and Cu6 Sn5
Gold (heat-treatable) 76–78% Au, 1–3% Pd, 3–8% Ag, 8–12% Cu, 1% Zn maximum
Gold (heat-treatable) 73–75% Au, 2–4% Pd, 9–15% Ag, 12–18% Cu, 1% Zn maximum
Gold (heat-treatable) 50–62% Au, 1–3% Pd, 16–26% Ag, 8–11% Cu
Palladium–silver 35–50% Au, 3–10% Pd, 0–3% Pt, 13–30% Ag, 11–30% Cu
3. Base alloys Nickel base 54–60% Pd, 28–38% Ag, 7–9% Sn
Cobalt base 17% Cr, 5% Mo, 5% Al, 5% Mn, 0.5% Fe, 0.1% C, 1% Be, 0.5% Si, balance Ni
Iron base 27–30% Cr, 0–13% Ni, 4–5% Al, 1–1.5% Fe, 0.2–0.5% C, 0.5–0.6% Si, 0.5–0.7% Mn,
0–0.05% Ga, balance Co
18% Cr, 8% Ni, 0.08–0.2% C, minor % of Ti, Mn, Si, Mo, balance Fe

[10]. The corrosion products of copper–aluminum alloys are eas- emphasis has recently been placed on adding proteins and/or
ily removed by brushing [11,12]. According to Anusavice [13] other organic species to saline for in vitro electrochemical cor-
alloys with chromium in their formulation must contain a mini- rosion solutions. This provides the opportunity to more fully
mum of 12% of this element to achieve an adequate passivating evaluate possible in vivo correlations [24].
film. Lucas and Lemons [14] have reported that the formation
of oxide film on titanium provides corrosion-resistance under 4. Corrosion
static conditions, but the oxide film is not sufficiently stable
to prevent galling and seizing under loading conditions. Tita- Discussed in earlier section that the corrosion behavior is
nium is attractive in dentistry due to its low weight to volume important because poor biocompatibility and toxicity of the
ratio, high strength to weight ratio, fatigue resistance, and corro- products may make the materials worst for implantation pur-
sion resistance [15]. The titanium forms a relatively stable oxide poses. This section discusses the corrosion behavior of metals
layer, and this is the basis for the corrosion–resistance property and alloys used in dentistry. Corrosion is defined as the destruc-
and biocompatibility. Titanium is a reactive metal but the thin tion or deterioration of a material because of reaction with its
oxide film that instantly and spontaneously forms in air on its environment [25]. Also, corrosion shows the oral environment
surface transforms the metal from an active to a passive con- as a chemical or electrochemical process through which a metal
dition. Corrosion–fatigue life of pure titanium and Ti–6Al–4V is attacked by natural agents, such as air and water, resulting
alloys in different storage environments indicated no significant in partial or complete dissolution, deterioration, or weakening
difference between the corrosion–fatigue life for dry specimens of any solid substance [13]. Fontana [25] and Jones [26] have
of either metal. But, fatigue life got significantly reduced when classified corrosion into eleven distinct forms as shown in Fig. 1.
aqueous solutions were present probably because of the produc- Out of these only those occurring in the oral environment will
tion of corrosion pits caused by superficial reactions [16]. be discussed in the following pages. Furthermore, it is impor-
A passive layer of oxide or sulfide and a protective col- tant to know that the purity, casting and melting techniques also
loidal membrane from saliva gradually covers the surfaces of affect the corrosion behavior of alloys. Corrosion resistance of
restorations [17,18]. Mateer and Reitz [19] reported a layer-like stainless steel posts changes with the heat treatment and it is
corrosion product at the tooth-restoration interface, which sug- reported that prefabricated posts after burnout procedures had a
gested that the compounds were formed gradually by reaction noticeable reduction in corrosion resistance [27].
of the amalgam and oral fluids. The metal alloys could release
nickel and beryllium as a result of corrosive activity at various 4.1. Uniform or general corrosion
pH levels [20]. The interaction of dental plaque with restora-
tive materials has been studied using Auger spectroscopy [21]. This type of corrosion is defined as a chemical or elec-
Adsorbed layers of plaque on gold alloy, dental amalgam, and trochemical reaction that proceeds uniformly over the entire
composites formed in vivo were found to contain copper, tin, and exposed surface or over a large area. This produces the normal
silicon, respectively, indicating an interaction with the restora- flux of ions from an implant, which can interact with tissue.
tive materials. However, the biodegradation of metals within the Nagai et al. [28] tested the corrosion resistance of some alloys
complex in vivo milieu has, for the most part, been found to and concluded that the spherical-particle amalgam was more
be less in amount and rate than determined for the same speci- resistant to corrosion than the conventional amalgam. The cor-
mens in vitro test systems. This phenomenon has been generally rosion resistance of conventional alloy, spherical-particle alloy,
held to reflect the presence of various proteins and other organic and dispersion-phase alloy was clinically evaluated and it was
substances in vivo that coat and protect the metals. Published concluded that dispersion-phase alloy offered more resistance to
literature has supported this general finding [22,23]. Therefore, corrosion than either the conventional or the spherical-particle
4 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of various forms of corrosion.

alloys [29]. Corrosion process released tin ions from tin based saliva [37,38], whereas corrosion of stainless steel, gold-plated
alloys to form ␥2 (Sn8 Hg) phase, which then reacted with non- stainless steel, and cast gold pins were studied in vitro and in
metallic ions in saliva to produce tin salts [19,30]. Copper and vivo [39]. Guastaldi [40] studied potentiostatic polarization of
zinc alloys showed large corrosion in non-self-cleaning sites in copper–aluminum alloys and observed passivation in artificial
the mouth, such as proximal surfaces [31]. Nickel–chromium saliva and Na2 S (5 g/L) solutions. Copper and silver-enriched
alloys exhibited good corrosion resistance in the oral cavity alloys were readily corroded because of the action of sulfide
[32], where as, copper–zinc alloy (Progold) showed apprecia- ions. Benatti Oscar et al. [32] studied in vitro and in vivo cor-
ble corrosion when it was immersed in a chloride solution [33]. rosion of nickel–chromium and copper–aluminum based alloys
But, corrosion resistance of low gold casting alloys decreased in and reported high resistance to corrosion for nickel–chromium
chloride solutions using potentiodynamic polarization measure- alloy and considerable corrosion of copper–aluminum alloy in
ments when compared with other conventional gold alloys [34]. the sulfide solution.
The effect of chloride ions was observed on the corrosion behav-
ior of five silver–palladium dental casting alloys in a 1% NaCl 4.2. Galvanic or two-metal corrosion
solution using potentiodynamic polarization measurements and
microstructure analysis [35]. This type of corrosion occurs due to the galvanic coupling
Gettleman et al. [36] measured in vivo corrosion rate in of dissimilar metals involved. Less corrosion-resistant metals
baboons, and correlated with in vitro rates. Corrosion rates of become anode and usually corrode. The dentist knows about
metal alloys were observed in vitro and in vivo in artificial the danger of this type of corrosion and asks for homogeneous
 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11 5

metals with respect to chemical composition and metallurgical implant material can form the crevice. In the small space the liq-
state. uid and oxygen exchanges are severely limited, and surface in
Researchers reported that the galvanic current could be sus- the crevice undergoes active corrosion and cause further deterio-
pected of having a harmful effect on soft tissues [41]. However, ration of the milieu. Failures in soldered joints, especially when
this was contradicted by clinical observations, which found no stainless steel is soldered with silver solder, are often caused by
difference between gum tissues adjacent to and away from such corrosion. In this instance, either the residual fluoride flux or the
dissimilar metals that were in contact with each other [42]. dissimilarity of the metals results in crevice corrosion. Crevice
Schoonover and Souder [43] reported that gold restorations were corrosion of silver soldered stainless steel was studied and estab-
corroded by mercury released from amalgam fillings because of lished its convenience by using 316 L stainless steel [52,53].
an electrochemical reaction. The corrosion of gold and amalgam
placed in contact with each other was also investigated and it 4.4. Pitting
was observed that silver-colored stains formed on the surface of
gold inlays that had got into contact with fresh amalgam mix or Pitting is a form of extremely localized attack that results in
fillings. Researchers demonstrated that the ␥2 phase (Snx Hgy ) holes on the surface. The localized breakdown of the protecting
of the silver amalgam was most susceptible to breakdown by passive layer causes pitting and this is termed a ‘bad habit’ of
electrolytic action [44,45]. aluminum and low-grade stainless steel.
According to Jorgensen [30], concentration cell currents This is already discussed in the earlier section on metals and
occurring along the margins of amalgam restorations are, in part, alloys that Zavanelli et al. [54] studied corrosion–fatigue life of
responsible for marginal breakdown and ditching that are com- pure titanium and Ti–6Al–4V alloys in different storage envi-
monly seen in dental amalgams in the mouth. Dental amalgam ronments, and observed no significant difference between the
subjected to high pressure resulted in the complete disappear- corrosion–fatigue life for dry specimens of either metal. But,
ance of ␥2 phases by the transfer of tin to ␥1 phase. Rotating they observed significantly reduced fatigue life when solutions
ring-disc electrode was used to detect the soluble species pro- were present probably because of the initiation of corrosion pits
duced during anodic polarization of dental amalgam [46]. The caused by superficial reactions.
degradation interactions between oral fluids and brazed joints
were mostly attributed to galvanic coupling due to differences 4.5. Intergranular corrosion
in the composition of castings and brazed alloys [47]. The metal-
lic restorations in contact allow the release of components into Due to more reactive nature of grain boundaries, intergranular
the oral environment because of the formation of an electro- corrosion occurs adjacent to grain boundaries with relatively
galvanic cell. Shigeto et al. [48] evaluated corrosion properties little corrosion of grains. This type of corrosion occurs due to
of solder joints using galvanic current analysis between dental the inhomogeneity and mainly technological errors. It has been
solder and dental nickel–chromium alloy and concluded that in demonstrated that heating 18-8 stainless steel between 400 and
soldering Ni–Cr alloy, use of gold solder and a high-resistance 900 ◦ C may negate its resistance to corrosion [3]. This corrosive
Ni–Cr alloy should be preferred for corrosion resistance. They tendency was attributed to the precipitation of chromium carbide
also studied corrosion properties of solder joints by analyzing at the grain boundaries at elevated temperatures.
corrosion pattern of dental solder and dental nickel–chromium
alloy and conformed the previous findings of combination of 4.6. Selective leaching
gold solder and a high-resistance Ni–Cr alloy for corrosion resis-
tance [49]. Angelini et al. [50] explained influence of corrosion Selective leaching is the removal of one element from a solid
on brazed joint’s strength using 60 days immersion experiments alloy by corrosion process. This process is generally not that
and observed dramatically reduced tensile strength for the sam- important in dentistry. Tai et al. [55] studied leaching of nickel,
ples brazed with the gold alloy because of galvanic corrosion chromium, and beryllium ions from base metal alloy in an artifi-
phenomena. Palaghias et al. [51] studied in vivo behavior of cial oral environment for simulated 1-year period of mastication
gold-plated stainless steel titanium dental retention pins, and and showed that nickel and beryllium metals were released both
reported that in vivo corrosion resistance of the titanium pins by dissolution and occlusal wear.
was superior to that of gold-plated stainless steel pins.
4.7. Erosion corrosion
4.3. Crevice corrosion
Erosion corrosion is the acceleration or increase in rate of
Crevices on the material surface cause the regions of stagnant deterioration or attack on a material because of relative move-
solutions, and attack the material. This type of attack is gener- ment between a corrosive fluid and the material surface. It
ally defined as crevice corrosion. Crevices are unavoidable with includes cavitation damage and fretting corrosion. Cavitation
surgical implants where a screw or plate contacts the bone. The damage is not important in dentistry. Fretting is described as the
local flux of ions is drastically enhanced at crevice sites and corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under
tissue impregnation follows. load subjected to vibration and slip.
Implants never have simple shapes and are never exposed to During insertion of an implant, some degree of abrasion
a homogeneous environment. The contact region of a screw or between fixing screws and implants or between tools (screw-
 6
Table 3
Summary of the available experimental work on the corrosion of dental materials
S. no. Reference Dental alloys Medium Temp, pH, exp. Method Remarks
period, etc.

1. Fusayama et al. [44] Gold and amalgam restorations Air, artificial saliva 1 day to 6 months In vitro and in vivo (a) Contact of gold inlays with old
amalgam fillings in air or saliva did
not cause any significant corrosion of
the restorations but with fresh
amalgam fillings produced silver
colored stains on the contact area
(b) Contact with fresh amalgam

D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

fillings less than 1 h old in saliva
produced silver-colored stains of
negligible thickness
(c) On amalgam filling surfaces no
significant corrosion was found
2. Taylor and Jordan [57] Chrome–cobalt alloy Domestic chlorine 9 months In vitro Steeping of chrome–cobalt dentures
bleach in domestic bleach had to be avoided,
due to the inherently poor resistance
of this alloy to attack in solutions
containing chlorine
3. Duperon et al. [29] Conventional alloy, dispersion-phase Saliva, etc. 1 year In vivo (a) Amalgam made with
alloy, spherical-particle alloy dispersion-phase alloy maintained a
significantly higher degree of lustre
than amalgam made with
spherical-particle alloys. No
significant differences were evident
compared with conventional alloy
(b) Amalgam made with
dispersion-phase alloy maintained a
smooth surface texture to a
significantly greater degree than did
amalgams of the conventional or
spherical-particle type
(c) Ditching of the margins was
significantly less evident with either
conventional alloy or
spherical-particle alloy
(d) There was no difference in
discoloration of tooth structure at the
margins of the restorations
4. Tuccillo and Nielson [18] Gold base alloy 0.5% sodium sulfide 15 and 45 s Rotating wheel with Silver rather than copper appears to
aqueous solution eight holes of 2.54 cm be the principal element rendering
each, speed 1 rpm gold–copper–silver alloys susceptible
to tarnish
5. Holland and Asgar [7] Amalgam restorations Saliva 200 s SEM and electron The corrosion process yielding Sn
microprobe ions that can react with non-metallic
ions present in saliva attacks the y2
phase selectively. Sn released from
this process can migrate to area
within the amalgam that is
continuous with the oral
environment. Corrosion process
yields two distinct new phases with
amalgam: a dark gray phase
consisting primarily of Sn and Cl and
blue gray phase consisting primarily
of Sn. The corrosion process yields a
corrosion layer at the tooth amalgam

D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

interface consisting of Sn, S, P, and
Cl
6. Sarkar and Greener [33] Dental amalgam (Ag2 Hg3 ) and Ringer’s solution and 25,000 psi, Potentiostatic anodic The electrochemical behavior of ␥1
(Sn7–8 Hg) KCl solution 7 days, T = 37 ◦ C polarization phase of dental amalgam (Ag2 Hg3 )
and ␥1 containing dissolved Sn is
compared with that for the ␥2 phases
in dental amalgam (Sn7–8 Hg). The
results indicate that when tin is
dissolved in ␥1 it did not affect the
electrochemical behavior of that
phase
7. Rogers [52] Silver-soldered stainless steel; Aqueous solution 4h Accelerated corrosion Electroplating with gold before and
silver-soldered nickel-plated stainless containing anhydrous test (electrochemical) after silver soldering the stainless
steel; silver-soldered gold-plated Fe2 (SO4 )3 , HF, dist. steel prevented crevice corrosion.
stainless steel; silver-soldered H2 O The stainless steel surface was
stainless steel, gold plated after activated and protected by the first
soldering; silver-soldered, layer of electro-deposited gold. The
gold-plated stainless steel, re-plated silver solder alloyed with this gold
with gold after soldering layer so a second application of
electro-deposited gold was required
to protect the joint from electrolytic
action
8. Do Duc and Tissot [46] Dental amalgam, Sn ring–amalgam Ringer’s solution, T = 37 ◦ C Anodic polarization During anodic polarization of the
disc electrode 0.1 M chloride dental amalgam in chloride solution,
solution there is evidence that soluble species
are formed prior to passivation
Deaerated Ringer’s T = 37 ◦ C, pH 7 Anodic polarization An occluded corrosion cell and
solution polarization program has been
developed. It is free from unwanted
crevices and gives reproducible
results

7
 8
Table 3 (Continued)
S. no. Reference Dental alloys Medium Temp, pH, exp. Method Remarks
period, etc.

9. Sarkar et al. [34] Dental gold alloys: (a) Forticast, (b) 1% NaCl solution 4h Potentiodynamic Decreased chloride corrosion
Midas, (c) Lab-44, (d) Minigold, (e) polarization resistance, when compared with
Midigold, (f) Maxigold, (g) Ney cast (−200 mv to ADA Type III and Type IV gold
III, (h) Firmlay, and (i) Jelenko No.7 +400 mv); controlled alloys characterizes low-gold alloys
potential polarization
at +200 mv, reverse

D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

polarization
10. Sarkar et al. [35] Ag Pd alloy system: (a) 1% NaCl solution 4h Potentiodynamic Silver-rich matrix is preferentially
Ag–Pd–In–Zn, (b) polarization attacked in a 1% NaCl solution, the
Ag–Pd–Au–In–Zn, and (c) substitution of silver by gold
Ag–Pd–Au–Cu. (1) CB-1, (2) CB-2, improves the chloride corrosion
(3) Paliney CB, (4) WLW, (5) resistance and the addition of copper
Albacast may adversely affect the corrosion
resistance
11. Gettleman et al. [36] Cu–Ni–Mn alloy, dental amalgams, Artificial saliva T = 37 ◦ C, 1080 h (45 Back to −200 mv Gold and chromium containing alloys
dental casting gold alloys, wrought days) from +400 mv Linear corroded the least and amalgams
implant alloys, porcelain casting polarization generated the highest corrosion
alloys currents. Micro Bond NP2 and
vitallium2 corroded the least, 316 L
stainless steel corroded more and Ti,
and Ti–6Al–4V corroded most
12. Wiegman-Ho and Ketelaar [58] (a) Stainless steel 316, (b) Rexillium, Aerated artificial T = 20, 37 and 50 ◦ C, Linear polarization Low corrosion in near neutral
(c) Pure nickel, (d) Bio-Cast, (e) saliva, 0.22 g CaCl2 pH 6.65 aqueous solutions; stainless steel 316,
Novanex, (f) NP2, (g) Ultratec, (h) was added before use biocast, novanex and NP2 corrode
Ceramalloy 100 times slower than Rexillium,
nickel, ultratech and ceramalloy
13. Bapna and Mueller [59] Stainless steel burs and carbide burs Buffer and activator, SEM, anodic Relative degree of corrosiveness on
Sterall, Sporicidin, polarization and stainless steel burs showed Omni II
Glutarex, Omni II, energy depressive and Omnicide solutions the best,
and Omnicide (EDX) microanalysis Sterall and Sporicidin solutions the
poorest, and Glutarex solution
intermediate. Omnicide and Glutarex
solutions showed the least degree
14. Shigeto et al. [48] Dental Ni–Cr alloys, gold and silver Saline solution of pH 7, 120 days Polarization Corrosiveness on the carbide burs.
dental solder 0.9% NaCl SEM analysis showed corrosion
deposition over the soldered joint of
the carbide burs
15. Sorensen et al. [27] Stainless steel posts divided into five Ringer’s solution 30, 180 and 600 days SEM, energy Two groups of Ni–Cr alloys: (a) high
groups: (1) control; (2) dispersive X-ray resistance alloy [high % of Cr], (b)
gypsum-bonded investment, bench spectroscopy, optical low resistance Ni–Cr alloy [low % of
cooled; (3) gypsum-bonded emission spectroscopy Cr]. Corrosion was observed in the
investment, quenched; (4) and optical silver solder coupled with high
phosphate-bonded investment, bench microscopy resistance Ni–Cr alloy, but was not
cooled; and (5) phosphate-bonded found in the gold solder coupled with
investment, quenched (Heat both alloys
treatment at 300, 600 and 700 ◦ C for
30 min)
Investment and heat treatment altered
the metallic structure of stainless
steel posts. Heat treatment in gypsum
or phosphate bonded investments

D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

negatively alters the corrosion
resistance of stainless steel posts.
Direct casting to stainless steel posts
is contraindicated
16. Shigeto et al. [49] Dental Ni–Cr alloy, dental solder Saline solution 100 days, pH 7, Immersion tests at No corrosion was observed in the
T = 37 ◦ C 37 ◦ C high-resistant Ni–Cr alloys with high
Cr content. Pitting corrosion was
seen on low resistant Ni–Cr alloy,
which had less Cr content. Elution of
Ni ions was detected in all of the
combination of Ni–Cr alloys and
solders with exception of the
combination of high-resistant Ni-Cr
alloys and gold solder. Elution of Cu
ions was detected in all of the
combinations with silver solder but
not with gold solder
17. Angelini et al. [50] (i) Base metal alloys: Crutanium (A) Artificial saliva and pH 2, T = 37 ◦ C, 60 In vitro, SEM with an The tensile strength of the samples
and Wisil (B) (ii) Brazing materials: Ringer’s solution days energy dispersive brazed with the gold alloy was
Au Cr I (sI) and Co/Cr (sII) electron microprobe reduced because of galvanic
corrosion phenomena. High short
circuit currents were only produced
with the gold brazing material
18. Palaghias et al. [51] Gold plated stainless steel and Half pins restored 3 months In vivo, emprobe Ti pin exhibited superior corrosion
titanium dental retention pins (six with high copper resistance than gold plated pins.
paired pins) admixed type Traces of Hg, Sn, Cu, S, Zn, Ca, K,
Cl, P and S were observed on
gold-plated pins. On tin pins only Ca
and P (from dentin) were observed
19. Zavanelli et al. [54] Pure titanium, titanium alloy Air, synthetic saliva, At room temperature Scanning electron Ti–6Al–4V alloy had the highest
(Ti–6Al–4V) fluoride + synthetic microscope (SEM) mean values of fatigue; however,
saliva there were no significant differences
when compared with commercially
pure titanium

9
10 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

drivers, grips, etc.) and implants is bound to occur. Another

alloys showed considerable corrosion

gold-plated pins. On tin pins only Ca

in the sulfide solution and clinically

Traces of Hg, Sn, Cu, S, Zn, Ca, K,

and P (from dentin) were observed

Ti pin exhibited superior corrosion

corrosion. Both copper–aluminum

Nickel and beryllium metals were
source, more or less continuous, of abrasion on implant struc-

released both by dissolution and

resistance than gold plated pins. tures, is functional loading, which induces relative movement

Cl, P and S were observed on

The nickel–chromium alloy

presented high resistance to

in the non-self cleaning site

between the material (screw hole) and the screw head. In fact,
the (local) elasticity of the implant differs from that of the tooth
material causing fretting corrosion. The mechanical component
of fretting, i.e., the rubbing movement, disrupts the protective

occlusal wear
surface films and removes metal particles. This action stimu-
Remarks

lates the chemical activities at the surface, leading to oxidation,

or active corrosion, or repassivation as a result of the electro-
chemical aspect of the process [56].

4.8. Stress corrosion

environment, in vitro
MTS artificial oral

Stress-corrosion cracking refers to cracking caused by the

simultaneous presence of tensile stress and a specific corrosive
Method

In vitro

In vivo

medium. This process can dangerously impair the mechanical

integrity of an implant.
During mastication, restorations are subjected to heavy com-
pressive shear, and bending forces. Also, burnishing of surfaces
1 month and 3 months

sometimes results in localized deformation. Thus, an electrolytic

cell is formed between the stressed and unstressed metal por-
T = 37 ◦ C, 1 year
Temp, pH, exp.

tions. Grain boundaries of stressed metal are most vulnerable to

period, etc.

corrosion. The failure of the soldered joint or the flaking away

of a thin margin of gold occurs due to stress corrosion.
In mouth, the process of corrosion may be of several types. So,
the chances of correlating in vivo clinical results with in vitro
results seem less plausible. In spite of this, efforts have been
surface exposed to the
0.9% sodium chloride
and (iii) 1.0% sodium

made by researchers to generate experimental evidences under

close to oral mucosa;
Amalgam, rest with

(ii) towards the oral

aqueous solution of
For in vitro test: (i)
artificial saliva; (ii)

cavity; (iii) bottom

For in vivo test: (i)

in vitro and vivo conditions. Some of the reported experimental

BisGMA-POCl2

works are summarized in Table 3 together with the environments

oral cavity

and experimental methods used, and results obtained.

Medium

Most of the workers have used in vitro methods and employed

sulfide

modern electrochemical and surface scanning techniques to

examine the corrosive behavior of metallic dental materials. It
is seen that a large number of workers have investigated both in
vivo and in vitro corrosion of alloys and metals used as dental
Ni–Cr alloy (75% Ni, 13% Cr and

materials. Due to wide difference in the environmental condi-

<1.8% Be), acrylic resin teeth,
Crowns made of Rexillium III

tions under two situations, generalized conclusions are difficult

copper–aluminum-zinc alloy,

to arrive. Almost all reported work has been done by western

Copper–aluminum alloy,

nickel–chromium alloy

workers where food habits and food ingredients are different

than those used in India and other oriental countries. It would
be interesting to study the effect, if any, of the spices, etc. used
Dental alloys

in the oriental foods on in vivo corrosion of natural and artificial

tooth and restorations.

5. Concluding remarks
Benatti et al. [60]

The nature of dental metal alloys plays a major role in the

Tai et al. [55]

initiation and propagation of corrosion. Though a large number

Reference

of investigators have made efforts to investigate corrosion of

Table 3 (Continued)

dental materials, however, due to wide variation in the experi-

mental conditions used, generalized correlations are difficult to
arrive. Therefore, as for as possible corrosion free/least corro-
sive metal alloys should be used for the artificial tooth and repair
S. no.

20.

21.

of the cavities for good health.

 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11 11

References [30] K.D. Jorgensen, Acta. Odontol. Scand. 23 (4) (1965) 347–389.
[31] K. Nagai, J. Nihon Univ. Sch. Dent. 11 (1969) 129–139.
[1] H. Kawahara, S. Ochi, K. Tanetani, J. Jap. Soc. Dent. Appar. Mater. 4 [32] F.M. Benatti Oscar, W.G. Miranda, A. Muench, J. Prosthet Dent. 84 (2000)
(1963) 65. 360–363.
[2] W.J. O’Brien, G. Ryge, An Outline of Dental Materials and Their Selection, [33] N.K. Sarkar, E.H. Greener, J. Dent. Res. 53 (4) (1974) 925–932.
second ed., Saunders, Philadelphia, 1978, pp. 1–442. [34] N.K. Sarkar, R.A. Fuys, J.W. Stanford, J. Dent. Res. 58 (2) (1979) 568–575.
[3] R.G. Craig (Ed.), Restorative Dental Materials, seventh ed., Mosby, St. [35] N.K. Sarkar, R.A. Fuys, J.W. Stanford, J. Dent. Res. 58 (6) (1979)
Louis, 1985, pp. 1–533. 1572–1577.
[4] P.G. Laing, A.B. Ferguson, E.S. Hodge, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1 (1967) [36] L. Gettleman, F.H. Cocks, L.A. Darmiento, P.A. Levine, S. Wright, D.
135–149. Nathanson, J. Dent. Res. 59 (4) (1980) 689–707.
[5] H. Kawahara, J. Jap. Soc. Dent. Appar. Mater. 3 (1962) 105. [37] J.M. Meyer, Corros. Sci. 17 (1977) 971–982.
[6] N. Ishizaki, J. Osaka Dent. Univ. 3 (1961) 121. [38] S.M. de De Micheli, O. Riesgo, Biomaterials 3 (1982) 209–212.
[7] G.A. Holland, K. Asgar, J. Dent. Res. 53 (5) (1974) 1245–1254. [39] S. Nomoto, M. Ano, H. Onose, J. Dent. 58 (7) (1979) 1688–1690.
[8] J.W. Sunderman Jr., Prev. Med. 5 (2) (1976) 279–294. [40] A.C. Guastaldi, Comparative evaluation in vitro of tarnish corrosion
[9] K. Arvidson, R. Wroblewski, Scand. J. Dent. Res. 86 (3) (1978) 200–205. changes of non-precious dental alloys as a function of time and storage
[10] N.K. Sarkar, R.A. Fuys, J.W. Stanford, J. Prosthet. Dent. 40 (1978) 50–55. solution. Ph.D. thesis, School of Engineering, University of Sao Paulo,
[11] L.C. Lucas, J. Lemons, J. O’Neal, N. Joshi, J. Prosthet. Dent. 67 (1988) Sao Paulo, 1987.
141. [41] W. Schriever, L.E. Diamond, J. Dent. Res. 31 (1952) 205–229.
[12] B.I. Johansson, J.E. Lemmons, S.Q. Hao, Dent. Mater. 5 (1989) 324–328. [42] E.W. Skinner, R.W. Phillips, The Science of Dental Materials, fifth ed., W.
[13] K.J. Anusavice, Phillips’ Science of Dental Materials, 10th ed., Saunders, B.Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, and London, 1960.
Philadelphia, 1996, pp. 33–74. [43] I.C. Schoonover, W. Souder, J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 28 (1941) 1278–1291.
[14] L.C. Lucas, J.E. Lemons, Adv. Dent. Res. 6 (1992) 32–37. [44] T. Fusayama, T. Katayori, J. Nomoto, J. Dent. Res. 42 (5) (1963)
[15] R. Blackman, N. Barghi, C. Tran, J. Prosthet. Dent. 65 (2) (1991) 309–315. 1183–1197.
[16] M. Bergman, Int. Dent. J. 40 (1) (1990) 4–10. [45] T.K. Ross, D.A. Carter, D.C. Smith, Corros. Sci. 7 (1967) 373–376.
[17] H.N. Solomon, M.C. Reingard, H.L. Goltz, Dent. Items Interest. 60 (1938) [46] H. Do Duc, P. Tissot, J. Dent. Res. 58 (6) (1979) 1578–1580.
1047–1052. [47] H.J. Mueller, Quintessence Int. 3 (1981) 327–337.
[18] J.J. Tuccillo, J.P. Neilsen, J. Prosthet. Dent. 25 (6) (1971) 629–637. [48] N. Shigeto, T. Yanagihara, T. Hamada, E.B. Jorgensen, J. Prosthet. Dent.
[19] R.S. Mateer, C.D. Reitz, J. Dent. Res. 49 (1970) 399–407. 62 (5) (1989) 512–515.
[20] J.S. Covington, M.A. McBride, W.F. Spagle, A.L. Disney, J. Prosthet. Dent. [49] N. Shigeto, T. Yanagihara, S. Murakami, T. Hamada, J. Prosthet. Dent. 66
54 (1985) 127–136. (1991) 607–610.
[21] K.K. Skjorland, Acta. Odontol. Scand. 40 (1982) 129–134. [50] E. Angelini, M. Pezzoli, F. Rosalbino, F. Zucchi, J. Dent. 19 (1991) 56–61.
[22] R.W. Revie, N.D. Greene, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 3 (1969) 453–465. [51] G. Palaghias, G. Eliades, G. Vougiouklakis, J. Prosthet. Dent. 67 (2) (1992)
[23] R.A. Buchanan, J.E. Lemons, Trans. Soc. Biomat. 5 (1982) 110. 194–198.
[24] L.C. Lucas, P. Kale, R. Buchanan, U. Gill, C. Griffin, J. Lemons, Trans. [52] O.W. Rogers, Brit. Dent. J. 143 (1977) 397–403.
Soc. Biomat. 7 (1984) 182. [53] E.J. Sutow, D.W. Jones, J. Dent. Res. 58 (4) (1979) 1358–1363.
[25] M.G. Fontana, Corrosion Engineering, third ed., McGraw-Hill Book Com- [54] R.A. Zavanelli, G.E. Henriques, I. Ferriera, J. Prosthet. Dent. 84 (2000)
pany, New York, 1987. 274–279.
[26] D.A. Jones, Principles and Prevention of Corrosion, second ed., Prentice [55] Y. Tai, R. DeLong, R.J. Goodkind, W.H. Douglas, J. Prosthet. Dent. 68 (4)
Hall, NJ, 1996. (1992) 692–697.
[27] J.A. Sorensen, M.J. Engleman, T. Daher, A.A. Caputo, J. Prosthet. Dent. [56] R.B. Waterhouse, Fretting Corrosion, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1972.
63 (4) (1990) 630–637. [57] V.E. Taylor, M.F. Jordan, Br. Dent. J. 122 (1967) 399.
[28] K. Nagai, M. Ohashi, S. Uehara, J. Nihon Univ. Sch. Dent. 9 (1967) [58] L. Wiegman-Ho, J.A.A. Ketelaar, J. Dent. 15 (1987) 166–170.
143–163. [59] M.S. Bapna, H.J. Mueller, J. Prosthet. Dent. 59 (4) (1988) 503–510.
[29] D.F. Duperon, M.D. Nevile, Z. Kasloff, J. Prosthet. Dent. 25 (1971) [60] O.F.M. Benatti, W.G. Miranda Jr., A. Muench, J. Prosthet. Dent. 84 (4)
650–656. (2000) 360–363.