4.1.

3 Effects of fabric finishing

Fabric finishing has been also considered one of the most influential parameter that has to be considered while
investigating the ballistic performances of the materials. Among different dry ballistic fabric finishing methods,
impregnation of STF to a fabric is the mostly used methods to increases the frictional force of a single yarn in the
fabric, which consequently increases the apparent modulus of the yarn.

However, different internal parameter while impregnation should be also well studied to determine precisely its
effect on the final performances. The ballistic test were carried out using one panel with all neat Kevlar fabric layers
and two hybrid panels of neat and STF impregnated Kevlar fabrics against 9 mm bullets at 436 m/s.

Based on the result, the back-face signature were found smaller in the panels where STF impregnated fabrics are
laminated behind the neat Kevlar layers as compared with the panel with all neat fabrics as well as hybrid panel with
neat Kevlar layers placed on the backside of the panel [277]. This is mainly due to STF impregnated fabrics which is
laminated behind the neat Kevlar layers has got the synchronized elongation of the facing yarns both in the frontal
and rear layers during the ballistic impact.

Beside the laminating sequence, the effect of fabric count and the location of shot impregnated p-aramid fabrics
with shear thickening fluid (STF) on ballistic performance were also found as sensitive parameters [26]. An
investigation of body armour panels with higher fabric count possess lower ballistic limit (V50) and BFS value due
to its favour tensile dissipation over kinetic dissipation against high velocity impact.

Besides, due to the larger difference in the warp and weft crimp ratios, hybridization of neat and STF impregnated
fabrics for panels of densely woven fabric possesses smaller decrement of back-face signature. The shot-to-edge
distance of the impregnated fabrics were also affected both by ballistic limit BFS value of the panel. The shots
located closer to the edge and centre of the panel resulted in larger BFS values and higher perforation ratio
respectively.

Since improving a surface coefficient of friction is one of the methods to increase the performance of the ballistic
performances of the materials, one of the study applied a non-polymerizing reactive plasma gas N2 and chemical
vapour (CH3)2Cl2Si to modify plain woven Kevlar fabric surface for ballistic impact application [278]. As shown in
Fig. 19, based on SEM surface morphological study on treated fabrics, rougher surface is observed in the plasma-
treated Kevlar fibre surface than neat fabrics.

Moreover, yarn pulling-out test also revealed resistance to pulling out yarns from fabrics plasma-treated treated with
N2 and (CH3)2Cl2Si plasma-treated fabric is increased by 18% and 300% respectively, compared with the untreated
Kevlar fabric. Besides, the ballistic composite surface could also be improved by impregnated the fabrics with a
colloidal shear thickening fluid (silica particles (450 nm) dispersed in ethylene glycol).

One of the research investigation ascertained that the impregnated Kevlar fabric shows significant enhancement in
ballistic penetration resistance as compared with simple stacks of neat fabric while tested against Fragment
simulation projectile (FSP) ballistic penetration measurements at 244 m/s [77]. Moreover, the STF-impregnated
Kevlar fabric provides nearly the same ballistic protection, but much thinner and more flexible as compared with
neat Kevlar fabrics of equivalent weight due to an increase in the yarn pull-out force upon transition of the STF to its
rigid state.

Both particle size of silica while impregnation of plain woven fabrics with Silica Colloidal Suspension and impact
boundary conditions has also an impact on the ballistic performance behaviour of the impregnated fabrics. To
investigate this, researcher [279] has used different spherical silica particles (with average diameters of 100 nm, 300
nm, and 500nm) to develop and applied Silica Colloidal Suspension (SCS) on the plain woven fabrics.

These SCSimpregnated fabrics were subjected against ballistic tests under various boundary conditions and revealed
that fabric impregnated with lower SCS silica particles (100 nm average diameter) showed better impact
performance than larger particles and untreated fabrics both in terms of impact energy absorption and resistance to
blunt trauma due to creating more interfacial friction between filaments and yarns for larger impact energy transfer
with interaction of individual yarns in the fabric.
Further, the influence of impregnation with SCS on ballistic performance was found to be closely associated with
boundary conditions. Thus, the particle size of the SCS and the boundary conditions are the dominant factors that
can be manipulated to fully utilize the benefits of SCS impregnated fabrics for flexible body armour. Matrix in the
composite laminates has also an effect on the ballistic impact of textile fabric composite laminates.

One of the study tried to investigate the effect of matrix on the ballistic impact and damage pattern of aramid fabric
composite laminates using different aramid (Twaron) fabric epoxy and aramid fabric-polypropylene (PP)-based
composite laminates at different thickness [280]. The result against 7.62 mm armour piercing projectiles with
different strike velocity (SV) test showed that the Twaron-PP composites achieved better ballistic limit than
Twaron-epoxy composites with equivalent thickness.

Besides, Epoxy-based composites faced localized damage mode as compared to a global mode of failure in PPbased
composites. Another important research were dealt with effect of clothing fabrics as intermediate targets on ballistic
penetration against standard 12-gauge shotgun shell using ordnance gelatine to simulate soft tissue and thin cowhide
to simulate skin [281].

Thicker denim and cotton fabrics provided slightly greater protection than polyester. Even though the study was a
focused only experimental which need an numerical model to study different shot sizes, different chokes, and
different ranges of fire, the result shows that range of fire were found as significant factor for possible pellet
penetration not only in terms of more velocity and energy retained at shorter distances, but also more pellets hitting
the target due to tight pattern of the fired pellets.

4.1.4 Effect of friction on the ballistic panel system

Among several parameters, coefficient of friction in different parts or within parts of the material is one of the
parameter, which has a significant effect in determining the ballistic impact performance of ballistic materials. Even
though the structural complexity of ballistic material creates difficulties, many efforts have been made
experimentally on how different friction affects ballistic impact response of ballistic materials in the past decades.

For example, slip between the yarns becomes more difficult as the friction force increases between them. When the
bullet penetrates the fabric structure, it breaks the high-tenacity yarns and tries to pass through the fabric; however,
the bullet loses most of its energy and its effect decreases significantly. But in the case of lower frictional force
between the yarns, the bullet pushes yarns to the left and right and opens a way for itself, which finally causes less
bullet energy loss, and therefore the bullet passes through more fabric layer.

The frictional effects are also most prominent at low velocities but diminish at higher velocities. At high velocities,
material at the impact point is broken on contact and more yarns are severed, hence, friction from projectiles
squeezing through the perforation is less significant but this phenomenon is also less distinct with the sharper
projectiles [282]. However, even though various experimental works have shown that an interfacial friction affects
the energy absorption of fabrics subjected to ballistic impact, still how it plays a role is rarely understood.

However, it is also very important to clearly understand how friction affects the distribution of stress and the
magnitude of stress in yarns, fabrics or composites in order to determine both the failure of the material in the
ballistic materials and the energy absorption in a ballistic event. For better understanding, various researchers have
worked dedicatedly using modelling and simulation methods on effect of friction toward ballistic impact behaviour.

The influence of friction through modelling of two clamped and two free edges boundary conditions high-strength
plain weave Kevlar fabric during ballistic impact clearly indicated that considering different yarn material
properties, initial projectile velocities and the set of boundary conditions, the ballistic performance directly depends
upon friction by maintaining the integrity of the weave pattern and material properties of the yarns. In doing so,
fabrics comprised of yarns characterized by higher stiffness and strength relative to the baseline Kevlar exhibited a
stronger influence on ballistic performance [271].

Mostly, textile structures used in ballistic protection are woven fabrics, unidirectional (UD) fabric structures, and
nonwoven fabrics. Nowadays, 3D woven fabrics are also highly involved in the application due to various
advantages. Due to its current popularity as promising materials to replace the 2D structures in the field of ballistic
protection, one of the research also tried to study the frictional effect on 3D fabrics against ballistic impact
performance [231].

In general, the ballistic performance of the interlock woven fabrics can be improved by using fibres with great
friction coefficients. A new geometrical tool was used to investigate the effects of friction onto the ballistic impact
behaviour of 3D warp interlock Kevlar KM2® fabric with different frictional configuration. Unlike fabric/projectile
frictions, the result showed that friction among yarns (yarn/yarn) affects considerably on the impact behaviour of
this fabric due to its ability to keep the fabric structural stability during the impact event as shown in Fig. 20.

Another numerical investigation on inter-yarn friction influence against ballistic impact behaviour of plainwoven
fabrics shows that, increasing inter-yarn friction contribute for better energy absorption by decreasing the
longitudinal wave velocity which ultimately causes the projectile longer time to penetrate and to reach fracture
strength of the yarn, and vice versa [283].

Besides, as inter-yarn friction increase, the transverse wave velocities has been increased which affects the depth
and width of impact indentation in the fabric. However, the back face signature shows no influence by the inter-yarn
friction while the width is significantly increased for higher levels of inter-yarn friction to absorb more energy.

Moreover, the effect of frictions on the ballistic impact of a square patch of single-ply plain-woven fabric with three
different types of boundary conditions namely, four edges clamped, two edges clamped, and four edges free [113]
was studied numerically using commercially available FEA code, LS-DYNA. The more energy was absorbed in
fabrics with more friction as compared to fabrics with less friction.

Similarly, another researcher studied the effects of friction between yarns and friction between projectile and fabrics
using FEA code (LS-DYNA) on ballistic impact of a rigid sphere into a square patch of plain-weave fabric
considering four edges clamped and two opposite edges clamped boundary conditions [284].

The model result clearly shows that the friction in the fabric helps to reduce the failures of the fabrics impact load
improvement by reducing the bullet residual velocity and later increase and facilitate the absorption of energy by the
fabrics. Moreover, the frictional effect on the fabrics was influenced by the boundary conditions of the fabrics.

Another experimental and modelling research on the effects of inter-layer friction of woven body armour
considering both yarn crimp and its viscoelastic properties shows that the responses of the woven fabric during
ballistic performances were sensitive toward low coefficient yarn friction and then become nonsensible after some
level [285]. Moreover, the energy absorption capabilities of the fabrics become very low as the inter-yarn friction
become higher by increasing the rupturing of the yarn.

Another numerical study also deals both projectile-fabric and yarn–yarn friction effect on the energy absorption
capabilities of a square plain-woven fabric panel, which firmly clamped along its four edges during ballistic impacts.
Unlike the above result, the mentioned friction affects mainly depends on the impacted regions of the intended
fabric structure than the other regions due to its ability to hinder the principal yarns which helps to propagate and
absorb more energy by delaying yarn breakage for distributing the maximum stress.

During impact, fabrics with projectile-fabric friction helps to hinder the breakage of yarn by distributing the
maximum stress at projectile-fabric contact zone. Whereas, fabrics with yarn–yarn friction helps to reduce the
motion within yarns which later helps to decrease the de-crimping of woven fabrics. Even though both type of
friction has its effect, the final result will not be also summing up of the two effects [28].

The influence of inter-yarn friction on two types of fabrics made of Twaron® and Dyneema® yarn during ballistic
impact were researched and the result considering the primary and secondary yarn in the fabrics shows that higher
inter-yarn friction gives not only involving secondary yarns during the impact energy but also gives less slippage of
primary yarns at impact centre.

Besides, the inter-yarn friction has its limited coefficient values to enhance the energy absorption capabilities since
higher values would create the earlier fabric failure due to creating stress concentration on the primary yarns [286].
This was also supported by another researcher while investigating the effect of inter-yarn friction coefficient on
failure mechanism and energy distribution characteristic of plain woven fabric structure using semi-analytical model
first by developing inter-yarn static and kinetic coefficients of friction and then by determining friction coefficients
of the fabrics as shown in Fig. 21.

Even though the higher the inter-yarn friction brings better ballistic performance, increasing the inter-yarn friction
beyond the optimal values may not always give better ballistic performance and even adversely affect the energy
dissipation and failure mechanism. Moreover, it is also observed that the effect of projectile nose on the failure
mechanism becomes insignificant for higher friction coefficients [287].

The influences of interface friction on the various fabrics during ballistic impact characteristics of different aramid
fabrics were also studied. Based on the investigation, both filament-filament and yarn-yarn interface friction
becomes a critical factor which affects the ballistic performance of the corresponding fabrics [288]. Applying shear
thickening fluids (STF) on the materials through impregnation would give better ballistic resistance without
hindering flexibility as shown in Fig. 22.

Even though it is insufficient to fully expressing during high impact velocity, the numerical simulation and
experimental validation on the effects of friction during high velocity rifles impacts on STF impregnated Kevlar
fabric and net fabrics shows that friction between the impact projectile, fabric, and yarns within the fabric during
impact is the main factors on energy absorption mechanism (Fig. 23) [289].