Measurement scale, the atomic mass unit, defined in terms of the atom

carbon-12, is usually used.

Measurement in Physics. Physics is based on measurement of
physical quantities. Certain physical quantities have been Density. The density r of a material is the mass per unit
chosen as base quantities (such as length, time, and mass); volume:
each has been defined in terms of a standard and given a unit
of measure (such as meter, second, and kilogram). Other m
ρ=
physical quantities are defined in terms of the base quantities V
and their standards and units.
Motion Along A Straight Line
SI Units. The unit system emphasized in this book is the
International System of Units (SI). Standards, which must be Position. The position x of a particle on an x axis locates the
both accessible and invariable, have been established for these particle with respect to the origin, or zero point, of the axis.
base quantities by international agreement. These standards are The position is either positive or negative, according to which
used in all physical measurement, for both the base quantities side of the origin the particle is on, or zero if the particle is at
and the quantities derived from them. the origin. The positive direction on an axis is the direction of
increasing positive numbers; the opposite direction is the
Changing Units. Conversion of units may be performed by negative direction on the axis.
using chain-link conversions in which the original data are
multiplied successively by conversion factors written as unity Displacement. The displacement Δx of a particle is the change
and the units are manipulated like algebraic quantities until in its position
only the desired units remain.
Δx = x2-x1
Length. The meter is defined as the distance traveled by light
during a precisely specified time interval. Displacement is a vector quantity. It is positive if the particle
has moved in the positive direction of the x axis and negative if
Time. The second is defined in terms of the oscillations of light the particle has moved in the negative direction.
emitted by an atomic (cesium-133) source. Accurate time
signals are sent worldwide by radio signals keyed to atomic Average Velocity. (vavg) When a particle has moved from
clocks in standardizing laboratories. position x1 to position x2 during a time interval Δt = t2-t1, its
average velocity during that interval is
Mass. The kilogram is defined in terms of a platinum–iridium
standard mass kept near Paris. For measurements on an atomic
 Δ X X 2− X 1
vavg = Δ Y = t −t
2 1
Constant Acceleration. When the acceleration is constant, the
Average Speed. savg The average speed savg of a particle average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration are equal
and we can write Eq. 2-7, with some changes in notation, as
during a time interval ∆ t depends on the total distance the v−v 0
particle moves in that time interval: a=a avg=
t−0
total distance
savg = Here v0 is the velocity at time t = 0 and v is the velocity at any
∆t
later time t. We can recast this equation as
Instantaneous Velocity & Speed. The instantaneous velocity
(or simply velocity) v of a moving particle is v=v 0 + at

∆ x dx x −x0
v= lim = v=v avg =
∆t→0 ∆ t dt t−0

where Δx = x2-x1 and Δt = t2-t1. Speed is the magnitude of x=x 0 +v avg t

instantaneous velocity.
1
v avg= (v 0 +v )
Average Acceleration. Average acceleration is the ratio of a 2
change in velocity Δ v to the time interval Δt in which the
change occurs: 1
v avg=v 0+ at
2
Δv
a avg=
Δt 1
x−x 0=v 0 t + a t 2
2
Instantaneous Acceleration. Instantaneous acceleration (or
simply acceleration) a is the first time derivative of velocity v 2=v 20+2a(x- x 0)
v(t) and the second time derivative of position x(t):
1
d v d dx d2 x x−x 0= ( v 0 +v ) t
a= =
d t d t dt ( )
= 2
dt
2
 1 Integration In Motion Analysis
x−x 0=vt− a t 2
2
Integrating Acceleration. When we have a graph of an object’s
∫ dv=a ∫ dt acceleration a versus time t, we can integrate on the graph to
find the velocity at any given time. Because a is defined as
v=at +C → v 0=( a )( 0 )+ C=C a=dv/dt, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus tells us that
t1
∆ x dx v1 −v 0=∫ a dt
v= lim = →dx=v dt →
∆t→0 ∆ t dt t0

∫ dx=∫ v dt →∫ dx=∫ (v ¿¿ 0+ at )dt →¿ The right side of the equation is a definite integral (it gives a
numerical result rather than a function),v0 is the velocity at
∫ dx=v 0∫ dt+ a∫ t dt time t0, and v1 is the velocity at later time t1.

t1
integration now yields
∫ a dt=area between¿curve∧¿ time axis , t0 ¿ t1 ¿ ¿
t0
1
x=v 0 t + a t 2 +C '
2
Integrating Velocity. Similarly, because velocity v is defined in
terms of the position x as v = dx/dt, then
Free Fall Acceleration. where a is constant, 9.81 m/s2 t1
v−v 0 x 1−x 0=∫ v dt
t=
a t0

v 2−v 20
y= where x0 is the position at time t0 and x1 is the position at time
2a
t1.
1
y=v 0 t− g t 2 t1
2
∫ v dt=area between¿curve∧¿ time axis , t0 ¿ t1 ¿ ¿
t0
VECTORS Unit Vector Notation. Unit vectors i^ , ^j,∧k^ have magnitudes
of unity and are directed in the positive directions of the x, y,
Adding Vectors Geometrically. Two vectors a⃗ and b⃗ may be and z axes, respectively, in a right-handed coordinate system
added geometrically by drawing them to a common scale and (as defined by the vector products of the unit vectors). We can
placing them head to tail. The vector connecting the tail of the write a vector a⃗ in terms of unit vectors as
first to the head of the second is the vector sum ⃗s. To subtract b⃗
from a⃗ , reverse the direction of b⃗ to get -⃗a ; then add -b⃗ to a⃗ . ^ y ^j+ az k^
a⃗ =a x i+a
Vector addition is commutative
in whicha x i^ , a y ^j∧az k^ are the vector components
a⃗ + ⃗b= ⃗b +⃗a
a⃗ ∧a x , a y ,∧a z are its scalar components.
and obeys the associative law,
Adding Vectors in Component Form. To add vectors in
( a⃗ + ⃗b ) + c⃗ =⃗a +¿) component form, we use the rules

The (scalar) components ax and ay of any two-dimensional rx =ax + bx ry =ay +by rz =az +bz
vector a⃗ along the coordinate axes are found by dropping
Here a⃗ and b⃗ are the vectors to be added, and r⃗ is the vector
perpendicular lines from the ends of a⃗ onto the coordinate axes.
sum. Note that we add components axis by axis.We can then
The components are given by
express the sum in unit-vector notation or magnitude-angle
notation.
ax = a cos 𝜃 and ay = a sin 𝜃
Product of a Scalar and a Vector. The product of a scalar s
where 𝜃 is the angle between the positive direction of the x axis and a vector ^v is a new vector whose magnitude is sv and
and the direction of a⃗ . The algebraic sign of a component whose direction is the same as that of ⃗v if s is positive, and
indicates its direction along the associated axis. Given its opposite that of ⃗v if s is negative. (The negative sign reverses
components, we can find the magnitude and orientation the vector.) To divide ⃗v by s, multiply ⃗v by 1/s.
(direction) of the vector a⃗ by using

ay
a=√ a2x + a2y and tanθ=
ax
The Scalar Product. The scalar (or dot) product of two Position Vector The location of a particle relative to the origin
vectors a⃗ and b⃗ is written a⃗ × ⃗band is the scalar quantity given of a coordinate system is given by a position vector r⃗ , which in
by unit-vector notation is

a⃗ × ⃗b=ab cos ϕ ^ y ^j+ z k^

r^ =x i+

in which ϕ is the angle between the directions of a⃗ and b⃗ . A Here x i+^ y ^j+ z k^ are the vector components of position vector
scalar product is the product of the magnitude of one vector r⃗ , and x, y, and z are its scalar components (as well as the
and the scalar component of the second vector along the coordinates of the particle). A position vector is described
direction of the first vector. Note that a⃗ × ⃗b= ⃗b × ⃗a, which either by a magnitude and one or two angles for orientation, or
means that the scalar product obeys the commutative law. by its vector or scalar components.

In vector unit notation, Displacement. If a particle moves so that its position vector
r 1 to ⃗
changes from ⃗ r 2, the particle’s displacement ∆ r⃗1 is
^ a y ^j+a z k^ )×(b¿¿ x i+
a⃗ × ⃗b=(a¿¿ x i+ ^ b y ^j +b z k^ )¿ ¿
∆ r⃗ =⃗
r 2−⃗
r1
which maybe expanded according to the distributive law.
The displacement can also be written as
The Vector Product The vector product of two vectors a⃗ ∧⃗b
is written a⃗ × ⃗b and is a vector c⃗ whose magnitude c is given by ^ ( y 2− y 1) ^j+ ( z2 −z1 ) k^
∆ r⃗ =( x 2−x 1 ) i+
c=ab sin ϕ ,
^ Δy ^j+ Δz k^
¿ Δx i+
in which ϕ is the smaller of the angles between the directions
of a⃗ and b⃗ . The direction of c⃗ is perpendicular to the plane
Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity. If a particle
defined by a⃗ and b⃗ and is given by the right-hand rule. Note
undergoes a displacement ∆ r⃗ in time interval Δt, its average
that a⃗ × ⃗b=− ( ⃗b ×⃗a ) , which means that the vector product does
velocity
not obey the commutative law.
Δ r⃗
In vector unit notation, ⃗v avg=
Δt
^ a y ^j+a z k^ )×(b¿¿ x i+
a⃗ × ⃗b=(a¿¿ x i+ ^ b y ^j +b z k^ )¿ ¿
As Δt is shrunk to 0, ⃗v avgreaches a limit called either the
velocity or the instantaneous velocity ⃗v
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
 d r⃗ particle’s horizontal acceleration is zero and its vertical
⃗v =
dt acceleration is the free-fall acceleration -g. (Upward is taken to
be a positive direction.) If ⃗v 0 is expressed as a magnitude (the
which can be rewritten in unit-vector notation as speed v0) and an angle 𝜃0 (measured from the horizontal), the
particle’s equations of motion along the horizontal x axis and
^ y ^j+ v z k^
⃗v =v x i+v vertical y axis are

where vx =dx/dt, vy = dy/dt, and vz = dz/dt. The instantaneous x−x 0=(v ¿ ¿ 0 cos θ 0) t ¿,
velocity ⃗v of a particle is always directed along the tangent to
the particle’s path at the particle’s position. 1
y− y 0=( v ¿ ¿ 0 cos θ0 )t− g t 2 ¿,
2
Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration. If a
particle’s velocity changes from ⃗v1 to ⃗
v 2in time interval Δt, its v y =v 0 cos θ0 −g t
average acceleration during Δt is
v 2y =(v ¿ ¿ 0 sin θ0)2 −2 g ( y − y 0 ) ¿
v 2−⃗
⃗ v 1 Δ ⃗v
a⃗ avg= =
Δt Δt The trajectory (path) of a particle in projectile motion is
parabolic and is given by
as Δt is shrunk to 0, a⃗ avg reaches a limiting value called either
the acceleration or the instantaneous acceleration a⃗ : g x2
y=( tan θ0 ) x−
2¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
d ⃗v
a⃗ =
dt if x0 and y0 are zero. The particle’s horizontal range R, which
is the horizontal distance from the launch point to the point at
In unit-vector notation, which the particle returns to the launch height, is
^ y ^j+ az k^
a⃗ =a x i+a v 20
R= sin 2θ 0
g
where ax =dvx/dt, ay = dvy/dt, and az = dvz/dt.
Uniform Circular Motion. If a particle travels along a circle or
Projectile Motion. Projectile motion is the motion of a particle circular arc of radius r at constant speed v, it is said to be in
v 0. During its flight, the
that is launched with an initial velocity ⃗
uniform circular motion and has an acceleration a⃗ of constant Force Forces are vector quantities. Their magnitudes are de- fined in terms of the
acceleration they would give the standard kilogram. A force that accelerates that
magnitude standard body by exactly 1 m/s2 is defined to have a magnitude of 1 N. The direction
of a force is the direction of the acceleration it causes. Forces are com- bined
v2 according to the rules of vector algebra. The net force on a body is the vector sum
a= of all the forces acting on the body.
r
Newton’s First Law If there is no net force on a body, the body remains at rest if
The direction of a⃗ is toward the center of the circle or circular it is initially at rest or moves in a straight line at constant speed if it is in motion.
arc, and a⃗ is said to be centripetal. The time for the particle to
complete a circle is Inertial Reference Frames Reference frames in which Newtonian mechanics
holds are called inertial reference frames or inertial frames. Reference frames in
which Newtonian mechanics does not hold are called noninertial reference frames
2 πr or noniner- tial frames.
T=
v
Mass The mass of a body is the characteristic of that body that relates the body’s
T is called the period of revolution of the motion. acceleration to the net force causing the acceler- ation. Masses are scalar quantities.

:
Relative Motion. When two frames of reference A and B are Newton’s First Law: If no net force acts on a body (F net 􏰁 0), the body’s velocity
cannot change; that is, the body cannot accelerate.
moving relative to each other at constant velocity, the velocity
of a particle P as measured by an observer in frame A usually :
differs from that measured from frame B. The two measured Newton’s Second Law The net force F net

velocities are related by :

mass m is related to the body’s acceleration :a by F n e t 􏰁 m :a ,
v PA =⃗
⃗ v P B−⃗
v B A,
which may be written in the component versions

v BAis the velocity of B with respect to A. Both observers

where ⃗ on a body with ( 5 - 1 )
measure the same acceleration for the particle:

a PA =⃗
⃗ aPB

Force and Motion

Newtonian Mechanics The velocity of an object can change (the object can
accelerate) when the object is acted on by one or more forces (pushes or pulls) from
other objects. Newtonian mechanics relates accelerations and forces.