1.

Kinematics of Particles

• Introduction

• Rectilinear Motion of Particles

• Curvilinear Motion of Particles

Page 1
Introduction
• Dynamics includes:
- Kinematics:
- Study of the geometry of motion.
- Used to relate displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time without
reference to the cause of motion.
- Kinetics:
- Study of the relations existing between the forces acting on a body,
the mass of the body, and the motion of the body.
- Used to predict the motion caused by given forces or to determine
the forces required to produce a given motion.

• Applications include analysis and design of moving structures to fixed

structures subject to shock loads such as robotic devices, rockets, missiles,
vehicles, spacecraft, pumps, engines, machine tools, etc.

Page 2
Rectilinear Motion: Position
• Particle moving along a straight line is said
to be in rectilinear motion.
• Position coordinate of a particle is defined by
positive or negative distance of particle from
a fixed origin on the line.
• The motion of a particle is known if the
position coordinate for particle is known for
every value of time t. Motion of the particle
may be expressed in the form of a function,
e.g.,
x = 6t 2 − t 3
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.

Page 3
Rectilinear Motion: Velocity
• Consider particle which occupies position P
at time t and P’ at t+∆t,
∆x
Average velocity =
∆t
∆x
Instantaneous velocity = v = lim
∆t →0 ∆t

• Instantaneous velocity may be positive or

negative. Magnitude of velocity is referred
to as particle speed.
• From the definition of a derivative,
∆x dx
v = lim = = x&
∆t →0 ∆t dt
e.g., x = 6t 2 − t 3
dx
v= = 12t − 3t 2
dt
Page 4
Rectilinear Motion: Instantaneous Velocity

A
Instantaneous velocity A (tangent)
B2

Average velocity AB2

B1

Average velocity AB1

Page 5
Rectilinear Motion: Acceleration
• Consider particle with velocity v at time t and
v’ at t+∆t,
∆v
Instantaneous acceleration = a = lim
∆t →0 ∆t

• Instantaneous acceleration may be:

- positive: increasing positive velocity.
- negative: decreasing positive velocity

• From the definition of a derivative,

∆v dv d 2x
a = lim = = v& = 2 = &x&
∆ t → 0 ∆t dt dt
e.g. v = 12t − 3t 2
dv
a= = 12 − 6t
dt
Page 6
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Consider particle with motion given by
x = 6t 2 − t 3
dx
v= = 12t − 3t 2
dt

dv d 2 x
a= = = 12 − 6t
dt dt 2

• at t = 0, x = 0, v = 0, a = 12 m/s2

• at t = 2 s, x = 16 m, v = vmax = 12 m/s, a = 0

• at t = 4 s, x = xmax = 32 m, v = 0, a = -12 m/s2

• at t = 6 s, x = 0, v = -36 m/s, a = 24 m/s2

Page 7
Constant Velocity Rectilinear Motion
For particle in uniform rectilinear motion, the acceleration is zero and
the velocity is constant.

dx
= v = constant
dt
x t
∫ dx = v ∫ dt
x0 0
x − x0 = vt
x = x0 + vt

Page 8
Constant Acceleration Rectilinear Motion
For particle in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the acceleration of
the particle is constant.
v t
dv
dt
= a = constant ∫ dv = a ∫ dt v − v0 = at
v0 0
v = v0 + at

x t
dx
= v0 + at ∫ dx = ∫ (v0 + at )dt x − x0 = v0 t + 12 at 2
dt x0 0

x = x0 + v0 t + 12 at 2

v x
dv
v = a = constant
dx
∫ v dv = a ∫ dx 1
2
(v 2 − v02 ) = a(x − x0 )
v0 x0

v 2 = v02 + 2a( x − x0 )
Page 9
Inconstant Acceleration Rectilinear Motion
• Acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t):
v (t ) t t
dv
= a = f (t ) dv = f (t ) dt ∫ dv = ∫ f (t ) dt v(t ) − v0 = ∫ f (t ) dt
dt v 0 0
0
x (t ) t t
dx
= v(t ) dx = v(t ) dt ∫ dx = ∫ v(t ) dt x(t ) − x0 = ∫ v(t ) dt
dt x0 0 0

• Acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x):

dx dx dv dv
v= or dt = a= or a = v = f ( x )
dt v dt dx
v( x ) x x
v dv = f ( x )dx 1 v ( x )2 − 12 v02
∫ v dv = ∫ f ( x )dx 2
= ∫ f ( x )dx
v0 x0 x0

Page 10
Inconstant Acceleration Rectilinear Motion
• Acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v):
v (t ) t
dv dv dv
= a = f (v ) = dt ∫ f (v ) = ∫ dt
dt f (v ) v0 0
v (t )
dv
∫ f (v ) = t
v0
x (t ) v (t )
dv v dv v dv
v = a = f (v ) dx = ∫ dx = ∫ f (v )
dx f (v ) x0 v0
v (t )
v dv
x(t ) − x0 = ∫ f (v )
v0

Page 11
Sample Problem 1

Ball tossed with 10 m/s vertical velocity from window 20 m above ground.

Determine:
a) velocity and elevation above ground at time t,
b) highest elevation reached by ball and corresponding time, and
c) time when ball will hit the ground and corresponding velocity.

Page 12
Sample Problem 1
SOLUTION:
• Integrate twice to find v(t) and y(t).
dv
= a = −9.81 m s 2
dt
v (t ) t
∫ dv = − ∫ 9.81 dt v(t ) − v0 = −9.81t
v0 0

m  m
v(t ) = 10 −  9.81 2  t
s  s 
dy
= v = 10 − 9.81t
dt
y (t ) t
∫ dy = ∫ (10 − 9.81t )dt y (t ) − y0 = 10t − 12 9.81t 2
y0 0

 m  m
y (t ) = 20 m + 10 t −  4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 
Page 13
Sample Problem 1
• Solve for t at which velocity equals zero and evaluate
corresponding altitude.
m  m
v(t ) = 10 −  9.81 2  t = 0
s  s 
t = 1.019 s

• Solve for t at which altitude equals zero and evaluate

corresponding velocity.

 m  m
y (t ) = 20 m + 10 t −  4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 
 m  m
y = 20 m + 10 (1.019 s ) −  4.905 2 (1.019 s )2
 s  s 
y = 25.1 m

Page 14
Sample Problem 1
• Solve for t at which altitude equals zero and
evaluate corresponding velocity.
 m  m
y (t ) = 20 m + 10 t −  4.905 2 t 2 = 0
 s  s 
t = −1.243 s (meaningless )
t = 3.28 s

m  m
v(t ) = 10 −  9.81 2  t
s  s 
m  m
v(3.28 s ) = 10 −  9.81 2  (3.28 s )
s  s 

m
v = −22.2
s

Page 15
Motion of Several Particles: Relative Motion
• For particles moving along the same line, time
should be recorded from the same starting
instant and displacements should be measured
from the same origin in the same direction.

xB = x B − x A = relative position of B
A
with respect to A
xB = x A + xB A

vB = v B − v A = relative velocity of B
A
with respect to A
vB = v A + vB A

aB = a B − a A = relative acceleration of B
A
with respect to A
aB = a A + aB A
Page 16
Motion of Several Particles: Dependent Motion
• Position of a particle may depend on position of one
or more other particles.
• Position of block B depends on position of block A.
Since rope is of constant length, it follows that sum of
lengths of segments must be constant.
x A + 2 x B = constant (one degree of freedom)
• Positions of three blocks are dependent.
2 x A + 2 x B + xC = constant (two degrees of freedom)

• For linearly related positions, similar relations hold

between velocities and accelerations.
dx A dx B dxC
2 +2 + = 0 or 2v A + 2v B + vC = 0
dt dt dt
dv dv dv
2 A + 2 B + C = 0 or 2a A + 2a B + aC = 0
dt dt dt
Page 17
Sample Problem 2

Ball thrown vertically from 12 m level in elevator shaft with initial velocity of 18
m/s. At same instant, open-platform elevator passes 5 m level moving
upward at 2 m/s.
Determine:
a) when and where ball hits elevator and
b) relative velocity of ball and elevator at contact.

Page 18
Sample Problem 2
SOLUTION:
• Substitute initial position and velocity and constant
acceleration of ball into general equations for
uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.
m  m
v B = v0 + at = 18 −  9.81 2 t
s  s 
 m  m
y B = y0 + v0t + 12 at 2 = 12 m + 18 t −  4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 

• Substitute initial position and constant velocity of

elevator into equation for uniform rectilinear motion.
m
vE = 2
s
 m
y E = y0 + v E t = 5 m +  2 t
 s

Page 19
Sample Problem 2
• Write equation for relative position of ball with respect to
elevator and solve for zero relative position, i.e., impact.

( )
y B E = 12 + 18t − 4.905t 2 − (5 + 2t ) = 0
t = −0.39 s (meaningless )
t = 3.65 s

• Substitute impact time into equations for position of elevator

and relative velocity of ball with respect to elevator.
y E = 5 + 2(3.65)
y E = 12.3 m

v B E = (18 − 9.81t ) − 2
= 16 − 9.81(3.65)
m
v B E = −19.81
s
Page 20
Graphical Solution of Rectilinear-Motion Problems

• Given the x-t curve, the v-t curve is equal to

the x-t curve slope.

• Given the v-t curve, the a-t curve is equal to

the v-t curve slope.

Page 21
Graphical Solution of Rectilinear-Motion Problems

• Given the a-t curve, the change in velocity between t1 and t2 is

equal to the area under the a-t curve between t1 and t2.

• Given the v-t curve, the change in position between t1 and t2 is

equal to the area under the v-t curve between t1 and t2.

Page 22
Curvilinear Motion: Position & Velocity
• Particle moving along a curve other than a straight line
is in curvilinear motion.

• Position vector of a particle at time t is defined by a

vector between origin O of a fixed reference frame and
the position occupied by particle.

• Consider particle which occupies position P defined

r r
by r at time t and P’ defined by r ′ at t + ∆t,
r r
r ∆r dr
v = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
= instantaneous velocity (vector)

∆s ds
v = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
= instantaneous speed (scalar)
Page 23
Curvilinear Motion: Acceleration
r
• Consider velocity v of particle at time t and velocity
r
v′ at t + ∆t,
r r
r ∆v dv
a = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
= instantaneous acceleration (vector)

• In general, acceleration vector is not tangent to

particle path and velocity vector.

Page 24
Rectangular Components of Velocity & Acceleration
• When position vector of particle P is given by its
rectangular components,
r r r r
r = xi + y j + zk

• Velocity vector,
r dx r dy r dz r r r r
v = i + j + k = x&i + y& j + z&k
dt dt dt
r r r
= vx i + v y j + vz k

• Acceleration vector,
r d 2 xr d 2 y r d 2 z r r r r
a = 2 i + 2 j + 2 k = &x&i + &y& j + &z&k
dt dt dt
r r r
= ax i + a y j + az k

Page 25
Rectangular Components of Velocity & Acceleration
• Rectangular components particularly effective
when component accelerations can be integrated
independently, e.g., motion of a projectile,
a x = &x& = 0 a y = &y& = − g a z = &z& = 0
with initial conditions,
x0 = y 0 = z 0 = 0 ( )
(v x )0 , v y 0 , (v z )0 = 0
Integrating twice yields

v x = (vx )0 v y = (v y )0 − gt vz = 0
x = (v x )0 t y = (v y )0 t − 12 gt 2 z=0
• Motion in horizontal direction is uniform.
• Motion in vertical direction is uniformly accelerated.
• Motion of projectile could be replaced by two independent rectilinear
motions.

r 2 2 vy r 2 2
v = vx + v y tan θ = a = ax + a y
vx
Page 26
Motion Relative to a Frame in Translation
• Designate one frame as the fixed frame of reference.
All other frames not rigidly attached to the fixed
reference frame are moving frames of reference.
• Position vectors for particles A and B with respect to
r r
the fixed frame of reference Oxyz are rA and rB .
r
r
• Vector B A joining A and B defines the position of
B with respect to the moving frame Ax’y’z’ and
r r r
rB = rA + rB A
• Differentiating twice,
r r r r
vB = v A + vB A vB A = velocity of B relative to A.
r r r r
a B = a A + aB A aB A = acceleration of B relative
to A.
• Absolute motion of B can be obtained by combining
motion of A with relative motion of B with respect to
moving reference frame attached to A.
Page 27
Tangential and Normal Components
• Velocity vector of particle is tangent to path of
particle. In general, acceleration vector is not.
Wish to express acceleration vector in terms of
tangential and normal components.
r r
• et and et′ are tangential unit vectors for the
particle path at P and P’. When drawn with
r r r
respect to the same origin, ∆et = et′ − et and
∆θ is the angle between them.

∆et = 2 sin (∆θ 2) (elementary calculus)

r
r det
en =
dθ

Page 28
Tangential and Normal Components
r r
• With the velocity vector expressed as v = vet
the particle acceleration may be written as
r r r
r dv dv r de dv r de dθ ds
a= = et + v = et + v
dt dt dt dt dθ ds dt
but r
det r ds
= en ρ dθ = ds =v
dθ dt
After substituting,
r dv r v 2 r dv v2
a = et + en at = an =
dt ρ dt ρ
• Tangential component of acceleration reflects
change of speed and normal component reflects
change of direction.
• Tangential component may be positive or
negative. Normal component always points
toward center of path curvature.
Page 29
Sample Problem 3

A motorist is traveling on curved section of highway at 60 mph. The motorist

applies brakes causing a constant deceleration rate.
Knowing that after 8 s the speed has been reduced to 45 mph, determine the
acceleration of the automobile immediately after the brakes are applied.

Page 30
Sample Problem 3
SOLUTION:
• Calculate tangential and normal components of
acceleration.
∆v (66 − 88) ft s ft
at = = = −2.75 2
∆t 8s s
v2 (88 ft s )2 ft
an = = = 3.10 2
ρ 2500 ft s
60 mph = 88 ft/s
• Determine acceleration magnitude and direction
45 mph = 66 ft/s with respect to tangent to curve.
2 2 2 2 ft
a = at + an = (− 2.75) + 3.10 a = 4.14 2
s

−1 a n 3.10
α = tan = tan −1 α = 48.4°
at 2.75

Page 31
Radial and Transverse Components
• When particle position is given in polar coordinates,
it is convenient to express velocity and acceleration
with components parallel and perpendicular to OP.

• The particle velocity vector is

r
r d r dr r der dr r dθ r
v = ( re r ) = e r + r = er + r eθ
dt dt dt dt dt
r r
= r& er + rθ& eθ where vr = r& and vθ = rθ&
r r
r = re r
r r • Similarly, the particle acceleration vector is
der r deθ r
= eθ = − er r d  dr r dθ r 
dθ dθ a =  er + r eθ 
dt  dt dt 
r r r r
der der dθ r dθ
= = eθ d 2 r r dr der dr dθ r d 2θ r dθ deθ
= 2 er + + eθ + r 2 eθ + r
dt dθ dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
r r
deθ deθ dθ
=
r dθ
= − er ( )r r
= &r& − rθ& 2 er + (rθ&& + 2r&θ& )eθ
dt dθ dt dt
ar = &r& − rθ& 2and aθ = rθ&& + 2r&θ& Page 32
Radial and Transverse Components (con’t)
• In case of particle moving along a circle of center O,
r = constant and r& = &r& = 0 .

• The particle velocity vector is

r
v = rθ& eθ

• Similarly, the particle acceleration vector is

r
a = (− rθ& 2 )er + (rθ&&)eθ
ar = − rθ& 2and aθ = rθ&&

Page 33
Radial and Transverse Components
• When particle position is given in cylindrical
coordinates, it is convenient to express the
velocity and acceleration
r vectors using the unit
r r
vectors eR , eθ , and k .
deR deθ
= eθ = − eR
• Position vector, where dθ dθ
r r r
r = R e R +z k
deR deR dθ
= = eθ θ&
• Velocity vector, where dt dθ dt
r r
r dr & r & r
v= = R e R + Rθ eθ + z& k
dt
deθ deθ dθ dθ
= = −er
• Acceleration vector, where dt dθ dt dt
r r
r dv
a=
dt
= R ( r
) r
&& − Rθ& e R + (Rθ&& + 2 R& θ& )eθ + &z& k
2

Page 34
Sample Problem 4

Rotation of the arm about O is defined by θ = 0.15t2 where θ is in radians and t

in seconds. Collar B slides along the arm such that r = 0.9 - 0.12t2 where r is in
meters.
After the arm has rotated through 30o, determine:
a) the total velocity of the collar,
b) the total acceleration of the collar, and
c) the relative acceleration of the collar with respect to the arm.

Page 35
Sample Problem 4
SOLUTION:
• Evaluate time t for θ = 30o.
θ = 0.15 t 2
= 30° = 0.524 rad t = 1.869 s

• Evaluate radial and angular positions, and first

and second derivatives at time t.
r = 0.9 − 0.12 t 2 = 0.481 m
r& = −0.24 t = −0.449 m s
&r& = −0.24 m s 2

θ = 0.15 t 2 = 0.524 rad

θ& = 0.30 t = 0.561 rad s
θ&& = 0.30 rad s 2

Page 36
Sample Problem 4
• Calculate velocity and acceleration.
vr = r& = −0.449 m s
vθ = rθ& = (0.481m )(0.561rad s ) = 0.270 m s
v
v = vr2 + vθ2 β = tan −1 θ
vr
v = 0.524 m s β = 31.0°
ar = &r& − rθ& 2
= −0.240 m s 2 − (0.481m )(0.561rad s )2
= −0.391m s 2
aθ = rθ&& + 2r&θ&
( )
= (0.481m ) 0.3 rad s 2 + 2(− 0.449 m s )(0.561rad s )
= −0.359 m s 2
a
a = ar2 + aθ2 γ = tan −1 θ
ar
a = 0.531m s γ = 42.6°
Page 37
Sample Problem 4
• Evaluate acceleration with respect to arm.
Motion of collar with respect to arm is rectilinear
and defined by coordinate r.

a B OA = &r& = −0.240 m s 2

Page 38