Chapter:6

WATER Resource ENGINEERING

Basics of Civil Engineering

(CV0002)

Prepared by : Kajol Panchal

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 Topics

 Sources of water
 Water requirements and its conservation
 Introduction to Water conveyance
system
 Introduction to storage structures
 Drinking water parameters
 Introduction and importance of water
treatment
 Importance of water recharging.

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 Introduction
 Hydrology is the science which deals with the
occurrence,distribution and movement of water on the
earth,including that in the atmosphere and below the
surface of the earth.

 Water occurs in the atmosphere in the form of

vapour,on the surface as water,snow or ice and below
the surface as the ground water occupying all the voids
within a geologic stratum.

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Hydrologic Cycle
 The movement or circulatory system of water on the
earth's surface and through the atmosphere is known as
the hydrologic cycle.
 The earth’s water circulatory system is known as
hydrologic cycle.
 Hydrologic Cycle is the process of transfer of moisture
from the atmosphere to the earth in the form of
precipitation, conveyance of the precipited water by
streams and rivers to ocean and lakes etc , and
evaporation of water back to the atmosphere.

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 Process Of The Hydrologic Cycle :

 The water from the surface sources likes lakes, rivers,

ocean, etc. converts to vapour by evaporation due to
solar heat.
 The vapor goes on accumulating continuously in the
atmosphere.
 This vapor is again condensed due to the sudden fall
of temperature and pressure.
 Thus clouds are formed,these clouds again causes the
precipitation (i.e. rainfall).

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  Some of the vapour is converted to ice at the peak of the
mountains.
 The ice again melts in summer and flows as rivers meet
the sea or ocean.
 These processes of evaporation , precipitation and
melting of ice go on continuously like an endless chain
and thus the balance is maintained in the atmosphere.
 This whole process is known as “Hydrologic Cycle”.
Thus, the Hydrologic Cycle may be expressed by
the following simplified equation.
Precipitation = Run off + Evaporation
P=R+E

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 Important Terms:
 Infiltration:
It is the process by which water on the ground surface enter the soil.
 Precipitation:
It is the product of condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls under
gravity from clouds.Eg.Drizzle,rain,snow,ice,hails.
 Run off:
It can be described as a part of water cycle that flows over land as surface water
instead of being absorb in to ground water.
 Evaporation:
It is the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous state due to an
increase in temperature or pressure.
 Hydrology:
It is a branch of science concern with properties of earth's water and specially its
movement in relation to land.

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 Application of hydrology
 Determination of the capacity of a reservoir from
the rainfall records and yearly discharge
observation of a river.
 Determination of peak flow of a river. (peak flood)
 Determination of suitable site for hydroelectric
power generation.
 Sources of water supply in a town or city.
 Methods to be adopted for the flood forecasting
and flood control.
 Availability of water for navigation

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 Sources of water
 The primary sources of water include: rainwater, surface
water (stored in lakes, streams, and ponds), and groundwater.
The distribution of water, however, is quite varied; many
locations have plenty of it while others have very little.
 Water exists on earth in three forms
1. solid (ice)
2.liquidor
3.gas (water vapour).
 Oceans, rivers, clouds, and rain, all of which contain water,
are in a frequent state of change (surface water evaporates,
cloud water precipitates, rainfall infiltrates the ground, etc.).

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  However, the total amount of the earth's water does not
change. Owing to glaciers, rivers and Groundwater flow.
 Water is essential to life. Without it, the biosphere that exists
on the surface of the earth would not be possible. The earth
is called as the ‘water’ planet, water's molecular
arrangement of water is very simple, two hydrogenatomsto
each oxygen atom.
 One special characteristic of water is its ability to change
state very easily under earth conditions. It can be found
readily on the planet in all of its three forms, solid, liquid,
and gas.
 The average annual rainfall in the country is 1170 mm,
which corresponds to annual precipitation, including
snowfall of 4000 Billion Cubic Metres (BCM).
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 Water resources % total water

Ocean 97.6
Ice and snow 2.07
Ground water 0.28
Lakes and reservoirs 0.009
Saline lakes 0.007
Soil moisture 0.005
Biological moisture in plants and animals 0.005
Atmosphere 0.001
Swamps and marshes 0.0001
Rivers and streams 0.0001
Total 100

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 Types of water sources

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 What is Source???
Place or thing from which something
originates or can be obtained.
The available fresh water is continuously collected ,
purified and distributed through the Hydrological
Cycle as explained.
Thus water which is available as fresh water comes
from inland surface water sources (rivers, streams,
lakes and reservoir) and ground water sources.

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 Sources

Surface Sub-Surface

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 A)Surface water :
 Surface water is any body of water above ground, including sea water,
streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and reservoirs.
 Most surface water originates directly from precipitation in the form of rainfall
or snow. The various surface water sources are described as under ;
(I) Sea water :

 As per earth resources distribution, the oceans contain about 97% of

the total water in world.
 As oceans water contain high concentration of salts in solution it
become uneconomical to make water potable.
(II)Ponds And Lakes :

 If the size of the depression is comparatively small,it may be termed as a

“Pond” & when the size is large it may be termed as a “Lake”.
The quality of water in a lake is generally good and does not required
much purification.
The quantity of water available from lakes is however, generally small.
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 (III) Streams And Rivers:
 Rainfall that does not evaporate or infiltrate , runs off the surface to sea , in
the form of streams and rivers.
 a small, narrow river called stream.
 Larger streams may however , be used as sources of water by providing
storage reservoirs , barrages etc.
 A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards
an ocean, sea, lake or another river.
 Rivers are the most important sources of water for public water supply
schemes.
(IV) Impounding Reservoirs :
 A barrier in the form of a dam is constructed
across the river , so as to form a pool of water on
the upstream side of the barrier .
 This pool or artificial lake formed on the
upstream side in know as a Impounding
reservoirs.
 The quality of this reservoir water is not much
17 different from that of a natural lake.
 (B)Groundwater:

 The main source of ground water is precipitation(rainfall) .

 A portion of rainfall falling on the earth’s surface infiltraces
into ground , travels down and when checked by impervious
layer to travel further down, from ground water.
 Study of subsurface flow is equally important since about 30%
of the world’s fresh water resources exist in the form of ground
water.
 Water bearing formations of the earth’s crust act as cobduits for
transmission and as reservoirs of storage of Ground water.

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 Aquifer and water table??
 The water table and an aquifer are terms used when discussing
Ground water.
 The major difference between the two terms is that the water
table references a specific portion of groundwater and an aquifer is all
the groundwater present in the area.

(A)Unconfined Aquifer :
 An Unconfined Aquifer is one in which a free water surface i.e, a water table
exists. So it also known as water table Aquifer.
 In such an aquifer, the water table varies in undulating form and in slope.
 Recharge of this aquifer takes place through infiltration of precipition from
the ground surface.
 A well driven into an unconfined Aquifer will indicate a static water level
corresponding to the water table level at that location.
a well drilled in this type of aquifer is known as a “WATER TABLE
WELL”
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 (B) Confined Aquifer :

 A confined aquifer is an aquifer which is sandwiched

between two impervious strata as shown in previous figure.
 If the water level in the well drilled in a confined aquifer
rises above the ground surface, water flows out freely
without any pump, such a well is called a “Flowing
Artesian well”.
 If the water level is below the ground surface, the well
water does not flow freely and well is called a “Non –
Flowing Artesian well ”.

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 Water Wells :
A Water Well is a hole or shaft , usually vertical , excavated in the
earth for bringing ground water to the surface.

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 (1)Tube Wells :
 A tube well is a long pipe sunk into the
ground intercepting one or more water bearing
strata.
 Diameter : 80mm to 600mm
 two types of tube wells :
(i) Shallow tube Wells : Depth - 30 m,
Yield - 20 m3 / hour
(ii)Deep tube Wells : Max Depth - 600m
Yield - 800 m3 / hour
(2)Open wells or Dug Wells :

Open wells are the wells which

have comparatively large diameter
but low discharges and are not
very deep.
 Diameter : 1m to 10m & Yield
: 20 m3 / hour or less
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 water requirements
for different Uses

1. Water supply:- municipal water supply, industrial

water supply.
2. Irrigation:- for different crops .
3. Hydropower :-power generation.
4. Navigation:-recreation .

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 Water requirements for municipal supply
Use Liters/day/person
Domestic 135
Industrial use 50
Commercial 20
Public utility 10
Water losses 55
total 270

The total yearly water required for public supplies in liters

can be obtained as follow :
= Design Population * Per capita demand * 365
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 Water requirements for irrigation
 For proper growth and maturity of the crops, vital
importance through the crop period.
 Every crop requires a certain quantity of water after
certain fixed interval , thought the period of growth.

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 Water requirements for hydropower
generation
 Hydroelectric power is generated by running the turbine
blades by the energy of the following water and thus the
generation of electricity from the generator coupled to
the turbine.

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 Water requirements for navigation
 Navigation is important use of water ,which provides
us transport without any consumption of water.

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 Water requirements for recreation
 The basic requirements for recreation is that boating ,
fishing , swimming , and other water sport.

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 Conservation of water
• The most essential among all the natural resources on earth is
water. Rainwater is a precious gift of nature. A step to conserve
water is the step to secure the future.
• Over the years rising populations , growing industrialization &
expanding agriculture have pushed up the demand for water
• The efforts have been made to collect water by building dams
and reservoirs and digging wells , Some counties have also tried
to recycle water.
So water conservation has become the need of the day.
• Water conservation is the most effective and environmentally
sound methods to fight global warming.

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 Necessity:
 Life on the earth cannot be sustained without water,
weather of human beings, animals.
 The demand for fresh water is increasing everyday and
the available source of good quality water is in the
form of precipitation only, which is more or less
constant.
 So, conservation of fresh water is the prime need.

Aim:
To improve the efficiency of use of water & reduce
losses and waste.

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  There are various methods used to conserve water
some of them as follows :

Domestic conservation

Industrial conservation

Agricultural conservation

Rainwater harvesting

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  Benefits to conserve the water :

1) If you save water it can save your money bills.

2) Reduction in interior water use cuts waste water
flows, especially overflowing of gutters which
contaminate the environment.
3) Environment benefits include eco – system and
habitat protection.
4) Water conservation helps in improving the quality of
your drinking water.

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 Introduction to
storage
structures

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  A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious
material built across a river to create a reservoir on its
upstream side for impounding water for various
purposes.
 A dam and a reservoir are complements of each other.
 Dams are generally constructed in the mountainous
reach of the river where the valley is narrow and the
foundation is good.
 Generally, a hydropower station is also constructed at
or near the dam site to develop hydropower.
 Dams are probably the most important hydraulic
structure built on the rivers. These are very huge
structure and require huge money, manpower and time
to construct.
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 Gravity Dam
• A gravity dam resists the water pressure and other forces
due to its weight (or gravitational forces).
• Usually made of cement concrete and straight in plane are
approx triangular in cross-section, with apex at the top.
• At present, it is second highest after Grand Dixence Dam in
Switzerland (284 m high).
• Koyna Dam (MR), Rihand Dam (UP), Sardar Sarovar Dam,
etc are few examples of concrete gravity dams.
• Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (125 m) is highest masonry dam of
the world. It is also the largest storage capacity dam of India
dams.

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37 Koyna Dam (MR)
 Advantages Gravity Dam
 maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
 ƒ
does not fail suddenly. There is enough warning of the
imminent failure and the valuable property and human
life can be saved to some extent.
ƒ
Gravity dams are quite strong, stable and durable.
ƒ
can be constructed during all types of climatic
conditions .

Disadvantages Gravity Dam

Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only

on sound rock foundations.
initial cost of a gravity dam is usually more than that
of an earth dam.
require more skilled labour than that in earth dams.
usually take a longer time in construction than earth
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dams
 EARTH DAMS
 An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) and resists the forces
exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil.
 Usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks.
 They are of zoned sections, with an impervious zone (called
core) in the middle and relatively pervious zones (called
shells or shoulders) enclosing the impervious zone on both
the sides. Nowadays majority of dams constructed are of this
type.
 Hirakund dam (Orissa) is the longest earthen dam of the
world (25.3 km).

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40 Hirakund dam (Orissa)
  Advantages EARTH DAMS
can be constructed in a relatively short period.
are more earthquake-resistant than gravity dams.
skilled labour is not required in construction of an earth
dam.
are usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable earth for
construction is available near the site.

 Disadvantages EARTH DAMS

cannot be designed as an overflow section.

maintenance cost of an earth dam is quite high. It
requires constant supervision.
 sluices cannot be provided in a high earth dam to
remove slit.
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 ROCKFILL DAMS
• A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of
large size.
• Rockfill dams are quite economical when a large quantity of
rock is easily available near the site.
 A dry rubble cushion is placed between the rockfill and the
membrane for the distribution of water load and for
providing a support to the membrane
 The highest dam of India is Tehri dam (261 m), which is
earth and rockfill type.

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 ROCKFILL DAMS

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 Advantages Rockfill dams
 Are quite inexpensive if rock fragments are easily
available.
 Can be constructed quite rapidly.
 Can better withstand the shocks due to earthquake
than earth dams.
 Can be constructed even in adverse climates

Disadvantages Rockfill dams

Rockfill dams require more strong

foundations than earth dams.
Rockfill dams require heavy machines for
transporting, dumping and compacting rocks

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 ARCH DAMS
• An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the
upstream side.
 Transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the
abutments by arch action.
 Section is triangular and is comparatively thinner.
 It may have a single curvature or double curvature in the
vertical plane.
 The arch d Only one - Iddukki dam (169 m high) in Kerala.
 ƒExamples - Juguri dam (272 m), Russia, Vaiont dam (262 m),
Italy, Manvoisin dam (237 m) Switzerland.

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46
Manvoisin dam (237 m) Switzerland
 Advantages ARCH DAMS
 An arch dam requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam
as the section is thinner.
 Arch dams are more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having
very steep slopes.
 An arch dam can be constructed on a relatively less strong
foundation because a small part of load is transferred to base

Disadvantages ARCH DAMS

The arch dam requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled.

labour and richer concrete .
The arch dam cannot be constructed in very cold climates
because spalling of concrete occurs due to alternate freezing and
thawing.
The speed of construction is relatively slow.
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 BUTTRESS DAMS
 Buttress dams are of three types:
(i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple arch-type, and (iii) Massive-head type.ƒ
 A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses. ƒ
 Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from
the deck slab to the foundation. ƒ
 Buttresses are compression members. ƒ
 The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between the buttresses,
which are usually equally spaced. ƒ
 In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal
arches supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made of
concrete.
 ƒIn a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck,
the upstream edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span
the distance between the buttresses.
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49 Itaipu dam (Brazil)
 Advantages Buttress Dam
Buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams.
Uplift/ice pressure is generally not a major factor Can be constructed on
relatively weaker foundations. Power house and water treatment plants,
etc.
can be housed between buttresses vertical component of the water
pressure on deck prevents the dam against overturning and sliding failures.
can be designed to accommodate moderate movements of foundations
without serious damages.
Heat dissipation is better in buttress dams.
Disadvantages Buttress DAMS
Buttress dams are more susceptible to damage and sabotage.
Buttress dams cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of
spelling of concrete.
Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration may
have very serious effect on the stability.

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Check dam
 Check dam is a small dam ,which can be either temporary or
permanent ,built across a minor channel or drainage ditch.
 They also lower the speed of water flow during storm events.

Weir
• A weir is a barrier across a river designed to alter its flow
characteristics .The weir is a solid obstruction put across the
river to raise its water level and divert the water into the canal.
• If a weir also stores water for tiding over small periods of short
supplies ,it is called as “A Storage Weir”.
• The main difference between a storage weirs and dam is only
in height and duration for which the supply is stored.
• During the floods the shutters may be dropped down to allow
51 water to flow over crest of the weirs.
Barrage
• A barrage is the type of low-head , diversion dam which consists of a
number of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount
of water passing through the structure , and thus regulate and stabilize
river water in the upstream for use in irrigation and other systems
• According to world commission on Dams, a key difference between a
barrage and a dam is that a dam is built for water storage in reservoir,
which raises the level of water significantly.
• However, barrages are much more costlier than weirs.

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 Importance of Water :
 Water is an essential commodity to all life Without water,
there can be no life.
 Every living thing--plants, animals, and people--must have
water to live.
 Water is used in almost all activities of life support systems
 Water is a major abiotic factor in the environment.
 The endless circulation of water between atmosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere is known as
hydrologic cycle.
 We get water from Precipitation of water vapour in the
atmosphere

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 Quality determines its Usage:
 Water has its own taste, colour, smell and constituents.
 Not all water can be used for all purposes.
Eg. Sea water can not be used by us for drinking.
 The suitability of water for different purposes is
determined by its quality parameters.
 The Quality of water is equally important than
quantity.

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 Drinking water parameters
• Temperature
• Colour
• Odour
Physical • Turbidity
properties • Electrical Conductivity

• pH
• Total Dissolved Solids(TDS)
• Major ions
Chemical • Minor or trace elements
• Hardness
composition
• Alkalinity

• Protozoa
• Bacteria (e.g. nitrifying bacteria)
• Fungi
Biological • virus
Properties • worms

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 water treatment ???
 Water treatment removes contaminants and
undesirable components, or reduces their concentration
so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.
This treatment is crucial to human health and allows
humans to benefit from both drinking and irrigation
use.
 Water treatment is the process of improving the quality
of water by passing it through various processes. It
includes the removal of suspended solids and other
harmful chemicals so that it is safe for applications or
for reintroducing it back to the ecological system.
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 importance of water treatment
 Water treatment is important to earth because the
availability of fresh water is limited in the earth and the
demand is high. It is important to protect the health– The
harmful chemicals, metal and other contaminants present
in water are dangerous for the health of humans and other
organisms living on this planet.
 Today, it is not safe to directly use the water from rivers,
reservoirs, and lakes as it contains various micro-
organisms, pathogens, and other contaminants that have an
adverse effect on the health of humans, plants, and animals.
 This situation of unhealthy and unsafe surface water has
generated the need for the Water Treatment Plant.

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  It is important to protect the health– The harmful
chemicals, metal and other contaminants present in water
are dangerous for the health of humans and other organisms
living on this planet. These harmful substances and toxins
lead to various health problems like asthma, cholera,
diarrhea, asthma, cancer, skin disorders and even death.
Hence, this will reduce the annual death rate of people
caused by drinking contaminated water.
 It helps to ensure that water is not wasted – The wastewater
treatment plants use water discharged from households and
industries which is purified and discharged back to the
community and natural environment. Thus it reduces the
wastage of water.
 It helps to restore the water – With this process, water is
reintroduced back to the cycle of nature.

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 Water Recharge & Its Importance:
 Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep
percolation is a hydrologic process
where water moves downward from surface water to
groundwater.
 Use of groundwater, especially for irrigation, may also
lower the water tables. Groundwater recharge is
an important process for
sustainable groundwater management, since the
volume-rate abstracted from an aquifer in the long
term should be less than or equal to the volume-rate
that is recharged
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 :Assignment:
2 Marks:
1. What are the applications of hydrology?
2. Write the irrigation use of water.
3. Explain consumptive use of water.
4. Write classification of dams according to structural behavior.
5. What are the different uses of water?
6. Define the term: (1) precipitation (2) runoff
7. Explain domestic use of water.
8. Define the term (1) Dam (2) canal
9. Explain Sources of water.
10. Explain water recharging

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 4-6 Marks:

1. Enlist surface sources of water and explain each.

2. Write down importance of water treatment.
3. Define the term: (1) precipitation (2) runoff (3) infiltration (4)
evaporation (5) hydrology
4. Write short note on Water requirements and its conservation.
5. Explain with neat sketch the hydrological cycle.
6. Explain water conservation of water.
7. Explain water conveyance system.
8. Explain the elementary hydrology.
9. State the various sources of water and its requirements
10. State the various hydraulic structure of storage and explain any one.

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