PROJECT REPORT

ON
LI-FI TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

Dr. MANISH KUMAR SAINI RAHUL KUMAR (17001002910)
(PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR) ANKIT SINGH(17001002901)
VIVEK (16001002057)
Dr. SANJU SAINI KAUSHAL (17001002906)
(PROJECT GUIDE)
 Abstract
Li-Fi stands for Light Fidelity. The technology is very new and was proposed by the
German physicist Harald Haas in 2011 TED (Technology, Entertainment, Design) Global
Talk on Visible Light Communication (VLC). Li-Fi is a wireless optical networking
technology that uses light emitting diodes (LEDs) for transmission of data. The term Li-
Fi refers to visible light communication (VLC) technology that uses light as medium to
deliver high-speed communication in a manner similar to Wi-Fi and complies with the
IEEE standard IEEE 802.15.7. The IEEE 802.15.7 is a high-speed, bidirectional and fully
networked wireless communication technology based standard similar to Wi-Fi ’s IEEE
802.11.
This paper focuses on Li-Fi, its applications, features and comparison with existing
technologies like Wi-Fi etc. Wi-Fi is of major use for general wireless coverage within
building, whereas Li-Fi is ideal for high density wireless data coverage in confined area
and especially useful for applications in areas where radio interference issues are of
concern, so the two technologies can be considered complimentary.
Li-Fi provides better bandwidth, efficiency, connectivity and security than Wi-Fi and has
already achieved high speeds larger than 1 Gbps under the laboratory conditions. By
leveraging the low-cost nature of LEDs and lighting units, there are lots of opportunities
to exploit this medium. Li-Fi is the transfer of data through light by taking fibre out of
fibre optics and sending data through LED light bulb (shown in Fig 1).

Fig 1: LED light Li-Fi Bulb

Content
Page No.
1.0 Introduction.................................................................................................1

2.0 Architecture of Li-Fi system........................................................................2

3.0 Working of Li-Fi..........................................................................................4

4.0 Comparison between Li-Fi and Wi-Fi and other Radio Communication

Technologies.................................................................................................7

5.0 Standardization............................................................................................10

6.0 Applications of Li-Fi...................................................................................10

7.0 Future scope.................................................................................................14

8.0 Conclusion....................................................................................................15

References

Abbreviations
1. Introduction
In the era of overcrowded (data communication) world, Li-Fi is a new way of wireless
communication that uses LED lights to transmit data wirelessly. Transmission of data is one
of the most important day to day activities in the fast growing world. The current wireless
networks that connect us to the Internet are very slow when multiple devices are connected.
Also with the increase in the number of devices which access the Internet, the availability of
fixed bandwidth makes it much more difficult to enjoy high data transfer rates and to connect
a secure network. Radio waves are just a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum available
for data transfer. Li-Fi has got a much broader spectrum for transmission compared to
conventional methods of wireless communications that rely on radio waves. The basic
ideology behind this technology is that the data can be transferred through LED light by
varying light intensities faster than the human eyes can perceive. This technology uses a part
of the electromagnetic spectrum that is still not greatly utilized- The Visible Spectrum, instead
of Gigahertz radio waves for data transfer.

The idea of Li-Fi was introduced for the first time by a German physicist Harald Hass in the
TED (Technology, Entertainment, Design) Global talk on Visible Light Communication
(VLC) in July 2011, by referring to it as “data through illumination”. He used a table lamp
with an LED bulb to transmit a video of a blooming flower that was then projected onto a
screen. In simple terms, Li-Fi can be thought of as a light-based Wi-Fi i.e. instead of radio
waves it uses light to transmit data. In place of Wi-Fi modems, Li-Fi would use transceivers
fitted with LED lamps that could light a room as well as transmit and receive information. By
adding new and unutilized bandwidth of visible light to the currently available radio waves for
data transfer, Li- Fi can play a major role in relieving the heavy loads which the current
wireless system is facing. Thus it may offer additional frequency band of the order of 400
THz compared to that available in RF communication which is about 300 GHz. Also, as the
Li-Fi uses the visible spectrum, it will help alleviate concerns that the electromagnetic waves
coming with Wi-Fi could adversely affect our health.

By Communication through visible light, Li-Fi technology has the possibility to change how
we access the Internet, stream videos, receive emails and much more. Security would not be
an issue as data can’t be accessed in the absence of light. As a result, it can be used in high
security military areas where RF communication is prone to eavesdropping.

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2. Architecture of Li-Fi system
Li-Fi which can be the future of data communication appears to be a fast and cheap optical
version of Wi-Fi. Being a Visible Light Communication (VLC), Li-Fi uses visible light of
electromagnetic spectrum between 400 THz and 800 THz as optical carrier for data
transmission and illumination. It uses fast pulses of light to transmit information in wireless
medium. The main components of a basic Li-Fi system may contain the following:

a) A high brightness white LED which acts as transmission source.

b) A silicon photodiode with good response to visible light as the receiving element.

Switching the LEDs on and off can make them generate digital strings with different
combination of 1s and 0s. To generate a new data stream, data can be encoded in the light by
varying the flickering rate of the LED. In this way, the LEDs work as a sender by modulating
the light with the data signal. The LED output appears constant to the human because they are
made to flicker at a phenomenal speed (millions of times per second) and it’s impossible for
human eye to detect this frequency. Communication rate more than 100 Mbps can be achieved
by using high speed LEDs with the help of various multiplexing techniques. And this VLC
data rate can be further increased to as high as 10 Gbps via parallel data transmission using an
array of LED lights with each LED transmitting a different data stream.

The Li-Fi transmitter system comprises of four primary subassemblies:

 Bulb
 RF Power Amplifier Circuit (PA)
 Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
 Enclosure

Fig 2: Block Diagram of Li-Fi sub-assemblies.

(Source: http://www.ijcta.com/documents/volumes/vol5issue1/ijcta2014050121.pdf)
The Printed circuit board (PCB) controls the electrical inputs and outputs of the lamp and
houses the microcontroller used to manage different lamp functions. A Radio Frequency (RF)
signal is generated by the Power Amplifier and is directed into the electric field of the bulb. As
a result of the high concentration of energy in the electric field, the contents of the bulb will
get vaporized into a plasma state at the bulb’s centre. And this controlled plasma in turn will
produce an intense source of light. All of these subassemblies are contained in an aluminium
enclosure as shown in Fig. 2 above.

Li-Fi Bulb sub-assembly:

The bulb sub-assembly is the main part of the Li-Fi emitter. It consists of a sealed bulb
embedded in a dielectric material which serves two purposes: one, it acts as a waveguide for
the RF energy transmitted by the PA (Power Amplifier) and two, it acts as an electric field
concentrator that focuses the energy into the bulb. The collected energy from the electric field
rapidly heats the material in the bulb to a plasma state that emits light of high intensity of
Visible light spectrum. Figure 3 shows the sub-assembly of the bulb.

Fig 3: Bulb Sub Assembly

(Source:http://www.ijcta.com/documents/volumes/vol5issue1/ijcta2014050121.pdf)

There are various inherent advantages of this approach which includes high brightness,
excellent colour quality and high luminous efficacy of the emitter – in the range of 150
lumens per watt or greater. The structure is mechanically robust without typical degradation
and failure mechanisms associated with tungsten electrodes and glass to metal seals, resulting
in useful lamp life of 30,000+ hours. In addition, the unique combination of high temperature
plasma and digitally controlled solid state electronics results in an economically produced
family of lamps scalable in packages from 3,000 to over 100,000 lumens.
 Important factors that should be considered while designing Li-Fi are as follows:

1) Presence of Light
2) Line of Sight (Los)
3) for better performance use fluorescent light & LED

Fig 4: Construction of Li-Fi System

3. Working of Li-Fi
3.1 Basic Concept:
Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) technology is a wireless communication system based on the use of
visible light between the violet (800 THz) and red (400 THz). Unlike Wi-Fi which uses the
radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum, Li-Fi uses the optical spectrum i.e. Visible light
part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The principle of Li-Fi is based on sending data by
amplitude modulation of the light source in a well-defined and standardized way. LEDs can be
switched on and off faster than the human eyes can detect since the operating speed of LEDs
is less than 1 microsecond. This invisible on-off activity enables data transmission using
binary codes. If the LED is on, a digital ‘1’ is transmitted and if the LED is off, a digital ‘0’ is
transmitted. Also these LEDs can be switched on and off very quickly which gives us a very
nice opportunity for transmitting data through LED lights, because there are no interfering
light frequencies like that of the radio frequencies in Wi-Fi. Li-Fi is thought to be 80% more
efficient, which means it can reach speeds of up to 1Gbps and even beyond. Li-Fi differs from
fibre optic because the Li-Fi protocol layers are suitable for wireless communication over
short distances (up to 10 meters).
 This puts Li-Fi in a unique position of extremely fast wireless communication over short
distances.

Fig 5: Li-Fi Transmission

3.2 How it Works:

The working of Li-Fi is very simple. There is a light emitter on one end i.e. an LED
transmitter, and a photo detector (light sensor) on the other. The data input to the LED
transmitter is encoded in to the light (technically referred to as Visible Light Communication)
by varying the flickering rate at which the LEDs flicker ‘on’ and ‘off’ to generate different
strings of 1s and 0s. The on- off activity of the LED transmitter which seems to be invisible
(The LED intensity is modulated so rapidly that human eye cannot notice, so the light of the
LED appears constant to humans), enables data transmission in light form in accordance with
the incoming binary codes: switching ON a LED is a logical '1', switching it OFF is a logical
'0'. By varying the rate at which the LEDs flicker on and off, information can be encoded in
the light to different combinations of 1s and 0s.

In a typical setup, the transmitter (LED) is connected to the data network (Internet through the
modem) and the receiver (photo detector/light sensor) on the receiving end receives the data
as light signal and decodes the information, which is then displayed on the device connected
to the receiver. The receiver (photo detector) registers a binary ‘1’ when the transmitter (LED)
is ON and a binary ‘0’ when the transmitter (LED) is OFF. Thus flashing the LED numerous
times or using an array of LEDs (perhaps of a few different colours) will eventually provide
data rates in the range of hundreds of Mbps. The Li-Fi working is explained in a block
diagram (Fig.6).
 Fig 6: Block diagram of Li-Fi Sub System

Hence all that is required, is some or an array of LEDs and a controller that controls/encodes
data into those LEDs. All one has to do is to vary the rate at which the LEDs flicker depending
upon the data input to LEDs. Further data rate enhancements can be made in this method, by
using array of the LEDs for parallel data transmission, or using mixtures of red , green and
blue LEDs to alter the light’s frequency, with each frequency encoding a different data
channel. Figure 7 shows working/deployment of a Li-Fi system connecting the devices in a
room.

Fig 7: Li-Fi system connecting devices in a room

(
3.3 Why Visible Light Communication:

The frequency spectrum that is available to us in the atmosphere consists of many wave
regions like X-rays, gamma rays, u-v region, infrared region, visible light rays, radio waves,
etc. Any one of the above waves can be used in the upcoming communication technologies
but why the Visible Light part is chosen? The reason behind this is the easy availability and
lesser harmful effects that occur due to these rays of light. VLC uses the visible light between
400 THz (780 nm) and 800 THz (375 nm) as medium which are less dangerous for high-
power applications and also humans can easily perceive it and protect themselves from the
harmful effects whereas the other wave regions have following disadvantages:-

 Radio waves are expensive (due to spectrum charges) and less secure (due to
interference and possible interception etc.)
 Gamma rays are harmful because it could be dangerous dealing with it, by the human
beings due to their proven adverse effects on human health.
 X-rays have health issues, similar to the Gamma Rays.
 Ultraviolet light can be considered for communication technology purposes at place
without people, otherwise they can also be dangerous for the human body when
exposed continuously.
 Infrared, due to high safety regulation, can only be used with low power.

Hence the Visible light portion (from red to blue) of the electromagnetic spectrum does not
cause any harm to the people as visible rays are safe to use, provide larger bandwidth and also
have a promising future in the communication field.

4. Comparison Between Li-Fi and, Wi-Fi and other Radio Communication

technologies
Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi can provide wireless Internet access to users, and both the technologies
transmit data over electromagnetic spectrum. Li-Fi is a visible light communication
technology useful to obtain high speed wireless communication. The difference is: Wi-Fi
technology uses radio waves for transmission, whereas Li-Fi utilizes light waves. Wi-Fi works
well for general wireless coverage within building/campus/compound, and Li-Fi is ideal for
high density wireless data coverage inside a confined area or room and is free from
interference issues unlike the Wi-Fi.
Table I shows a comparison of transfer speed of various wireless technologies. Table II shows
 Table 1: Comparison of speed of various wireless technologies
Technology Speed
Li-Fi ~1 Gbps
Wi-Fi – IEEE 802.11n ~150 Mbps
IrDA ~4 Mbps
Bluetooth ~3 Mbps
NFC ~424 Kbps

Table 2: Comparison of Wi-Fi and Li-Fi

Parameter Li-Fi Wi-Fi
Spectrum Used Visible Light RF
Standard IEEE 802.15.7 IEEE 802.11
Range Based on Light Intensity (< 10m) Based on Radio propagation &
interference ( < 300 m)
Data Transfer Rate* Very high ( ~1 Gbps) Low (100 Mbps-1 Gbps)
Power consumption Low High
Cost Low High
Bandwidth Unlimited Limited
*

4.1 Shortcomings of Radio Waves Transmission vis-à-vis Li-Fi Transmission:

The following are the basic issues with radio waves:
a) Capacity: Wireless data is transmitted through radio waves which are limited and
expensive. It has a limited bandwidth, vis-à-vis Li-Fi. With the rapidly growing world
and development of technologies like 3G, 4G and so on we are running out of radio
spectrum.
b) Energy Efficiency: There are a large number of cellular radio base stations that consume
massive amount of energy. Most of the energy is used for cooling down the base station
instead of transmission. Therefore, efficiency of such Radio base stations is very low.
c) Availability: Availability of radio waves is a big concern. Further, Radio waves are not
advisable to be used in aeroplanes and at places where radio interference may cause
undesirable/catastrophic result.
d) Security: Radio waves can penetrate through walls. They can be intercepted. If someone
has knowledge and bad intentions, they may misuse it. This causes a major security
concern for Wi-Fi.

4.2 Advantages of Li-Fi:

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 Li-Fi, which uses visible light to transmit signals wirelessly, is an emerging technology poised
to compete with Wi-Fi. Also, Li-Fi removes the limitations that have been put on the user by
the Radio wave transmission such as Wi-Fi as explained above vide 4.1. Advantages of Li-Fi
technology include:

a) Efficiency: Energy consumption can be minimised with the use of LED illumination
which are already available in the home, offices and Mall etc. for lighting purpose.
Hence the transmission of data requiring negligible additional power, which makes it
very efficient in terms of costs as well as energy.
b) High speed: Combination of low interference, high bandwidths and high-intensity
output, help Li-Fi provide high data rates i.e. 1 Gbps or even beyond.
c) Availability: Availability is not an issue as light sources are present everywhere.
Wherever there is a light source, there can be Internet. Light bulbs are present
everywhere
– in homes, offices, shops, malls and even planes, which can be used as a medium for
the data transmission.
d) Cheaper: Li-Fi not only requires fewer components for its working, but also uses only a
negligible additional power for the data transmission.
e) Security: One main advantage of Li-Fi is security. Since light cannot pass through
opaque structures, Li-Fi internet is available only to the users within a confined area
and cannot be intercepted and misused, outside the area under operation.
f) Li-Fi technology has a great scope in future. The extensive growth in the use of LEDs
for illumination indeed provides the opportunity to integrate the technology into a
plethora of environments and applications.

4.3 Limitations of Li-Fi:

Some of the major limitations of Li-Fi are:
 Internet cannot be accessed without a light source. This could limit the locations and
situations in which Li-Fi could be used.
 It requires a near or perfect line-of-sight to transmit data
 Opaque obstacles on pathways can affect data transmission
 Natural light, sunlight, and normal electric light can affect the data transmission speed
 Light waves don’t penetrate through walls and so Li-Fi has a much shorter range than Wi-Fi
 High initial installation cost, if used to set up a full-fledged data network.

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5. Standardization

The Visible Light Communication interest group, certified by the IEEE, with its standard
approved in 2011 by IEEE as IEEE 802.15.7 is the most active one. The standard of VLC
(IEEE 802.15.7) specifies VLC consisting of mobile-to-mobile (M2M), fixed-to-mobile
(F2M) and infrastructure-to-mobile (I2M) communications. The main purpose of VLC
standard is to focus on medium-range communications for intelligent traffic systems at low-
speed and on short- range mobile to mobile and fixed to mobile communications at high
speeds to exchange data. Data rates are supported up to 1 Gbps using various modulation
schemes. IEEE 802.15.7 defines physical layer (PHY) & media access control (MAC) layer
for VLC/Li-Fi. The MAC layer supports 3 multi-access technologies: peer-to-peer, star
configuration and broadcast mode. It also handles physical layer management issues such as
addressing, collision avoidance and data acknowledgement protocols. The physical layer is
divided into 3 types: PHY I, II, III and employ a combination of different modulation
schemes.
 The PHY I was established for outdoor application and works from 11.67 kbps to 267.6
kbps.
 The PHY II layer permits reaching data rates from 1.25 Mbit/s to 96 Mbit/s.
 The PHY III is used for many emissions sources with a particular modulation method called
colour shift keying (CSK). PHY III can deliver rates from 12 Mbit/s to 96 Mbit/s.
The modulation formats recognized for PHY I and PHY II are on-off keying (OOK) and
variable pulse position modulation (VPPM). The Manchester coding used for the PHY I and
PHY II layers includes the clock inside the transmitted data by representing a logic 0 with an
OOK symbol "01" and a logic 1 with an OOK symbol "10", all with a DC component. The
DC component avoids light extinction in case of an extended run of logic 0's.

There are also two Japanese standards for VLC networking (JEITA CP-1221 and CP-1222).

6. Applications of Li-Fi
There are numerous applications of Li-Fi technology, from public Internet access through
existing lighting (LED) to auto-piloted cars that communicate through their headlights (LED
based). Applications of Li-Fi can extend in areas where the Wi-Fi technology lacks its
presence like aircrafts and hospitals (operation theatres), power plants and various other areas,
where electromagnetic (Radio) interference is of great concern for safety and security of

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equipments and people. Since Li-Fi uses just the light, it can be used safely in such locations
or areas. In future with the Li-Fi enhancement all the street lamps can be transformed to Li-Fi
connecting points to transfer data. As a result of it, it will be possible to access internet at any
public place

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Some of the future applications of Li-Fi could be as follows:

a) Education systems: Li-Fi is the latest technology that can provide fastest speed for
Internet access. So, it can augment/replace Wi-Fi at educational institutions and at
companies so that the people there can make use of Li-Fi with the high speed.
b) Medical Applications: Operation theatres (OTs) do not allow Wi-Fi due to radiation
concerns. Usage of Wi-Fi at hospitals interferes/blocks the signals for monitoring
equipments. So, it may have hazardous effect to the patient's health, due to improper
working of medical apparatus. To overcome this and to make OT tech savvy Li-Fi can
be used to access internet and also to control medical equipments. This will be
beneficial for conducting robotic surgeries and other automated procedures.
c) Cheaper Internet in Aircrafts: The passengers travelling in aircrafts get access to low
speed Internet that too at a very high price. Also Wi-Fi is not used because it may
interfere with the navigational systems of the pilots. In aircrafts Li-Fi can be used for
data transmission. Li-Fi can easily provide high speed Internet via every light source
such as overhead reading bulb, etc. present inside the airplane.
d) Underwater applications: Underwater ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) operate
from large cables that supply their power and allow them to receive signals from their
pilots above. But the tether used in ROVs is not long enough to allow them to explore
larger areas. If their wires were replaced with light — say from a submerged, high-
powered lamp — then they would be much freer to explore. They could also use their
headlamps to communicate with each other, processing data autonomously and sending
their findings periodically back to the surface. Li-Fi can even work underwater where
Wi-Fi fails completely, thereby throwing open endless opportunities for military
underwater operations.
e) Disaster management: Li-Fi can be used as a powerful means of communication in
times of disaster such as earthquake or hurricanes. The average people may not know
the protocols during such disasters. Subway stations and tunnels, common dead zones
for most emergency communications, pose no obstruction for Li-Fi.
f) Applications in sensitive areas: Power plants need fast, inter-connected data systems
so that demand, grid integrity and core temperature (in case of nuclear power plants)
can be monitored. The Radio communication interference is considered to be bad for
such sensitive areas surrounding these power plants. Li-Fi can offer safe, abundant
connectivity for all areas of these sensitive locations. Also, the pressure on a power
plant
 ‘s own reserves (power consumption for Radio communications deployments) will be
lessened.
g) Traffic management: In traffic signals Li-Fi can be used to communicate with passing
vehicles (through the LED lights of the cars etc) which can help in managing the traffic
in a better manner resulting into smooth flow of traffic and reduction in accident
numbers. Also, LED car lights can alert drivers when other vehicles are too close.
h) Mobile Connectivity: Mobiles, laptops, tablets, and other smart phones can easily
connect with each other. The short-range network of Li-Fi can yield exceptionally high
data rates and higher security.
i) Replacement for other technologies: Li-Fi doesn‘t work using radio waves. So, it can be
easily used in the places where Bluetooth, infrared, Wi-Fi, etc. are banned.
 Till now we have tried to transfer the sound signals from one place to another using
the lifi technology ,although we are only able to transfer data updo a distance of
some centimetres .
The elements that we have used are
Resistors
Amplifier circuit
Solar panel
3.5 mm jack
Speakers
Connecting wires
LED’s
Future Scope:
 We have also think of extension of the project either in the field of navigation or image
transfer using lifi or blind indoor navigation.

Hardware Configuration:

Arduino UNO ATMEGA 328P - It is a type of microcontroller that helps to build digital
devices and interactive objects that can sense and control objects in the physical world.

 Voice play back circuit- Voice Module 60 Sec project will playback and record up to 60
seconds of voice message. This circuit is an excellent choice to add voice to your project. Up to
60 Seconds of non-volatile voice storage.

 Ultrasonic Sensors- Ultrasonic ranging module HCSR04 provides 2cm - 400cm non-contact
measurement function ， the ranging accuracy can reach to 3mm.The modules includes
ultrasonic transmitter ，receiver and control circuit.

 Transistors- A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switchelectronic

signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit.

 LED Lamp-An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode (LED) product which is assembled into a
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lamp for use in lighting fixtures. A good LED driver can guarantee a long life for an LED
system and provide additional features such as dimming and control. L14F1 Photodiode-A
photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current. Photodiodes may contain
optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface

V. METHODOLOGY Li-Fi Technology works by sending the data over light. For this purpose
a LED (Light Emitting Diode) light bulb, anyone at all, can be flicked on and off in order to be
able to generate signals. A proper Light Receiver is made for receiving the LED signals. The
LED bulb will hold a micro-chip that will do the job of processing the data. The light intensity
can be manipulated to send data by tiny changes in amplitude. The technology is focusing on
making sure that the light bulb is flickered up to billions of times a second. At that time human
eye cannot notice the light being flickered on and off. If the LED is ON, user can transmit a
digital string of 1, if it‟s OFF then user can transmit a string of 0. It can be switched ON and
OFF very quickly, which gives instant opportunity for transmitting data. As shown in Fig.1,
data is fed into LED light bulbs, it then sends data at rapid speeds to photodiode. The tiny
changes in rapid dimming of LED bulbs are then converted by the receiver into electrical
signal. The signal is then converted back into a binary stream that we could recognize as audio
and video applications. High brightness LED which act as a communication source. The
transmitter unit is fitted to the wall/ceiling. In the transmitter the modulated information is
transmitted through LED. Fig.1Block diagram for Li-Fi data transmitter As shown in the Fig.
2, thereceiver unit demodulates the encoded binary data and gives the response in the form of
voice to the person [3]. The receiver unit consist of a photo transistor which receives the
information from the LED connected to the transmitter. The information consist of location,
and whenever receiver module comes in the range of that transmitter area than corresponding
location message is send to receiver is stored in the IC ATMEGA328P and processed further to
initiate voice to guide the person and vibrator motor to navigate the person which can assist
visually impaired people at indoor places . Transmitter Module – generates the corresponding
onoff pattern for the LEDs. Receiver Module – has a photo diode to detect the on and off states
of the LEDs. It captures this sequence and generates the binary sequence of the received signal.

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