Radar

Course Notes
Capt. Abdel Nasser alsheikh yousef
ISSUS, 2012

/
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 Contents

1. IMO Conventions and Resolutions

2. Fundamental principles of radar
3. Factors affecting detection, display and measurment of
radar targets.
4. Factors external to radar set affecting radar
performance.
5. False echoes
6. Radar opration (presntation and orientation)
7. Radar control

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 Chapter 1

1. Fundamental principle of radar

1.1 introduction
1.2 primary pulse radar
1.3 the principle of range and bearing measurement
1.4 the main component
1.5 safe distance
1.6 radiation hazard and precautions

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Radar IMO Conventions and Resolutions
(1) Carriage Requirements
Ships > 10000 t:
- SOLAS V, Reg. 12
ARPA, ...
- SOLAS V (revised), Reg. 19

(2) Performance Standards

- Res. MSC.64 (67) PS for Radar Equipment
- Res. A.823 (19) PS for ARPA
- Res. A.820 (19) PS for HSC Radar
- Chart Radar
Functions (ranges, ...),
- AIS on Radar
performance (acuracy, ..)

(3) Training and Qualification

- STCW 95
- A.483 Training in Radar Observation and Plotting
- A.482 Min. Requirements for Training Use of ARPA

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 RADAR
• RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING

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 NATURE OF THE MARINE RADAR
• MARINE RADAR IS AN INSTRUMENT OF PERFECT
SYNCHRONISATION .
• MARINE RADAR CONTAINS NO CALCULATOR OR
COMPUTER TO DO ITS BASIC FUNCTION.

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 USE OF THE MARINE RADAR

DETECTING TARGETS ON THE OBSERVER VICENITY.

DETERMAING TARGETS POSITIONS.

DETERMAING THE SHIPS POSITION BY USING

THE COASTAL NAVIGATION METHODS (BEARING–RANGE ).

COLLISION AVOIDANCE BY USING

RADAR PLOTTING TECHNIQU IN A GOOD OR BAD VISIBALITY.

IN A SEARCH & RESCUE OPERATIONS ( SAR ).

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 MARINE RADAR COMPONENT

MARINE RADAR CONSISTS MAINLY OF FOUR UNITS :-

.
THE ARIAL OR
SCANNER EMW

THE
DISPLAY
UNIT

THE
THE RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER

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 How Marine RADAR Works
• The transmitter send out short powerful
electro-magnetic energy called Pulse.
• These pulse travel at the speed of light
• When strike any object they are reflected
back to the scanner as echo.
• The receiver processes echo and cause it to
show up visually as a bright spot on the
screen (PPI)

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 Definitions
• Pulse Length (PL): also called pulse duration, it
is time duration measured in microseconds, of a
single radar pulse
• Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR): it is the number
of pulses transmitted in one second (500 – 4000
Pulse/sec)
• Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI): is the time
interval between two consecutive transmitted
pulses. (250 – 2500 µs)

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 Range determination
• There is one trace created for every Pulse
• The tracing spot leaves the center.
• At the same instant that the pulse leaves the
scanner
• The tracing spot is move at a speed = ½
radio waves speed.150 meters per micro-
second.

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 Calibration of Range
• Range rings: calibration rings are made to
appear centered over the PPI each range
rings represents a definite value of range
so the range of target can be visually
estimated.
• Variable range marker (VRM):
a circle with a variable radius controlled
by a rotary knob. The value of radius in
miles and decimal of mile and indicated by
a digital display.

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 Bearing determination
• The energy sent out by the scanner unidirectional
• The scanner rotate clockwise (from above)
• At a very constant speed (20-30 RPM)
• The trace on the screen also rotate and is
synchronized with the scanner.
• The PRF is so high (500-4000) compared to RPM
• So the paint of a target would appear in such a
position on the PPI

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 Calibration of Bearing
• Mechanical curser :
a separate circular plastic sheet called
mechanical courser is fitted centered over the PPI
the courser is rotate until this line passes through
the target on the PPI. The reading where it passes
over the graduated scale is relative bearing. If
gyro stabilized the bearing will be TRUE.
• Electronic Bearing Line:
a radial line (dotted/continuous) appear on the
screen this line can be rotated about the center of
the screen by a control knob. The reading of
bearing can be relative / TRUE if gyro stabilized

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 Radar Main Components

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 Transmitter Components

EMW
RF
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 Transmitter Components
1) Power source A/C input
2) Delay line store energy received from power source.
3) Trigger : sends wave signal to modulator & time base
unit and trace blanking unit
4) Modulator : is the device which switch the
magnetron on/off
5) Magnetron is a high power RF oscillator capable of
being switched on/off for short duration = PL
the output of magnetron consists of RF pulse of
EMW energy to the scanner through a waveguide.
6) TR Cell transmit/receive switch

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 Receiver unit

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 Receiver unit
1) Local oscillator: oscillates at a constant low RF
(30-60) MHZ below the magnetron freq. the
difference being called the intermediate freq. IF
2) Mixer : mixes the echoes with the local
oscillation and make available to IF amplifier.
Echoes reduced from RF to IF
3) IF amplifier : amplifies the IF signal several
million times and passes them to the video
amplifier.
4) Video amplifier : control the amplification of
signal voltages fed to the electron gun of the
CRT

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5/20/2012 28
 Display unit
1) CRT provides a visual display of all targets
2) Time base unit : generates the saw-tooth waves
required by deflection coils. each spike wave
from the trigger unit releases one saw-tooth.
3) Deflection coils : each saw-tooth wave received
by the deflection coils cause the electron
stream to move steadily across the PPI.
4) Trace blanking unit : allow the electron stream
from electron gun to hit the screen as soon as
transmission takes place and cut it off as soon
as reception time is over.

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C
R
T
• Cathode Ray Tube (Cut-away CRT): Cathode-ray
Tube. An electron tube that has an electron gun, a
deflection system, and a screen. This tube is used to
display visual electronic signals. An electron beam is
focused on a luminescent screen than varied in position
and intensity to produce a visible pattern. CRT displays
are in decline, and are being replaced by Flat screen
LCD displays that reduce weight, take up less space,
and consume less power. Flat screens handle shock
better than CRTs.

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 The scanner unit
• The waveguide :
 is a tube of uniform cross-sectional area,
 Carries the RF pulses from magnetron to scanner also from
the scanner to the mixer
 A small length of waveguide connects LO & mixer
 Is made of corrosion resistance material (copper)
The scanner this is an unidirectional aerial which beams the
energy and receive the echoes.
 Scanner must rotate at a constant RPM not less than 20 in
relative wind speed up to 100 kns
 Scanner motor situated just under the scanner
 The parabolic antenna
 Slotted waveguide antenna.

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 Characteristics of a radar set

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 1. Vertical beam width (VBW)
• Vertical beam width (VBW) is
the vertical angle at the scanner contained between the upper
and lower edge of radar beam or the lines joining the half-
power points above and below center of the beam
• VBW too small target would be missed due to rolling and
pitching.
• VBW too large the radar energy sent out through the scanner
over a large vertical angle this means a decrease in the
intensity. Resulting in loss of echo strength cause decrease in
the range of first detection of targets
• VBW between 15 – 30 d.
• The value of VBW depends on type of scanner and its vertical
size

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 2. Horizontal beam width (HBW)
• Horizontal beam width (HBW) is the
horizontal angle at the scanner contained
between the leading and trailing edge of
radar beam
• HBW cause all targets to appear larger in
azimuth by an amount = ½ HBW
 Echoing from a target commences when the
leading edge of the beam touches the target
and continues until the trailing edge of the
beam has left the target.

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 3. Pulse length (PL) (1-2)
• PL is the time taken for a pulse to leave the scanner OR.
• PL is the interval between the instant the leading edge of
the pulse leaves the scanner and the instant the trailing
edge does so.
• PL expressed in micro-second or meters
• Echo returns from a target it will be the same length as the
pulse.
• When the leading edge of the echo enters the receiver, the
tracing spot on the screen becomes fat and bright and
remains so until the entire echo comes in
• When the trailing edge has come in the tracing spot
reduces back to its original size
• The tracing spot therefore become a blip for a time interval
= PL

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 3. Pulse length (PL) (2-2)
• PL does not affect range accuracy.
• PL dose affect range discrimination.
• Short pulse are suitable for the shorter range
scales as give better range discrimination
• Long pulse to cover longer range to allow for
attenuation in the atmosphere
• PL automatically changed over when the range
scale selected between
(long – medium – short )

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 4. Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) 1-2
• PRF is the number of pulses sent out
through the scanner in one second
• PRF value between 500 – 4000.
• PRF is also referred to as pulse recurrence
rate PRR
• Low PRF for longer range scale.
• High PRF for shorter range scale.

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 4. Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) 2-2

• High PRF is preferable for a clear and detailed

picture (good picture resolution) but on longer range
scale but this is not possible BCZ
 A greater interval between pulse is required for each
pulse to go long distance and come back.

• Relationship between PRF & PRI

 PRF α 1/PRI

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 5. Wavelength (WL)
• 3 cm wavelength called X-band radar
 X-band freq. (9300 to 9500) MHZ
• 10 cm wavelength called the S-band radar
 S-band freq. (2900 to 3100) MHZ

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 5. Wavelength (WL) and attenuation
• Attenuation is the loss of energy in atmosphere
 Attenuation > short wavelength
 Echoes of 3 cm WL coming from far targets may be
completely attenuated before returning to the
scanner
 Echoes of 10 cm WL coming from the same far of
target may still be strong enough to paint
 The picture obtained by 10 cm radar is less affected
by sea-clutter and rain-clutter.

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 5. Wavelength (WL) and diffraction
• Diffraction when a ray of energy passes very close
to an object it is bent towards the object.
• When radar waves pass very close to the surface of
the earth they are diffracted downwards and follow
the curvature of the earth for same distance.
• Longer waves are diffracted more.
 10 cm waves follow the curvature of the earth to
greater distance than 3 cm waves
 10 cm waves attenuation in atmosphere is less, and
diffraction is more,

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 Facts

 10 cm radar are hence good for long distance.

 10 cm radar are not preferred for main radar of
a merchant ship BCZ.
I. Poor detection of small objects.
II. To have the same HBW as 3 cm radar set the
horizontal size of the scanner of 10 cm radar
would have to be increased threefold.
 As per SOLAS 74/78
 Ships of 1600 GT and upwards but less than
10000 GT to be fitted with at least one radar
 Ships of 10000 GT and upward to be fitted with
at least two radar.

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 Safe distance & radiation hazard and precaution

• Compass safe distance

 radar set should be separated from the standard magnetic
and steering compasses
 Compass safe distance must be indicated on a tally plate.
 Some radar spares (magnetron) have very strong magnetic
effects may be marked with a magnetic safe distance. If not
should be stowed at least 7m.
• Electrical interference
 Ensure that the radar shall cause a minimum of interference
to radio equipment .
• High voltage circuit
• Radiation hazard
• Susceptibility to damage.

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 Chapter 2
2 Factors affecting detection, display, and 20
measurement of radar targets
2.1 Factors affecting maximum range 21
2.2 Factors affecting minimum range 22
2.3 Factors affecting range accuracy 23
2.4 Factors affecting range resolution 25
2.5 Factors affecting bearing accuracy 28
2.6 Factors affecting bearing resolution 29

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 Limitation of a radar set

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 1. Maximum range
• The max. range depends on the following
a) Height of scanner the greater the height of scanner above sea level, the
greater the detection range.
b) Power of the transmission the greater the power of transmission the
greater the expected maximum range
c) Wavelength 10 cm radar have a greater maximum range than 3 cm
wave owing to less attenuation in the atmosphere and more diffraction.
d) PRF
e) Pulse length long pulse ensure better max. ranges than short pulse. Bcz
long pulse have more energy, less attenuation & more diffraction
f) VBW & HBW
g) Receiver sensitivity
h) External factors affect the maximum detection range
 Nature of target, weather effects, sea and swell,

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 2. Minimum range
• Minimum detection range of a radar set depends on:
a) The pulse length. Hence targets closer than ½ PL in meter
cannot be shown on the PPI bcz their echoes would come back
before reception starts.
 The theoretical minimum range of detection is therefore
represented by ½ PL in meter.
 If the PL is 0.2 µsec therefore the min. range is 30 meter.
b) The de-ionisation delay : a small delay occurs in the T/R cell
between the completion of transmission and commencement of
reception this delay increase the minimum detection range
 A delay of 0.5 µsec increase the min. range by 7.5 meters.
c) The VBW & height of the scanner.

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 3. Range accuracy
• Range rings: the ERROR of range should not exceed 1.5%
of max. range of the scale in use. OR 70 meter
• VRM the error of range should not exceed 2.5% of the max.
range of the scale in use OR 120 meter.
• Range accuracy of radar depends on:
 Correct synchronization ( pulse transmission &
commencement of the trace)
 The scale size of the tracing spot.
 The method to read off the range (VRM & range rings)
 Range scale in use
 Height of scanner

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 4. Range discrimination

• Range discrimination is the ability of a radar set to

clearly distinguish two small targets on the same
bearing and slightly different ranges as two separate
targets on the PPI
• Factors affecting range discrimination
 PL
i. If the distance between two target ≤ ½ PL show as
one target on PPI
ii. If the distance between two target ≥ ½ PL paint as
two separate targets on the PPI.
Receive gain
Range scale
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 5. Bearing accuracy

• The factors affect bearing accuracy:

1. Correct alignment (H.M & the scanner)
2. Correct alignment (H.M & Bearing scale)
3. Gyro error
4. Type of bearing marker in used
5. HBW
6. Scale size of the spot.

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 6. Bearing discrimination

• Is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish two

targets on the same range and slightly different bearing
as two separate targets on the PPI.
• Factors affecting bearing discrimination
 HBW (0.5 – 2.5d)
 If the angle between two targets ≤ HBW appear as one
big target.
 If the angle so subtended is more than HBW paint as
two separate targets.

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5/20/2012 12
 Chapter 3

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3 Factors external to Radar set affecting radar 31
performance
3.1 The relationship between the scanner location and 32
range
3.2 Super, ducting and sub-refraction 33
3.2.1 Introduction 33
3.2.2 Super refraction 34
3.2.3 Ducting or trapping 35
3.2.4 sub-refraction 36
3.3 Effect of rain, hail, sleet and snow 37
3.4 Shadow sectors 37
3.5 Blind sectors 38
3.6 Distortion of land masses 39
3.7 Target characteristics 40
3.7.1 Aspect 40
3.7.2 Shape and surface texture 41
3.7.3 Composition 43
3.7.4 Size 43

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 1. The Relationship between the Scanner Location and
Detection Ranges
• The height at which the scanner is mounted will affect on
both the minimum and the maximum displayed ranges.
• It is a fact that a tall person will be able to see a greater
distance than a short person; the same reasoning can be
applied to the height of the scanner.
• Raising the height of the scanner is the increased effects
from sea (clutter) echo returns, and a reduction in minimum
range capabilities.
• The height of the target is working in conjunction with the
height of the scanner in determining the maximum range.

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• As with optical rays, the radar beam will be subject to some degree of
refraction or bending as it is propagated through the troposphere; The radar
horizon is approximately some 6% greater than the optical horizon (which in
turn is approximately 9% greater than the true, or geometric horizon) for 3 cm
radar

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 2. Weather effects on radar performance

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 2-1 Propagation of Radar energy under standard
weather condition
 refraction due to the conditions within the troposphere,
 and therefore, they bend slight degree towards the earth's surface, rather
than travelling in direct, straight lines.
 depends on the effects of temperature and pressure which establish the
index of refraction,
 radar waves are additionally subject to changes in the moisture content
of the atmosphere. It is because the radar waves are subject to a different
index of refraction, together with the fact that their wavelength is much
greater.
 Under standard propagation conditions it can be assumed that the
maximum range of the radar will be determined by the height of the
scanner and the height of the target

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 Radar energy under standard weather conditions
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 2-2 Anomalous propagation conditions

• Any deviation away from the 'standard' atmospheric

conditions will change the index of refraction and the
degree of bending to which the waves are subjected.
Such conditions are referred to as anomalous
propagation conditions, and can either extend or
reduce the maximum range experienced under
standard conditions.
• Conditions which extend the maximum range are
known as super-refraction,
• Conditions which reduce the maximum range are
known as sub-refraction.

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 Super-refraction
• Such conditions may exist on a relatively modest scale,
 where the relative humidity decreases more rapidly than usual
from sea level up to scanner height,
 and where the temperature at the scanner height, or above, is
greater than at sea level.
 When such conditions occur
 the waves follow the earth's surface for a much greater distance
than usual
 a result, the maximum detection range is increased
 so that targets may be observed on the ppi screen at unexpectedly
long ranges.
 Conditions which give rise to super-refraction have been observed
more frequently than those which produce sub-refraction,
particularly near coastlines in warm/tropical waters in the evening
following a hot day.

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Height
Height

Temperature
Inversion Moisture Lapse
Standard
Standard

0
0
Temperature Moisture

Temperature and moisture conditions for super refraction

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 Super Refraction

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 Ducting or trapping

• A more severe form of super-refraction is known as ducting

or trapping which produces extremely large maximum
detection ranges,

• The conditions which give rise to ducting or trapping

 pronounced temperature inversion
 and a marked initial decrease in moisture contents in the atmosphere
when plotted against height.
 Such conditions cause the radar beam to follow the earth's surface more
closely than normal, and even to strike the surface of the sea from where it
is once more reflected upwards before being refracted back down to the
surface.

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 The effect of Ducting or Trapping

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 Sub-refraction
• The conditions which give rise to sub-refraction are more likely to be
encountered in the Polar Regions,
• where the temperature of the sea is often warmer than the air above.
• Such conditions are often clearly visible to the naked eye, with smoky steam
rising from the surface of the sea when a cold off-shore wind blows over the
sea.
• Sub-refraction may be due to the temperature decreasing more rapidly than
normal from sea level to scanner,
• or the relative humidity initially increasing from sea level.
• The effect is to cause the beam to bend upwards, it bends down less than under
standard
• conditions, rising clear of the earth's surface at a much reduced range than
normal.
• As a result, target detection maximum range can be reduced by as much as
30% below normal.

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 The effect of sub refraction

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 2-3 The Effect of Rain, Hail, Sleet and Snow

1. The effects of Rain: Rain droplets cause

 attenuation by absorption of energy,
 reduction in returned echo strength due to scattering.
 Rain in the vicinity of targets can scatter unwanted
echoes back to the radar as 'clutter' which may mask
the wanted target.
 S Band (10 cm) and longer wavelengths the amount
of attenuation becomes as small as to be disregarded.

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2. The effects of fog and dry snow
• although absorbing a finite amount of the energy,
downgrade the display significantly, whereas sleet
(wet snow) produces similar effects to rain.
• The use of 10 cm radar as opposed to 3 cm will
significantly reduce the effects experienced from both
sea clutter and precipitation clutter, but at the
sacrifice of target resolution. It is because of these
relative benefits that many vessels have dual
installations:
• 3 cm for high resolution navigation and
• 10 cm for inclement weather conditions.

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3. Shadow Sectors & Blind Sectors

Blind and shadow sectors due to installation

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4. Distortion of Land Masses

• In addition to blind sectors produced

by ship’s installation, large land
masses also produce blind or shadow
areas in the regions beyond such
masses. Such effects can drastically
alter a coastline as displayed on
radar when compared to the chart

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 5. The Relationship between Target Characteristics and
Range Detection

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 1. Aspect

• This is the most important character of a target affecting echoing

strength and detection range.
• Aspect means the angle of view, both in the horizontal and the vertical
planes which the target presents to the observer.
 For example, a horizontal aspect of 90° means the target is “abeam” and
a vertical aspect of 90° means “perpendicular”.
• It is understood that a target which is steep and abeam will return an
excellent echo,
 especially when its surface is smooth. Such an extremely strong reflected
echo is called specular or mirror reflection, as it can be compared with
reflection when facing a mirror.
• If the aspect is not 90°, for example, a sloping surface or an object which
does not present its face towards the observer, the echo response can still
be good, provided the surface texture is rough and causes a certain
amount of scattering.

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5/20/2012 24
 target characteristics and echo strength
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 2. Shape and surface texture
a. Plain surfaces
• A perpendicular and smooth surface
 There is excellent response only when facing it.
 Examples: Some cliffs and isolated buildings.
• A perpendicular and rough surface
 This has fair reflection from all directions.
 Examples: Craggy cliffs and vertical faces of icebergs
which are broken up into many facets.
• A sloping and smooth surface
 In this case there will be very little response.
 Examples: Sloping faces of icebergs, growlers, sand and
mud banks, gently sloping hills not covered with
vegetation.
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• A sloping and rough surface
 In this case there is fair response.
 Examples: Sloping hills covered with trees.
• Three mutually perpendicular planes (Fig. 3-11(d) ).
 This has extremely good reflection from all directions. It can be
shown by simple geometry, that from whatever direction the
beam comes, the reflected ray will return in exactly the opposite
direction (compare with" cats' eyes" on the road or the prismatic
reflector buoys in Suez Canal). Radar reflectors (see later) are
constructed on this principle. In general, steel or iron structures
which consist of perpendicular connections, planes or lattice
work yield very strong echoes.
 Examples are radio and television transmitter masts, groups of
buildings, steel structures on buoys and beacons.

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b. Spherical targets
 A sphere is a poor target. Scattering takes place in all
directions.
 There is only one point where, upon reflection, the
radar energy returns to the scanner.
 This point is hit when the beam is directed straight
towards the centre of the sphere.
 This is true for a perfectly smooth sphere; in practice,
due to the roughness of the surface, slightly better
response will be received.

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c. Cylindrical targets
 (Examples are cylindrical mooring buoys)
 A cylinder possesses the properties of a plain and a sphere
combined. Upright and vertical it presents a fair target and its
aspect remains the same when viewed from any point in the
horizontal plane passing through it.
 Funnels, oil tanks, can buoys and chimneys, provided they are
not tapered, give reasonable response. If a cylinder with its
axis horizontal is observed, however, then its aspect changes
when it is observed from different directions in the horizontal
plane.
d. Conical targets
 A cone standing on its base is a very poor target.
 Theoretically, all the radiation will be deflected away and
none will return.
 The surface, in practice, is not completely smooth, and little
radiation will come back. Examples: Conical buoys,
lighthouses, tapered chimneys.
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 Effect of target shape on returned echo

a b

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3. Target size

(a) Width.
 If the target is wide in comparison to the horizontal
beam-width, then the radar beam will cut the target in
small sections, one after the other.
(b) Height.
 The first reason is obvious. A high mountain will re-
radiate a lot of energy, but whether this energy will
return to the observing vessel is another matter
which will be decided by the aspect, shape and
surface texture. The second reason is that the
reflected signal from a high and sloping mountain
does not return at the same time and hence does not
contribute to momentary echo strength.

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 Fig. 3-13 Aspect in the vertical plane and echo strength

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