Skdav Govt. Polytechnic Rourkela: Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Skdav Govt. Polytechnic Rourkela: Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Skdav Govt. Polytechnic Rourkela: Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
POLYTECHNIC
ROURKELA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS
AND TELECOMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
LECTURE NOTES
4. TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM
4.1 Discuss the operation of Electronic Telephone System. (Telephone Set)
4.2 Discuss the function of switching system.& Call procedures
4.3 Discuss the principle of space and time switching.
4.4 Discuss the numbering plan of telephone networks (National Schemes &
International Numbering)
4.6 Describe the operation of a PBX & Digital EPABX.
4.7 Define units of Power Measurement.
4.8 Describe the operation of Internet Protocol Telephone.
4.9 Describe the principal of Internet Telephone
COURSE OUTCOME (CO)
After the completion of course the students are able to:
1. Describe the working principle of different RADAR systems and their advantages,
disadvantages and applications.
2. Derive the radar range equation and solve the related problems.
3. Describe the satellite orbital patterns and concept of geostationary satellite.
4. Explain the working of a satellite communication system & its applications in different
areas and different multiple access techniques.
5. Demonstrate the understanding of optical fiber communication system, structure of
optical fiber and its types.
6. Discuss the channel impairments, optical sources, detectors, connectors, splices and
couplers.
7. Explain the operation of telephone set, function of switching system, call procedure and
numbering plan.
8. Describe the operation of PBX, EPABX and IP Telephone.
UNIT-1: RADAR & NAVIGATION AIDS
1.1 STATE AND EXPLAIN THE SIMPLE RADAR SYSTEM & ITS CLASSIFICATION:
Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or
velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor
vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A radar system consists of
a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain, a
transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same antenna is used for transmitting
and receiving) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object(s). Radio
waves (pulsed or continuous) from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the
receiver, giving information about the object's location and speed. Radar was developed
secretly for military use by several nations in the period before and during World War II. A
key development was the cavity magnetron in the United Kingdom, which allowed the
creation of relatively small systems with sub-meter resolution.
TYPES OF RADAR-
1-Pulsed radar
The pulse radar transmits short rectangular pulses & the continuous wave radar
transmits continuous sinusoidal EM waves.
Pulse Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal is called the Pulse Radar. Pulse Radars can
be classified into the following two types based on the type of the target it detects.
The Radar, which operates with continuous signal or wave is called Continuous Wave
Radar. They use Doppler Effect for detecting non-stationary targets. Continuous Wave
Radars can be classified into the following two types.
The following figure shows the operating principle of a primary radar set. The radar
antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and picked
up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called
echo or return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a
highly sensitive receiver.
All targets produce a diffuse reflection i.e. it is reflected in a wide number of directions.
The reflected signal is also-called scattering. Backscatter is the term given to reflections in
the opposite direction to the incident rays.
Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position indicator (PPI) or other
more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar at the
origin, which indicates the pointing direction of the antenna and hence the bearing of
targets.
Transmitter
The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power rf pulses of energy that
are into space by the antenna.
Duplexer
The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver
so that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the high-
power pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to
enter the receiver.
Receiver
The receivers amplify and demodulate the received RF-signals. The receiver provides
video signals on the output.
Radar Antenna
The Antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required
distribution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.
Indicator
The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable,
graphic picture of the relative position of radar targets.
The radar screen (in this case a PPI-scope) displays the output produced from the
echo signals. The longer the pulses were delayed by the runtime, the further away
from the center of this radar scope they are displayed. The direction of the deflection
on this screen is that in which the antenna is currently pointing.
1.2 DERIVE RADAR RANGE EQUATION AND THEIR APPLICATION:
The standard form of Radar range equation is also called as simple form of Radar range
equation. Now, let us derive the standard form of Radar range equation.
We know that power density is nothing but the ratio of power and area. So, the power
density (𝑃𝑑𝑖 ) at a distance, R from the Radar can be mathematically represented as –
𝑃𝑑𝑖 = 𝑃𝑡 / 4π𝑅2 (equation 1)
Where,
Pt is the amount of power transmitted by the Radar transmitter
The above power density is valid for an isotropic Antenna. In general, Radars use directional
Antennas. Therefore, the power density, 𝑃𝑑𝑑 due to directional Antenna will be
𝑃𝑑𝑑 =𝑃𝑡 G / 4π𝑅2 (equation 2)
Target radiates the power in different directions from the received input power. The
amount of power, which is reflected back towards the Radar depends on its cross section.
So, the power density 𝑃𝑑𝑒 of echo signal at Radar can be mathematically represented as −
𝑃𝑑𝑒 =𝑃𝑑𝑑 (σ / 4π𝑅2 ) (equation 3)
The amount of power, 𝑃𝑟 received by the Radar depends on the effective aperture, 𝐴𝑒 of the
receiving Antenna.
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑒 (Equation5)
If the echo signal is having the power less than the power of the minimum detectable signal,
then Radar cannot detect the target since it is beyond the maximum limit of the Radar's
range.
Therefore, we can say that the range of the target is said to be maximum range when the
received echo signal is having the power equal to that of minimum detectable signal. We
will get the following equation, by substituting R=RMax and Pr = Smin in Equation 6.
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝜎𝐴𝑒 1/4
𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 = [(4𝜋) 2𝑆 ] Equation7
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Equation 7 represents the standard form of Radar range equation. By using the above
equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.
We know the following relation between the Gain of directional Antenna, G and effective
aperture, Ae.
G=4π𝐴𝑒 / λ𝟐 Equation8
𝑃 𝐺𝜎𝐴 2
⇒𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 =[4πλ
𝑡
2𝑆
𝑒
]1/4 Equation9
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Equation 9 represents the modified form of Radar range equation. By using the above
equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.
We will get the following relation between effective aperture, Ae and the Gain of directional
Antenna, G from Equation 8.
Ae=Gλ𝟐 / 4π Equation10
𝑃 𝐺 2 𝜎λ2
⇒𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 = [(4𝜋)
𝑡
2𝑆 ]1/4 Equation11
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Equation 11 represents another modified form of Radar range equation. By using the
above equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.
APPLICATION
Receiver noise
The sensitivity of a radar receiver is determined by the unavoidable noise that appears at its
input. At microwave radar frequencies, the noise that limits detectability is usually generated
by the receiver itself (i.e., by the random motion of electrons at the input of the receiver)
rather than by external noise that enters the receiver via the antenna.
A radar engineer often employs a transistor amplifier as the first stage of the receiver even
though lower noise can be obtained with more sophisticated (and more complex) devices.
This is an example of the application of the basic engineering principle that the “best”
performance that can be obtained might not necessarily be the solution that best meets the
needs of the user.
Target size
The size of a target as “seen” by radar is not always related to the physical size of the object.
The measure of the target size as observed by radar is called the radar cross section and is
given in units of area (square meters).
It is possible for two targets with the same physical cross-sectional area to differ
considerably in radar size, or radar cross section. For example, a flat plate 1 square meter in
area will produce a radar cross section of about 1,000 square meters at a frequency of 3 GHz
when viewed perpendicular to the surface.
Clutter
Echoes from land, sea, rain, snow, hail, birds, insects, auroras, and meteors are of interest to
those who observe and study the environment, but they are a nuisance to those who want
to detect aircraft, ships, missiles, or other similar targets.
Clutter echoes can seriously limit the capability of a radar system; thus, a significant part of
radar design is devoted to minimizing the effects of clutter without reducing the echoes
from desired targets.
The Doppler frequency shift is the usual means by which moving targets are distinguished
from the clutter of stationary objects.
Atmospheric effects
Rain and other forms of precipitation can cause echo signals that mask the desired target
echoes.
The atmosphere can form “ducts” that trap and guide radar energy around the curvature of
the Earth and allow detection at ranges beyond the normal horizon.
Interference
Signals from nearby radars and other transmitters can be strong enough to enter a
radar receiver and produce spurious responses.
Well-trained operators are not often deceived by interference, though they may find it a
nuisance.
Interference is not as easily ignored by automatic detection and tracking systems, however,
and so some method is usually needed to recognize and remove interference pulses before
they enter the automatic detector and tracker of a radar.
(1) The trigger source provides pulses for the modulator. The modulator provides
rectangular voltage pulses used as the supply voltage for the output tube, switching it ON
and OFF as required.
(2) This tube may be a magnetron oscillator or an amplifier such as the klystron, traveling-
wave tube or crossed-field amplifier, depending on specific requirements. If an amplifier
is used, a source of microwaves is also required.
(3) While an amplifier may be modulated at a special grid, the magnetron cannot. If the radar
is a low-powered one, it may use IMPATT or Gunn oscillators, or TRAPATT amplifiers.
Below C band, power transistor amplifiers or oscillators may also be used. Finally, the
transmitter portion of the radar is terminated with the duplexer, which passes the output
pulse to the antenna for transmission.
(4) The receiver is connected to the antenna through the duplexer. An RF amplifier can
also be used, and this would most likely be a transistor or IC, or perhaps a tunnel diode.
(5) A better noise figure is thus obtained, and the RF amplifier may have the further
advantage of saturating for large signals, thus acting as a limiter that prevents mixer diode
burnout from strong echoes produced by nearby targets.
(6) The main receiver gain is provided at an intermediate frequency that is typically 30
or 60 MHz. However, it may take two or more down-conversions to reach that IF from the
initial microwave RF, to ensure adequate image frequency suppression.
(7) If a diode mixer is the first stage, the (first) IF amplifier must be designed as a low-
noise stage to ensure that the overall noise figure of the receiver does not deteriorate.
(8) Another source of noise in the receiver may be the local oscillator, especially for
microwave radar receivers. One of the methods of reducing such noise is to use a varactor
or step-recovery diode multiplier.
(9) Another method involves the connection of a narrowband filter between the local
oscillator and the mixer to reduce the noise bandwidth of the mixer.
(10) The IF amplifier is broadband, to permit the use of fairly narrow pulses. This means
that cascaded rather than single-stage amplifiers are used. These can be synchronous, that
is, all tuned to the same frequency and having identical bandpass characteristics. If a really
large bandwidth is needed, the individual IF amplifiers may be stagger-tuned.
(11) The overall response is achieved by overlapping the responses of the individual
amplifiers, which are tuned to nearby frequencies on either side of the center frequency.
(12) The detector is often a Schottky-barrier diode, whose output is amplified by a video
amplifier having the same bandwidth as the IF amplifier. Its output is then fed to a display
unit, directly or via computer processing and enhancing.
(1) The Moving Target Indicator Radar Block Diagram compares a set of received echoes with
those received during the previous sweep. Those echoes whose phase has remained
constant are then cancelled out. This applies to echoes due to stationary objects, but those
due to moving targets do show a phase change; they are thus not cancelled nor is noise, for
obvious reasons.
(2) The fact that clutter due to stationary targets is removed makes it much easier to determine
which targets are moving and reduces the time taken by an operator to “take in” the display.
(3) It also allows the detection of moving targets whose echoes are hundreds of times smaller
than those of nearby stationary targets and which would otherwise have been completely
masked. MTI can be used with a radar using a power oscillator (magnetron) output.
(4) The transmitted frequency in the Moving Target Indicator Radar is the sum of the outputs
of two oscillators, produced in mixer 2. The first is the stalo, or stable local oscillator (note
that a good case can be made for using a varactor chain here).
(5) The second is the coho, or coherent oscillator, operating at the same frequency as the
intermediate frequency and providing the coherent signal, which is used as will be
explained. Mixers 1 and 2 are identical, and both use the same local oscillator (the stalo);
thus phase relations existing in their inputs are preserved in their outputs.
(6) This makes it possible to use the Doppler shift at the JF, instead of the less convenient radio
frequency f0 + fc... The output of the IF amplifier and a reference signal from the coho are fed
to the phase-sensitive detector, a circuit very similar to the phase discriminator.
(7) The coho is used for the generation of the RF signal, as well as for reference in the phase
detector, and the mixers do not introduce differing phase shifts. The transmitted and
reference signals are locked in phase and are said to be coherent; hence the name of the
coho. Since the output of this detector is phase-sensitive, an output will be obtained for all
fixed or moving targets.
(8) The phase difference between the transmitted and received signals will be constant for fixed
targets, whereas it will vary for moving targets. The phase shift is definitely not constant for
Moving Target Indicator Radar.
(9) Each pulse that correspond to stationary targets are identical with each pulse, but those
portions corresponding to moving targets keep changing in phase. It is thus possible to
subtract the output for each pulse from the preceding one, by delaying the earlier output by
a time equal to the pulse interval, or 1/PRF.
(10) Since the delay line also attenuates heavily and since signals must be of the same amplitude
if permanent echoes are to cancel, an amplifier follows the delay line. To ensure that this does
not introduce a spurious phase shift, an amplifier is placed in the un-delayed line, which has
exactly the same response characteristics (but a much lower gain) than amplifier 1. The
delayed and un-delayed signals are compared in the subtractor and displayed.
1.6 DEFINE DOPPLER EFFECT & DESCRIBE THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF C.W RADAR:
DOPPLER EFFECT-
The Doppler Effect (or the Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave in relation
to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source
A common example of Doppler shift is the change of pitch heard when a vehicle sounding a
horn approaches and recedes from an observer. Compared to the emitted frequency, the
received frequency is higher during the approach, identical at the instant of passing by, and
lower during the recession.
The reason for the Doppler Effect is that when the source of the waves is moving towards
the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer
than the crest of the previous wave.
Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave.
Hence, the time between the arrivals of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced,
causing an increase in the frequency. While they are traveling, the distance between
successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".
Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted
from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time
between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between
successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".
C.W. RADAR-
1. The maximum range of CW Doppler radar is limited by the power that radar can
radiate.
2. The target range cannot be calculated by CW Doppler radar.
3. There is possibility of ambiguous results when number of targets are more.
1. CW Doppler radars are used where only velocity information is of interest and actual
range is not needed e.g. in police radar for catching cars travelling above the speed
limit.
2. Measuring motion of waves on water level.
3. Traffic counters.
4. Intrusion alarm.
5. Runway monitors.
6. Cricket ball speed measurement.
Navigation is the art of guiding the movement of a craft from one point to another along
a desired path. In older days long journeys over sea were accomplished with the
knowledge of the movements of sun and various stars.
These days most of the navigational work is done with electronic navigational aids.
Electronic navigational aids are based on the use of EM waves to find the position of the
craft.
A no. of different types of navigational aids are available in the market. One of them is
LORAN.
LORAN is short form of Long Range Navigational Aid. It is based on the measurement of
the difference in the time of arrival of EM waves from two transmitters to the receiver in
the craft.
Another one navigational aid is radio range navigation.
There are two types of radio range in operation-
VOR (VHF Omni-Range) is the basic Electronic navigation that in use today. This VHF Omni-
Range navigation method relies on the ground based transmitters which emitted signals to
VOR receiver. The VOR system operates in the VHF frequency band, from 108.0 to 117.95
MHz. The reception of VHF signals is a line of sight situation. You must be on the minimum
altitude of 1000 feet (AGL) above ground level in order to pick up an Omni signals service
range.
OPERATION:
The VOR facility at ground base transmits two signals at the same time. One signal is constant
in all directions as a reference phase. Another signal, it is variable-phase signal and it rotates
through 360 degrees, like the beam from the lighthouse. Both signals are in phase when the
variable signal passes 360 degrees (reference to magnetic north) and they are 180 degrees
out of phase when the rotating signal passes 180 degrees The aircraft equipment receives
both signals. The receiver will calculate the difference between the two signals, and
interprets the result as a radial from the station to pilots on the aircraft.
RADIALS: The two signals from VOR transmitter generate 360 lines like spokes in a wheel.
Each line is called a Radial. VOR navigation equipment on the airplane will determine which
of those 360 radials the airplane is on.
VOR INDICATOR:
A : Rotating Course Card is calibrated from 0 to 360 degrees, which indicates the VOR
bearing chosen as the reference to fly by pilot.
B : Omni Bearing Selector or OBS knob , used to manually rotate the course card to where
the point to fly to.
C : TO-FROM indicator . The triangle arrow will point UP when flying to the VOR station.
The arrow will point DOWN when flying away from the VOR station. A red flag replaces
these TO-FROM arrows when the VOR is beyond reception range or the station is out.
D : Course Deviation Indicator (CDI). This needle moves left or right indicating the direction
to turn the aircraft to return to course.
DOT : The horizontal dots at center are represent the aircraft away from the course . Each
dot represent 2 degrees deviate from desired course.
A localizer (LOC, or LLZ until ICAO standardization ]) is an antenna array normally located
beyond the departure end of the runway and generally consists of several pairs of directional
antennas.
The localizer will allow the aircraft to turn and match the aircraft with the runway. After that,
the pilots will activate approach phase (APP).
Glide slope of ILS (G/S)
The pilot controls the aircraft so that the glide slope indicator remains centered on the
display to ensure the aircraft is following the glide path of approximately 3° above horizontal
(ground level) to remain above obstructions and reach the runway at the proper touchdown
point (i.e., it provides vertical guidance).
Limitations
Due to the complexity of ILS localizer and glide slope systems, there are some limitations.
Localizer systems are sensitive to obstructions in the signal broadcast area, such as large
buildings or hangars. Glide slope systems are also limited by the terrain in front of the glide
slope antennas. If terrain is sloping or uneven, reflections can create an uneven glide path,
causing unwanted needle deflections. Additionally, since the ILS signals are pointed in one
direction by the positioning of the arrays, glide slope supports only straight-line approaches
with a constant angle of descent. Installation of an ILS can be costly because of siting criteria
and the complexity of the antenna system.
Variant
The Transit system, also known as NAVSAT or NNSS (for Navy Navigation Satellite
System), was the first satellite navigation system to be used operationally.
The system was primarily used by the U.S. Navy to provide accurate location information
to its Polaris ballistic missile submarines, and it was also used as a navigation system by
the Navy's surface ships, as well as for hydrographic survey and geodetic surveying.
Transit provided continuous navigation satellite service from 1964, initially for Polaris
submarines and later for civilian use as well.
The satellites (known as OSCAR or NOVA satellites) used in the system were placed in
low polar orbits. A constellation of five satellites was required to provide reasonable
global coverage.
The orbits of the Transit satellites were chosen to cover the entire Earth; they crossed over
the poles and were spread out at the equator. Since only one satellite was usually visible
at any given time, fixes could be made only when one of the satellites was above the
horizon.
NAVSAT system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous GEO spatial
positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location to high
precision using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites.
The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the position of
something fitted with a receiver.
The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high
precision which allows time synchronization.
A navigational satellite system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation
satellite system (GNSS).
The satellites travelled on well-known paths and broadcast their signals on a well-known
radio frequency.
The received frequency will differ slightly from the broadcast frequency because of the
movement of the satellite with respect to the receiver.
By monitoring this frequency shift over a short time interval the receiver can determine
its location.
Modern systems are more direct. The satellite broadcasts a signal that contains orbital
data.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM-
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally NAVSTAR GPS is a satellite-based radio
navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United
States Air Force. It is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that
provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth
where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Obstacles such as
mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.
The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of any
telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of
the GPS positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to
military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government
created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
The GPS project was started by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973, with the first
prototype spacecraft launched in 1978 and the full constellation of 24 satellites operational
in 1993. Originally limited to use by the United States military, civilian use was allowed from
the 1980s.
Working-
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a precise orbit. Each satellite transmits an
unique signal and orbital parameters that allow GPS devices to decode and compute the
precise location of the satellite. GPS receiver use this information to calculate a user’s exact
location.
The GPS receiver measures the distance to satellite by the amount of time it takes to receive
a transmitted signal.
With distance measurements from a few more satellites the receiver can determine a user’s
position and display it electronically to measure the running route and find a way to
destination.
To calculate the 2D position (latitude & longitude) and track movement, a GPS receiver must
be locked onto the signal of at least 3 satellites.
With 4 or more satellites, the receiver can determine the 3D position i.e. latitude, longitude
and altitude.
Once our position has been determined, the GPS can calculate other information. The 31
satellites that currently makeup the GPS system are orbiting the earth about 1200miles
above us.
This satellites are constantly moving, making 2 complete orbits in less than 24 hours. They
travel at speeds of roughly 7000miles an hours.
We can use the following standard form of RADAR range equation in order to calculate the
maximum range of Radar for given specifications.
𝑃 𝐺𝜎𝐴𝑒 1/4
RMax= [(4𝜋)
𝑡
2𝑆
]
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Problem 2
Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications.
Solution
We know the following formula for operating wavelength, λ in terms of operating
frequency, f.
λ = C/f
𝜆 =0.03m
So, the operating wavelength, λ is equal to 0.03m, when the operating frequency, f is 10GHZ
We can use the following modified form of Radar range equation in order to calculate the
maximum range of Radar for given specifications.
1/4
𝑃 𝐺𝜎𝐴 2
RMax= [(4𝜋𝜆
𝑡
2𝑆
𝑒
]
𝑚𝑖𝑛
SATELLITE ORBIT
The path in which a satellite travels around the earth in its stable
condition is called satellite orbit. The dista nce from the center of the earth to the
satellite is called orbit radius. The height of the satellite from the surface of the
earth is called altitude. At any point in the orbit, the angle of the rotation of
satellite with horizon is referred as inclinatio n.
i) Equatorial orbit: The orbit which plane coincide with the equator of the
earth is known as equatorial orbit. Their inclination angle is zero.
ii) Polar orbit: The orbit which plane coincide with any polar axis of the earth
(a line passing the reference points of the north and south poles) is known as
polar orbit. Their inclination angle is 90 degree.
iii) Inclined orbit: The orbit which is neither equatorial nor polar is known as
inclined orbit. Their inclination angle lies between 0 to 90 degree.
According to altitude satellite orbits are commonly three types: (details will be
included in satellite classification)
E.g. All radio and TV, whether satellite etc, are launched in this orbit.
2. Antennas need not be adjusted every now and then but can be fixed permanently.
2. Simple in design.
4. Very short life: Time of 5-8 years. Assuming 48 satellites with a life-time of 8 years each,
a new satellite is needed every 2 months.
About 35,786 kilometers above the Earth’s surface, satellites are in geostationary orbit. From
the center of the Earth, this is approximately 42,164 kilometers. This distance puts it in
the high Earth orbit category.
At any inclination, a geosynchronous orbit synchronizes with the rotation of the Earth. More
specifically, the time it takes for the Earth to rotate on its axis is 23 hours, 56 minutes and
4.09 seconds, which is the same as a satellite in a geosynchronous orbit.
If you are an observer on the ground, you would see the satellite as if it’s in a fixed position
without movement.
While geosynchronous satellites can have any inclination, the key difference to geostationary
orbit is the fact that they lie on the same plane as the equator.
Geostationary orbits fall in the same category as geosynchronous orbits, but it’s parked over
the equator. This one special quality makes it unique from geosynchronous orbits.
Weather monitoring satellites like GOES are in geostationary orbits because they have a
constant view of the same area. In a high Earth orbit, it’s also useful for search and rescue
beacons.
While the geostationary orbit lies on the same plane as the equator, the geosynchronous
satellites has a different inclination.
Any satellite in this orbit will appear as if it is always in the same place in the sky when
observed from the same point on the Earth. This orbit is at a distance of approximately
35,900 km from the surface of the Earth. Communication satellites are usually placed into
this orbit, with several satellites in the same orbit, distributed around to provide world
wide coverage for relaying the telecommunication signals.
The gravitational force between the satellite and the Earth is in the radial direction and its
magnitude is given by the Newton’s equation
F = GMm/r2 (1)
Where G is the gravitational constant, M and m are the masses of the Earth and the satellite
respectively and r is the radius of the orbit.
In case of the circular motion the net force equals mass times acceleration, where
acceleration can be calculated by ω2r, where ω is the angular rate of rotation also known as
angular velocity.
Thereby,
F = ma = mω2r. (2)
ω = 2π/T, (3)
F = m4π2r/T2. (4)
Now we can use the equations (4) and (1) to find the following formula
m4π2r/T2 = GMm/r2
or
r3 = GMT2/4π2. (5)
r3 = 6.67*10-11*5.972*1024*864002/4π2
and finally,
r = 4.22*107 m.
We can calculate the height h above the Earth’s surface by subtracting the radius of the
Earth from the radius of the orbit.
Where:
ms – Mass of satellite
ag – Gravitational acceleration
ac – Centrifugal acceleration
The centripetal acceleration provided by Earth's gravity:
𝑎𝑔 = (𝑀𝑒 . G) / 𝑟 2
Where:
Me - Mass of Earth in kilograms (5.9742 x1024 kg)
G - Gravitational constant (6.6742 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 = 6.6742 x 10-11 m3 s-2 kg-1)
Fcentripetal = Fcentrifugal
we note that the mass of the satellite, 𝑚𝑆 appears on both sides, geostationary orbit is
independent of the mass of the satellite.
𝑣2
(𝑀𝑒 . G) / 𝑟 2 = 𝑟
V = √(𝑀𝑒 . G) / 𝑟
r (Orbital radius) = Earth's equatorial radius + Height of the satellite above the Earth
surface
r = 6,378 km + 35,780 km
r = 42,158 km
r = 4.2158 x 107 m
V= 3.0754 × 103 m𝑠 −1
Speed of the satellite is 3.0754 x 103 m/s
CALCULATION OF ROUND TRIP TIME DELAY OF GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE-
Most communications satellites are located in the Geostationary Orbit (GSO) at an altitude of
approximately 35,786 km above the equator. At this height the satellites go around the earth
in a west to east direction at the same angular speed at the earth's rotation, so they appear
to be almost fixed in the sky to an observer on the ground.
The time for one satellite orbit and the time for the earth to rotate is 1 sidereal day or 23 h
56 m 4 seconds.
If you are located on the equator and are communicating with a satellite directly overhead
then the total distance, single hop (up and down) is nearly 72,000 km so the time delay
is 240 ms. mS means millisecond or 1 thousandth of a second so 240 mS is just under a
quarter of a second.
A geostationary satellite is visible from a little less than one third of the earth's surface and
if you are located at the edge of this area the satellite appears to be just above the
horizon. The distance to the satellite is greater and for earth stations at the extreme edge of
the coverage area, the distance to the satellite is approx 41756 km. If you were to
communicate with another similarly located site, the total distance is nearly 84,000 km so
the end to end delay is almost 280 mS, which is a little over quarter of a second.
meteorological
satellite and
X band 8-12.5 4.5 FSS military
This consists of a satellite in space that links many earth stations on the ground. The user is
connected the earth station through terrestrial network. This terrestrial network may be a
telephone switch or a dedicated link to the earth station.
The user generates the base-band signal that is processed and transmitted to the satellite
at the earth station.
Thus, the satellite may be thought of as a large repeater in space that receives the modulated
RF carriers in its up-link (earth to space) frequency spectrum from all the earth stations in
the network, amplifies these carriers and re-transmits them back to the earth in the down-
link (space to earth) frequency spectrum which is different from the up-link frequency
spectrum in order to avoid the interference.
The signal at the receiving earth station is processed to get back the baseband signal which
is then sent to the user through a terrestrial network.
On the guidelines of WARC-1979, commercial communication satellite use a frequency band
of 500MHz bandwidth near 6GHz for up-link transmission and another 500MHz bandwidth
near 4GHz for down-link transmission (i.e. 6/4 GHz band). In fact an up-link of 5.725 to
7.075GHz and a down-link of 3.4 to 4.8GHZ is used.
The 500MHz allocation is usually divided into 12 channels of approximately 40MHz each
and the transmit power per channel is typically of the order of 5 to 10W. This allows each
of up to 12 transponders to carry one TV channel or 1500 analog FM voice circuits.
This 6/4 band have been the most popular because they offer the fewest propagation
problems and also RF components for these bands have been readily available.
Rain attenuation is also not much serious at these bands. Sky noise is also low at 4GHz and
so it is possible to build receiving system with low noise at 4GHz.
With the overcrowding of GEO satellites at 6/4 GHz band, 14/12 GHz band is also being
used in commercial communication satellites.
A third band where extremely high capacities are potentially available is the 30/20 GHz
band.
Transponder-
A transponder receives and transmits radio signals at a prescribed frequency range. After
receiving the signal a transponder will at the same time broadcast the signal at a different
frequency. ... Transponders are used in satellite communications and in location
identification and navigation systems.
The communication going from a satellite to ground is called downlink, and when it is going
from ground to a satellite it is called uplink. When an uplink is being received by the
spacecraft at the same time a downlink is being received by Earth, the communication is
called two-way. If there is only an uplink happening, this communication is called upload. If
there is only a downlink happening, the communication is called one-way.
Crosslink-
A crosslink is a communications link between two satellites, typically serving a relay function
in a constellation. For example, in the following illustration, there is a crosslink between
Satellite1 and Satellite2, serving to relay communications between two ground stations. The
crosslink is needed because the orbits of the satellites in the constellation are too low for a
single satellite to have simultaneous access to both ground stations.
2.5 DIRECT BROADCASTING SATELLITE SYSTEMS-
Systems for transmitting television and other program material via satellite directly to in
dividual homes and businesses. Direct broadcasting satellite (DBS) systems operate at mi
crowave frequencies, in a portion of the Ku band; in North and South America these syste
ms operate in the frequency range 12.2–12.7 GHz.
DBS systems use a satellite in geostationary orbit to receive television signals sent up fro
m the Earth's surface, amplify them, and transmit them back down to the surface.
The satellite also shifts the signal frequency, so that a signal sent up to the satellite in t
he 17.3-17.8GHz uplink band
is transmitted back down in the 12.212.7GHz downlink band.
The downlink signal is picked up by a receive antenna located atop an individual home
or office; these antennas are usually in the form of a parabolic dish, but flat square
Phased array antennas are sometimes used, and may eventually become commonplace.
The receive antenna may be permanently pointed at the satellite, which is at a fixed point
in the sky, in a geostationary orbit.
These are usually perceived as being two way data terminals, though strictly speaking many
of the systems used for data broadcast are really one-way VSATs. Taking the USA as an
example, approximately half of all installed VSATs are only used for one way data links.
ETSI take a different definition for a VSAT as a one or two-way terminal used in a star, mesh
or point to point network. Antenna size is restricted to being less than or equal to 3.8 m at
Ku band and 7.8 m at C band.
The majority of VSAT antennas range from 75cm to 1.2cm.
VSATs access satellites in geosynchronous orbit or geostationary orbit to relay data from
small remote earth stations to other terminals or master earth station “hubs”.
A VSAT end user needs a box that interfaces between the user’s computer and an outside
antenna i.e. transceiver.
The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder in the sky.
The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station computer that acts as a hub for
the system.
Each end user is interconnected with the hub station via the satellite in a star topology.
For one end user to communicate with another, each transmission has to first go to the hub
station which retransmits it via the satellite to the other end user’s VSAT.
VSAT handles data, voice and video signals
Advantages of VSAT
1. Installation: VSAT services are deployed in hours or minutes.
2. Coverage: It can be available anywhere with clear line of sight between VSAT antenna disc
and satellite over the earth. It is popular in hilly areas where other mode of communication is
either not available or difficult to install.
3. Price: VSAT terminals are cheaper.
4. Upgradation: It is flexible to add a VSAT site and increase the bandwidth as per future
requirements.
5. Service charges: It depends on the bandwidth allocated as per user requirements.
6. VSAT provides same quality of service and speed at all the locations across the entire VSAT
network.
7. VSAT services are independent of other wired and wireless mediums used as transmission
network service provider. Hence it is a great backup system which is available during disaster
and emergency situations.
8. VSAT terminals and indoor/outdoor hardware can be installed on truck or van and can be
used even in mobility conditions.
Disadvantages of VSAT
1. As mentioned it requires clear Line of Sight between VSAT dish and satellite in the space.
2. The malfunctioning of satellite and Hub station (in case of star topology) will lead to
disruption of VSAT services. To avoid this situation, redundant systems and switch over units
are needed to have backup systems available for hot switching in faulty situations. But this
increases overall cost of the VSAT system as a whole.
3. Latency for packet transmission from source to destination is higher due to distance of
satellite from earth is about 36000 Km. Latency further increases in star topology of VSAT, as it
requires two hops to reach a final destination.
4. VSAT services get affected in bad weather conditions.
5. As information transmitted by VSAT goes over the air till it reaches destination, it is prone to
intrusion by hackers. Hence encryption-decryption units are needed to have secure
communication. This increases the overall VSAT terminal cost.
2.7 MULTIPLE ACCESSING & ITS TYPES-
Multiple access is a technique that lets multiple mobile users share the allotted
spectrum in the most effective manner. In computer networks and telecommunications,
the multiple access method permits various terminals to connect to the same multi-point
transmission medium to transmit over it and share its capacity.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the
following −
FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of FDMA
are as follows.
FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the network.
If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other users.
FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than TDMA.
Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously and
continuously in FDMA.
In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used instead of
FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.
TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes use of
non-overlapping time slots.
Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff process
is simpler.
TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not
required.
TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per frame
to different users.
Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning
time slot based on priority.
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where several
transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its features are as
follows.
In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by separate
frequency.
CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same code can
communicate with each other.
CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which is
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and
satellite communication. It has the following features.
All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
SDMA is completely free from interference.
A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same frequency.
The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA, can track
a moving user.
Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth
whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −
This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual
users are varied in a pseudo random fashion within a wideband channel. The digital data is
broken into uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on different carrier frequencies.
This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is
multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own code word which is
orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the receiver must
know the code word used by the transmitter.
The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of spread
spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is rarely mentioned.
Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with
one another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a multiple user
environment.
TDMA system divide the bandwidth into time slots and in each slot only one user is allowed
to either transmit or receive. TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer- and- burst method,
thus the transmission for any user in non-continuous.
In a TDMA frame the preamble contains the address and synchronization information
that both the base station and the subscribers used to identify each other. Guard times are
utilized to allow synchronization of the receivers between different slots and frames. The
features of TDMA include the following-
1. TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes
use of non-overlapping time slots.
2. Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts.
This results in low battery consumption, since the subscriber transmitter can be
turned off when not in use.
3. Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA the hand off process is much
simpler for a subscriber, since it is able to listen for other base stations during ideal
time slots.
4. TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not
required.
5. Adaptive equalizer is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission
rates are very high.
6. In TDMA the guard time should be minimized.
7. High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst
transmissions. TDMA transmission are slotted and this requires the receiver to be
synchronized for each data burst. Guard slots are necessary to separate users and this
results in a TDMA system having large overheads.
8. TDMA has an advantage is that it is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots
per frame to different users. Thus bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different
users.
Advantages of TDMA:
TDMA can easily adapt to the transmission of data as well as voice communication.
It has the ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
No interference from simultaneous transmission.
TDMA is the cost-effective technology to convert an analogue system to digital.
Share a single carrier frequency with multiple users
Mobile assisted handoff possible
TDMA provides the user with extended battery life since transmitting the only portion of
the time during conversations
Flexible bit rate
No frequency guard band required
No need of a precise narrowband filter
TDMA separates users according to time ensures that there will be no interference from
the simultaneous transmission.
TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voice and data, SMS as well as
applications such as multimedia and video conferencing.
Disadvantages of TDMA:
In TDMA each user has a predefined time slot so that users roaming from one cell to
another are not allotted a time slot. Thus, if all the time slots in the next cell are already
occupied, a cell might well be disconnected. In the same way, if all the time slots in the cell in
which a user happens to be in are already occupied, a user will not receive a dial tone.
It is subjected to multipath distortion. A signal coming from a tower and receive to
handset might come from any one of several directions so on the road signal bounced off
several different buildings before arriving which can cause interference.
Network and spectrum planning is intensive.
High synchronization overhead.
Frequency/slot allocation is to be complex in TDMA.
Equalization was necessary for high data rates.
2.9 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)-
It is cellular technology in which there are two main systems i.e, Base Station (BS) and
users. In CDMA systems the narrow band message signal is multiplied by a very large
bandwidth signal called the spreading signal. The spreading signal is a pseudo noise or
pseudo random code. All users in a CDMA system use the same carrier frequency and may
transmit simultaneously. Each user has its own pseudo random code. The receiver performs
operation to detect only the specific desired code word. All other code appears as noise. For
detection of the message signal, the receiver need to know the code word used by the
transmitter.
Advantages-
The use of CDMA offers several advantages that’s why CDMA technology is adopted
by many of the 3G cellular telecommunications systems. CDMA technology in mobile
communication possesses so many advantages. The following advantages are a few of them:
1. Security: It is difficult for hackers to tap the CDMA signals. Hence it is more secure.
2. Improvement in capacity and security: One of the chief claims of CDMA is that it gives
significant improvements in network capacity. In CDMA technology data and voice packets
are separated using codes, and then transmitted by using a wide range of frequencies.
Because more space is allocated for data in CDMA, this standard has become attractive for
3G high-speed mobile internet use.
3. Improvement in hand over/ hand off: By using CDMA technology, it is easy for a
terminal to communicate with two base stations at once. In case of this, old link is to be
broken when the new one is firmly established. This provides improvement in terms of the
reliability of hand over/hand off from one base station to another.
CDMA technology has been used in 3G telecommunication systems in one form or the other.
CDMA has become successful in every aspect, and it has enabled improvements need to be
gained over the previous technologies used in 2G systems.
Disadvantages-
In CDMA, orthogonal codes are used by mobile subscriber. Orthogonality between the
codes need to be maintained in order to recover the data. The subscribers which are
farthest from base station will have more attenuation and hence will lose the
orthogonality and hence it will be difficult to recover data.
CDMA uses soft handoff. In this type of handoff mobile needs to establish connection with
the new target cell before disconnecting itself from serving cell. This procedure is more
complex compare to the hard handoff type.
Increase in number of users will decrease the overall quality of service.
Near far problem is causes in CDMA system. This requires close control of transmit
powers of CDMA handsets.
Self-jamming is observed in CDMA system due to loss of orthogonality of PN codes.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY-
Electromagnetic radiation phenomena with wavelengths ranging from as long as one
meter to as short as one millimeter are called microwaves; with frequencies between 300
MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
The Law of Reflection states that the angle of incidence must be equal to the angle of
reflection.
Reflection depends on the type of surface on which light is incident. An essential
condition for reflection to occur with glossy surfaces is that the angle made by the incident
ray of light with the normal at the point of contact should be equal to the angle of reflection
with that normal. The images produced from this reflection have different properties
according to the shape of the surface. For example, for a flat mirror, the image produced is
upright, has the same size as that of the object, and is equally distanced from the surface of
the mirror as the real object. However, the properties of a parabolic mirror are different, and
so on. Reflection is also possible in one other scenario, even if the surface is not reflective.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT-
Refraction is the bending of light in a particular medium due to the speed of light in that
medium. The speed of light in any medium can be given by
Here n is the refractive index of that medium. When a ray of light is incident at the interface
of two media with different refractive indices, it will bend either towards or away from the
normal depending on the refractive indices of the media. According to Snell’s law, refraction
can be represented as
Core
This is the physical medium that transports optical data signals from an attached light source
to a receiving device. The core is a single continuous strand of glass or plastic that’s measured
in microns (µ) by the size of its outer diameter. The larger the core, the more light the cable
can carry.
All fiber optic cable is sized according to its core’s outer diameter. The three multimode sizes
most commonly available are 50, 62.5, and 100 microns. Single-mode cores are generally
less than 9 microns.
Cladding
This is the thin layer that surrounds the fiber core and serves as a boundary that contains
the light waves and causes the refraction, enabling data to travel throughout the length of
the fiber segment.
Coating
This is a layer of plastic that surrounds the core and cladding to reinforce and protect the
fiber core. Coatings are measured in microns and can range from 250 to 900 microns.
Strengthening fibers
These components help protect the core against crushing forces and excessive tension
during installation. The materials can range from Kevlar to wire strands to gel-filled sleeves.
Cable jacket
This is the outer layer of any cable. Most fiber optic cables have an orange jacket, although
some types can have black or yellow jackets.
VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION-
Velocity of propagation is a measure of how fast a signal travels over time, or the
speed of the transmitted signal as compared to the speed of light.
It is important to know about this property because reflection is also possible even if the
surfaces are not reflective. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle for a given
setting, the resulting type of reflection is called Total Internal Reflection, and it is the basis
of Optical Fiber Communication.
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
In an optical fiber, a light ray undergoes its first refraction at the air-core interface.
The angle at which this refraction occurs is crucial because this particular angle will dictate
whether the subsequent internal reflections will follow the principle of Total Internal
Reflection. This angle, at which the light ray first encounters the core of an optical fiber, is
called the Acceptance angle.
NUMERICAL APERTURE
Numerical Aperture is a characteristic of any optical system. For example,
photo-detector, optical fiber, lenses etc. are all optical systems. Numerical aperture is
the ability of the optical system to collect all of the light incident on it, in one area.
The blue cone is known as the cone of acceptance. As you can see, it is dependent on the Acceptance
Angle of the optical fiber. Light waves within the acceptance cone can be collected in a small area
which can then be sent into the optical fiber.
The numerical aperture of an optical fiber can be calculated with the following two formulas
There are 2 types of propagation mode in fiber optics cable which are multi-mode and
single-mode. These provide different performance with respect to both attenuation and time
dispersion. The single-mode fiber optic cable provides the better performance at a higher
cost.
The number of modes in a fiber optic cable depends upon the dimensions of the cable and
the variation of the indices of refraction of both core and cladding across the cross section.
There are three principal possibilities which are multi-mode step index, single-mode step
index and multi-mode graded index.
The diameter of the core is fairly small relative to the cladding. Typically, the cladding
is ten times thicker than the core. Comparing the output pulse and the input pulse note that
there is little attenuation and time dispersion.
Single mode propagation exists only above a certain specific wavelength called the
cutoff wavelength. Single-mode fiber optic cable is fabricated from glass. Because of the
thickness of the core, plastic cannot be used to fabricate single-mode fiber optic cable.
Less time dispersion of course means higher bandwidth and this is in the 50 to 100
GHz/ km range. However, single mode fiber optic cable is also the most costly in the premises
environment. For this reason, it has been used more with Wide Area Networks than with
premises data communications. It is attractive more for link lengths go all the way up to 100
km. Nonetheless, single-mode fiber optic cable has been getting increased attention as Local
Area Networks have been extended to greater distances over corporate campuses.
The diameter of the core is fairly large relative to the cladding. Note that the output pulse is
significantly attenuated relative to the input pulse. It also suffers significant time dispersion.
The higher order modes, the bouncing rays, tend to leak into the cladding as they propagate
down the fiber optic cable. They lose some of their energy into heat. This results in an
attenuated output signal. Consequently, they do not all reach the right end of the fiber optic
cable at the same time. When the output pulse is constructed from these separate ray
components the result is time dispersion.
Fiber optic cable that exhibits multi-mode propagation with a step index profile is thereby
characterized as having higher attenuation and more time dispersion than the other
propagation candidates have. However, it is also the least costly and in the premises
environment the most widely used. It is especially attractive for link lengths up to 5 km.
usually, it has a core diameter that ranges from 100 microns to 970 microns. It can be
fabricated either from glass, plastic or PCS.
There is no sharp discontinuity in the indices of refraction between core and cladding. The
core here is much larger than in the single-mode step index. When comparing the output
pulse and the input pulse, note that there is some attenuation and time dispersion, but not
nearly as great as with multi-mode step index fiber optic cable.
Fiber optic cable that exhibits multi-mode propagation with a graded index profile is thereby
characterized as having attenuation and time dispersion properties somewhere between the
other two candidates. Likewise its cost is somewhere between the other two candidates. This
type of fiber optic cable is extremely popular in premise data communications applications.
ATTENUATION -
Attenuation is the loss of optical energy as it travels through the fiber, this loss of optical
energy as it travels through the fiber, this loss is measured in dB.
Attenuation is a transmission loss that can be measured as a difference between the output
signal power and the input signal power.
1. ABSORPTION-
It is the way by which the energy of a photon is taken up by matter. Thus the
light energy is transformed to other forms of energy i.e, to heat. The absorption of light
during wave propagation is called attenuation.
Intrinsic Absorption-
2. SCATTERING LOSS-
Scattering loss occurs when light strikes a substance which emits light of its
own at the same wavelength as the incident light. The propagation of light through the core
of an optical fiber is based on total internal reflection of the light wave. Rough and irregular
surfaces can cause light rays to be reflected in random directions. This is called scattering.
3. BENDING LOSSES-
The loss which exists when an optical fiber undergoes bending is called
bending losses. There are two types of bending-
(b) Macroscopic Bending-
Bending in which complete fiber under goes bends which causes certain modes not to be
reflected and therefore causes loss to the cladding.
(c) Microscopic Bending-
Either the core or cladding undergoes slight bends at its surface. It causes light to be reflected
at angles when there is no further reflection
4. DISPERSION-
Dispersion is the spreading out of a light pulse in time as it propagates down the fiber.
Dispersion is of 2 types.
Intermodal Dispersion
Intra modal Dispersion
Intermodal Dispersion-
Multimode fibers can guide many different light modes since they have much larger
core size. Each mode enters the fiber at a different angle and thus travels at different paths
in the fiber. Since each mode ray travels at different distance as it propagates, the ray arrive
at different times at the fiber output.
So, the light pulse spreads out in time which can cause signal overlapping. Intermodal
dispersion is not a problem in single mode fibers since there is only one mode.
Material Dispersion
Waveguide Dispersion
Material Dispersion-
It is caused by the fact that some light travels in the fiber cladding compared to most
light travels in the fiber core. Since fiber cladding has lower index than fiber core, light ray
that travels in the cladding travels faster than that in the core.
Like other communication system, fiber optic communication has also a transmitter at one
end of the system, which injects information on to the fiber cables. The transmitter processes
and translates coded electronic pulse information coming from copper wire into
equivalently coded light pulses. The basic concept behind the optical transmitter is that it
converts electrical input signals into modulated light for transmission over an optical fiber.
The input signal determines the characteristics of the resulting modulated light, which may
be turned on and off or may be linearly varied in intensity between two predetermined
levels.
Here are two commonly· used optical sources for generating the light pulses. These are light
emitting diode (LED) and Laser Diode (LD). Laser diode with its version as injection-laser
diode (ILD) is commonly employed. Both the sources funnel the light pulses into the fiber-
optic medium where they transmit themselves down the fiber cable and are placed in very
close proximity to the light emitting region to couple as much light as possible into the fiber.
To accomplish the same, they are mounted in a package that enables an optical fiber to
couple as .much light as possible into the fiber.
CONCEPT OF LED-
An LED or a Light Emitting Diode is semiconductor device that emits light due to
Electroluminescence effect. An LED is basically a PN Junction Diode, which emits light when
forward biased. Light Emitting Diodes are almost everywhere. You can find LEDs in Cars,
Bikes, Street Lights, Home Lighting, Office Lighting, Mobile Phones, Televisions and many
more.
The reason for such wide range of implementation of LEDs is its advantages over traditional
incandescent bulbs and the recent compact fluorescent lamps (CFL). Few advantages of LEDs
over incandescent and CFL light sources are mentioned below:
Because of these advantages, LEDs have become quite popular among a large set of people.
Electronics Engineers, Electronic Hobbyists and Electronics Enthusiasts often work with
LEDs for various projects.
It consists of a PN Junction Diode and when voltage is applied to the LED, electrons
and holes recombine in the PN Junction and release energy in the form of light (Photons).
The light emitted by an LED is usually monochromatic i.e. of single color and the color is
dependent on the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
Light Emitting Diodes can be manufactured to emit all the wavelengths of visible spectrum
i.e. from Red (620nm to 750nm) to blue – violet (380nm to 490nm).
The electrical symbol of an LED is similar to that of a PN Junction Diode. The following
image shows a Red LED along with symbols of PN Junction Diode and LED.
Types of LED-
• It is modified form of DH LED (Double Heterojunction LED). In this LED type, optical fiber
is butt-coupled with itself.
• The surface emitting LED structure consists of thin central active layer of p type GaAs.
• This central layer is bounded by n-type AlGaAs/n+-type GaAs at the top side.
• This central layer is bounded by p-type AlGaAs/p+-type GaAs at the bottom side.
• The extreme top n+ type GaAs and bottom p+-type GaAs layers are used to provide low
resistive ohmic contacts only.
• The external optical fiber is butt connected by etching the top layers and by shielding with
epoxy resin.
• When refractive indices of both p-type and n-type materials are same, light is free to come
out from all the sides of the semiconductor device due to no confinement. However only
active region near the surface will emit the significant amount of light while absorbing from
the other parts. Hence it is known as surface emitting LED.
• Output radiation is originated from central thin layer i.e. p-type GaAs layer.
Advantages of Surface Emitting LED:
1) Optical coupling coefficient of LED with external fiber system is relatively higher. Hence
this LED offers high optical coupling efficiency.
2) Optical loss (due to internal absorption) is very low. This is because of carrier
recombination near its top heterojunction.
3) InP/InGaAsP based LED is used for long wavelength applications.
4) It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance.
5) The top n-GaAs contact layer ensures low thermal resistance and contact resistance. This
allows high current densities and high radiation intensity.
6) The internal absorption in the device is very low due to larger bandgap confining layers.
Moreover reflection coefficient at the back crystal face is high which gives good forward
radiance.
Disadvantages of Surface Emitting LED:
1) The surface emitting LED can transmit data rate less than 20 Mbps than edge emitting
LED.
2) It contains short optical link with large NA (Numerical Aperture).
• It is widely used in optical fiber communication system. Here collimated light from LED is
required to be fed into the fiber with high coupling efficiency.
• It is used for long wavelength optical communication approx. between 1.33 to 1.55 µm.
• Modern epitaxial growth techniques such as MBE, MOCVD etc. are used in order to design
such complex LED structures.
• Central active layer is made using InGaAs having narrow bandgap. It is bounded by wide
bandgap layers such as p+ InGaAsP and n+ InP cladding layers.
• These two cladding layers help in confining injected electrons and holes into the middle
layer. It also helps emitted photons to travel along LED axis as per optical properties.
• Due to above, light is emitted from the edge of the LED. Hence it is known by the name
edge emitting LED.
Advantages of Edge Emitting LED:
1) It has superior beam collimation property which offers greater coupling efficiency with
fiber optic cable compare to surface emitting LED.
2) It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance. It fulfills high brightness LED
requirements of the lighting industry.
3) It radiates less power to the air compare to surface emitting LED due to reabsorption
and interfacial recombination.
4) It offers better modulation bandwidth and more directional emission pattern.
5) It offers 5-6 times more coupled power into NA (Numerical Aperture) of step/graded
index fibers. This is due to small beam divergence.
6) It offers high data rates (> 20 Mbps) than surface emitting LED.
Disadvantages of Edge Emitting LED:
1) Its structure is complex.
2) It is difficult to design heat sink.
3) It is expensive compare to other LED types.
4) There are many issues to be handled during mechanical mounting and installation.
The Laser diode is made of two doped gallium arsenide layers. One doped gallium
arsenide layer will produce an n-type semiconductor whereas another doped gallium
arsenide layer will produce a p-type semiconductor. In Laser diodes, selenium, aluminium
and silicon are used as doping agents.
Working-
Absorption of radiation
Spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission
Absorption of radiation
Absorption of energy is the process of absorbing energy from the external energy sources.
Spontaneous emission
Spontaneous emission is the process of emitting light or photons naturally while electrons
falling to the lower energy state.
Stimulated emission
Stimulated emission is the process by which excited electrons are stimulated to fall into the
lower energy state by releasing energy in the form of light. The stimulated emission is an
artificial process.
In spontaneous emission, the electrons in the excited state will remain there until its lifetime
is over. After completing their lifetime, they return to the ground state by releasing energy
in the form of light.
When DC voltage is applied across the laser diode, the free electrons move across the
junction region from N-type material to the P-type material.
In this process some electron will directly interact with the valence electrons and
excites them to the higher energy level whereas some other electrons will recombine
with the holes in the P-type semiconductor and releases energy in the form of light. This
process of emission is called spontaneous emission.
The photons generated due to spontaneous emission will travel through the junction
region and stimulate the excited electrons.
As a result, more photons are released. This process of light or photons emission is
called stimulated emission will moves parallel to the junction.
The two ends of the laser diode structure are optically reflective. One end is fully
reflective end will reflect the light completely whereas the partially reflective end will
reflect most part of the light but allows a small amount of light.
The light generated due to the stimulated emission is escaped through the partially
reflective end of the laser to produce a narrow beam laser light.
Advantages-
1) Simple in construction.
2) Light weight.
3) Small in size.
4) High efficiency.
5) Low power consumption.
Disadvantages-
1) Not suitable for the applications where high powers are required.
2) Semiconductor lasers are highly dependent on temperature.
Application-
1) Laser diodes are used in laser pointer.
2) It is used in fiber optic cable.
3) It is used in laser scanning.
LASER FEEDBACK CONTROL CIRCUIT-
LASER diodes require complex drive circuit that involve feedback loops by measuring
output optical power, temperature voltage and input current.
But for controlling a laser diode used in applications where high accuracy is not required,
a simple LASER diode driver circuit can be constructed using LM 317 voltage regulator IC.
The LM 317 is configured to function as a constant current source. The output current
depends on the value of resistance between 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 and 𝑉𝑎𝑑𝑗 of LM 317.
So adjusting the 100 Ὼ potentiometer will change the output current that flows into the
LASER diode. The 10Ὼ resistor is used to prevent large currents from flowing when the
value of potentiometer is at zero. The 47µF capacitor is used to absorb any battery voltage
spikes.
An optical detector is a device that converts light signals into electrical signals, which can
then be amplified and processed. The photodetector is as essential an element of any fiber
optic system as the optical fiber or the light source. Photodetectors can dictate the
performance of a fiber optic communication link.
The detector is electrically reverse-biased. (In contrary, LEDs and Lasers are forward-
biased to emit light).
In the first illustration when there is no light, the reverse bias draws current-carrying
electrons and holes out of the p-n junction region, creating a depleted region, which stops
current from passing through the diode.
In the second illustration when there are lights on the detector, photons with the proper
energy (wavelength) can create electron-hole pairs in this region by raising an electron
from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving a hole behind. The bias voltage
causes these current carriers to drift quickly away from the junction region, so a current
flows proportional to the light hitting the detector.
AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE-
Generally, the noise performance of photodetectors with APDs can be better than that of
devices with ordinary p–i–n photodiodes when electronic noise is a limiting factor: the
internal amplification in an APD reduces the influences of electronic noise. However, the above
mentioned excess noise factor increases with increasing amplification factor, as obtained for
increasing reverse voltage.
Therefore, the reverse voltage is often chosen such that the multiplication noise
approximately equals the noise of the electronic amplifier, because this minimizes the overall
noise. The amount of excess noise depends on many factors: the magnitude of the reverse
voltage, material properties (in particular, the ionization coefficient ratio ), and the device
design.
Advantages-
1. High level of sensitivity as a result of avalanche gain.
Disadvantages-
1. Much higher operating voltage may be required.
2. Avalanche photodiode produces a much higher level of noise than a PIN photodiode.
3. Avalanche process means that the output is not linear.
The avalanche photodiodes are not as widely used as their PIN counterparts. They are used
primarily where the level of gain is of paramount importance, because the high voltages
required, combined with a lower reliability means that they are often less convenient to use.
3.16 CONNECTORS, SPLICES AND COUPLERS OF FIBER CABLE:
OPTICAL CONNECTORS-
An optical fiber connector is a flexible device that connects fiber cables requiring a quick
connection and disconnection.
Types of connector-
Butt joint connectors employ a metal, ceramic or molded plastic ferrule for each fiber and a
precision sleeve into which the ferrule fit. The fiber is epoxied into a precision hole which has
been drilled into the ferrule.
Expanded beam connector, employs lenses on the ends of the fibers. These lenses either
collimate the light emerging from the transmitting fiber, or focus the expanded beam onto the
core of the receiving fiber. The fiber to lens distance is equal to the focal length of the lens.
SPLICING-
A fiber optic splice is defined by the fact that it gives a permanent or relatively permanent
connection between two fiber optic cables.
Types of Splicing
i) Fusion splicing.
ii) Mechanical splicing / V groove
Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing involves butting two cleaned fiber end faces and heating them until
they melt together or fuse. Fusion splicing is normally done with a fusion splicer that controls
the alignment of the two fibers to keep losses as low as 0.05 dB. Fiber ends are first pre aligned
and butted together under a microscope with micromanipulators. The butted joint is heated
with electric arc or laser pulse to melt the fiber ends so can be bonded together.
Mechanical splices join two fibers together by clamping them with a structure or by
epoxying the fibers together. Mechanical splices may have a slightly higher loss and back
reflection. These can be reduced by inserting index matching gel. V groove mechanical splicing
provides a temporary joint i.e fibers can be disassembled if required. The fiber ends are butted
together in a V – shaped groove.
OPTICAL COUPLER-
A fiber optic coupler is an optical device capable of connecting one or more fiber ends
in order to allow the transmission of light waves in multiple paths. The device is capable of
combining two or more inputs into a single output and also dividing a single input into two
or more outputs. Compared to a splice or connector, the signal can be more attenuated by
fiber optic couplers, as the input signal can be divided amongst the output ports.
Passive fiber optic couplers are said to be passive as no power is required for operation.
They are simple fiber optic components that are used to redirect light waves. Passive
couplers either use micro-lenses, graded-refractive-index (GRIN) rods and beam splitters,
optical mixers, or splice and fuse the core of the optical fibers together.
Active fiber optic couplers require an external power source. They receive input signal(s),
and then use a combination of fiber optic detectors, optical-to-electrical converters, and light
sources to transmit fiber optic signals.
TYPES
Types of fiber optic couplers include splitters, combiners, X-couplers, trees, and stars, which
all include single window, dual window, or wideband transmissions.
Fiber optic splitters take an optical signal and supply two outputs. They can further be
described as either Y-couplers or T-couplers.
Y-couplers have equal power distribution, meaning that the two output signal each
receive half of the transmitted power.
T-couplers have an uneven power distribution. The signal outputs still carrier the same
signal, however the power of one output is greater than the second output.
Fiber optic combiners receive two signals and provide a single output. The output signal
is typically comprised of multiple wavelengths, due to the amount of interference that
occurs when attempting to combine two signals that share the same wavelength.
X-couplers carry out the function of a splitter and combiner in one package. They are a 2x2
coupler that combines the power of two signals and then divides the signal between two
outputs.
Star couplers have M inputs and N outputs (MxN). They are used to distribute the power
from all of the inputs to all outputs.
Tree couplers either have 1 input and M outputs (1xM) or N inputs and 1 output (Nx1).
Medical Industry
Communication
Defense
Industries
Broadcasting
Lighting and Decorations
Mechanical Inspections
The application of optical fibers in various fields are given below:
WDM enables bi-directional communication and multiplies signal capacity. Each laser beam
is modulated by separate set of signals. Since wavelength and frequency have an inverse
relationship (shorter wavelength means higher frequency), the WDM and FDM both
contains the same technology in them.
At the receiving end, Wavelength-sensitive filters, IR analog of visible-light color filters are
used.
The first WDM systems were two-channel systems that used 1310nm and 1550nm
wavelengths.
Wavelength division multiplexing systems can combine signals with multiplexing and split
them apart with a de-multiplexer. WDM systems are popular with telecommunications
companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying
more fiber by using WDM and optical amplifiers.
These two devices work as drop multiplexer (ADM), i.e. simultaneously adding light beams
while dropping other light beams and rerouting them to other destinations and devices and
this type of filtering of light beams were made possible with e talons, devices called Fabry-
Perot interferometers using thin-film-coated optical glass.
Present modern systems can handle up to128 signals and can expand a basic 9.6 Gbps fibre
system to a capacity of over 1000 Gbps. It is mostly used for optical fiber communications
to transmit data in several channels with slight variation in wavelengths. WDM can increase
the total bit rate of point-to-point systems.
In space division switching, the paths in the circuit are separated with each other
spatially, i.e. different ongoing connections at a same instant of time, uses different
switching paths.
This was originally developed for the analog environment and has been carried over
to the digital domain. The space switches are crossbar switches and multi stage
switches.
Crossbar switch-
1. Basic building block of the switch is a metallic cross points or semiconductor
gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
2. The number of cross points grows with the square of the number of attached
stations.
3. Costly for a large switch.
4. The failure of a cross point prevents connection between the two devices whose
lines intersect at that cross point.
5. The cross points are inefficiently utilized.
6. Only a small fraction of cross points are engaged even if all of the attached
devices are active.
In TDM bus there are several input and outputs connected to a high speed bus.
During a time slot only one particular output switch is closed, so only one connection
at a particular instant of time.
4.4 NUMBERING PLAN OF TELEPHONE NETWORKS (NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
NUMBERING)-
Telephone Numbering Plan is a type of numbering scheme used
in telecommunication to assign Phone Numbers to subscriber telephones or other telephony
endpoints.
Telephone Numbering Plan defines the pattern of digits for a country phone number.
Telephone Numbering Plan defines the specific components of phone numbers, display
format styles, and codes.
Phone Numbers are the addresses of participants in a Telecommunications network,
reachable by a system of destination code routing.
Telephone Numbering Plans are defined in each of administrative regions of
the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and they are also present in private
telephone networks. For public number systems, geographic location plays a role in the
sequence of numbers assigned to each telephone subscriber.
Ordered by code
Each Country Calling Code's first digit directs to these broad areas:
Example-
Country Calling Code prefix in all countries belonging to the North American Numbering
Plan is 011, while it is 00 in most European, Asian and African countries. On GSM (Mobile
Networks), the prefix may automatically be inserted when the user prefixes a dialed number
with the plus sign.
National Destination Code (NDC or NXX), commonly referred to as an International City Code
or Number Plan Area or Area Code or significant leading digits of National Significant
Number, is specified in ITU-T E.164.
National Destination Code identifies the Number Plan Area that is to be used.
National Destination Code optional code field which determined by each specific Telephone
Numbering Plan.
National Destination Code when combined with the Subscriber Number (SN) - will
constitute the National Significant Number within the international E.164-number for
geographic areas.
Subscriber Number-
Subscriber Number is typically End-User unique Phone Number which may be in many
different formats.
Subscriber Number is defined in the ITU E.164.
PBX is a privately owned telephone switching system for handling multiple telephone lines
without having to pay the phone company to lease each line separately.
Normally a telephone line is connected to the phone company’s local central office through
“a trunk”. The central office is responsible for routing incoming and outgoing calls. It
provides other services like voice mail, call forwarding, caller ID and other features.
Companies use a PBX for connecting all their internal phones to an external line. This way
they can lease only one line and have many people using it, with each one having a phone
at the desk with different number.
The number is not in the same format as a phone number though, as it depends on the
internal numbering. Inside a PBX, we only need to dial three digit or four digit numbers to
make a call to another phone in the network.
Types of PBX-
TRADITIONAL PBX-
A PBX is a privately owned phone system for handling multiple phone lines and routing
calls.
Depending on the services we need, it can be costly or rather cheap.
These systems are being used less because they are harder to install and need to be
connected to a land line.
HOSTED/ VIRTUAL PBX PHONE SYSTEM-
A hosted PBX is a virtual telephone system where, instead of having all our telephone
hardware in the office, hardware is provided by a system hosting company and connect to
the system via a network connection.
IP PBX-
In this method costs are greatly reduced since there is no extra hardware to install.
Phones can be connected to a computer port, rather than deals with wires.
Like virtual PBX, we can manage the system online.
Just install software and we are ready to start taking calls.
Computer software allows for more features to be added.
Low costs means its affordable for small and large companies.
DIAGRAM-
. PBX systems contain small switches and advanced call processing features such as
speed dialing, call transfer, and voice mail. PBX systems connect local
telephones ("stations") with each other and to the public switched telephone network
(PSTN).
This diagram shows a private branch exchange (PBX) system. This diagram shows a
PBX with telephone sets, voice mail system, and trunk connections to PSTN. The PBX
switches calls between telephone sets and also provides them switched access to the PSTN.
The voice mail depends on the PBX to switch all calls needing access to it along with the
appropriate information to process the call.
The analog telephone lines are connected with this section. The digital to analog and
analog to digital conversion is done with the help of codes. The no. of extension point
depends on the design of EPABX.
Internet Protocol Telephony (IP Telephony) is the use of IP-based networks to build, provide
and access voice, data or other forms of telephonic communications. IP telephony provides
traditional telephonic communication over an IP-based network, the Internet - via an Internet
service provider (ISP) - or directly from a telecommunications service provider.
IP telephony is designed to replace the telecommunications' infrastructure of circuit switched
public data networks (CSPDN) and public switched telephone networks (PSTN) with packet
switched IP communication networks.
In a consumer IP telephony solution, a soft IP phone application and backend Internet
connection enable voice and data communication, such as calling and faxing. A user may call
other softphone users, send or receive faxes and even communicate with circuit switched and
cellular communication services.
In an enterprise environment, IP telephony is implemented through physical IP phones that
work on top of an IP network infrastructure. An IP phone's built-in firmware provides the
complete functionality for initiating and managing telephonic communications. Moreover, IP
telephony also supports video communication between two or more users.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), a popular IP telephony implementation, only supports
voice communication over IP.
Advantages-
IP telephony systems tend to be much less expensive than traditional systems for both local
and long distance calling.
Benefits of IP telephony systems to small businesses and organizations is that fact that they
can be very flexible and have the ability to expand or contract with organization. If the business
is growing rapidly or if the business is seasonal in nature.
Internal communication is vital to organizations of every size and IP telephony systems make
internal communication easier.