Fluid Flow Manual PDF

Fluid Flow Lab
Department of Chemical, Polymer and

Composite Material Engineering
i
Fluid Flow Lab
Name Signature Date
Prepared by: Mr. Saqib Mehmood
Reviewed by: Mr. Ahmad Shakeel
Approved by: Dr. Tanveer Iqbal
Next Review:
ii
Fluid Flow Lab
Table of Contents
1. List of Possible Hazards in Fluid Flow Lab 1
2. The COSHH Regulations 2
3. Lab Note Book Rubric 5
4. Laboratory Performance Rubric 6
5. Equipment Status in Fluid Flow Lab 10
6. List of Consumables and Glass Wares 12
7. Equipment Detail Manuals 13
8. Lab Manuals (Experiments) 98
9. Lab Flexes 175
10. Material Safety Data Sheets for Chemicals 196
iii
List of Possible Hazards in Fluid Flow Lab
Following are the potential hazards and their remedies:
S. No. Potential Hazard Mitigation

Circuit breakers are installed with
1 Electrical Hazard equipment to avoid any personal
or equipment damage.
Chemical Hazards 1. Latex gloves and lab coat is
1. Acid / Alkali solutions are strongly corrosive. recommended to avoid any
2 2. Acid may splash vigorously. contact with these chemicals.
3. Organic chemicals are volatile (form vapors 2. Slow addition of acid drops in
fast). water is recommended.
Biological Hazard
Retained water in tanks of equipment may Immediate draining of tanks is
3
allow the growth of legionella Pneumophila and recommended.
other water borne microbes.
First aid kit is recommended for
4 Injury from sharp glass objects. lab.
Fire:
CO2 type fire extinguisher is
5 1. Organic chemicals can cause fire.
recommended.
2. Electrical short circuit can cause fire.
1. Immediate evacuation of lab is
recommended if release is
severe.
2. Acid / Alkali must be
6 Accidental Acid or Alkali release.
neutralized with its
counterpart.
3. Spillage must be confined in
affected area only.
1. Organic chemicals should not
be kept near fire or spark.
7 Accidental contact of non-compatible chemicals.
2. Acid should not come into
contact with pure metals.
4
The COSHH Regulations
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (1988)

The COSHH regulations impose a duty on employers to protect employees and others from
substances used to work which may be hazardous to health. The regulations require you to make
an assessment of all operations which are liable to expose any person to hazardous solids, liquids,
dusts, vapors, gases or micro-organisms. You are also required to introduce suitable procedures
for handling these substances and keep appropriate records.
Since the equipment supplied by Armfield Limited may involve the use of substances which can
be hazardous (for example, cleaning fluids used for maintenance or chemicals used for particular
demonstrations) it is essential that the laboratory supervisor or some other person in authority is
responsible for implementing the COSHH regulations.
Part of the above regulations are to ensure that the relevant Health and Safety Data Sheets are
available for all hazardous substances used in the laboratory. Any person using a hazardous
substance must be informed of the following:
Physical data about the substance

Any hazard from fire or explosion
Any hazard to health
Appropriate First Aid treatment.
Any hazard from reaction with other substances.
How to clean/dispose of spillage.
Appropriate protective measures.
Appropriate storage and handling.
Although these regulations may not be applicable in your country, it is strongly recommended that
a similar approach is adopted for the protection of the students operating the equipment. Local
regulations must be considered.
5
Water-Borne Infections
The equipment described in this instruction manual involves the use of water which under certain
conditions can create a health hazard due to infection by harmful micro-organisms.
For example, the microscopic bacterium called Legionella pneumophila will feed on any scale,
rust, algae or sludge in water and will breed rapidly if the temperature of water is between 20 and
45°C. Any water containing this bacterium which is sprayed or splashed creating air borne droplets
can produce a form of pneumonia called Legionaries Disease which is potentially fatal.
Legionella is not the only harmful micro-organism which can infect water but it serves as a useful
example of the need for cleanliness. Under the COSHH regulations, the following precautions
must be observed. Any water contained within the product must not be allowed to stagnate, i.e. the
water must be changed regularly.
Any rust, sludge, scale or algae on which micro-organisms can feed must be removed regularly,
i.e. the equipment must be cleaned regularly.
Where practicable the water should be maintained at a temperature below 20°C or above 45°C. If
this is not practicable then the water should be disinfected if it is safe and appropriate to do so.
Note that other hazards may exist in the handling of biocides used to disinfect the water.
A scheme should be prepared for preventing or controlling the risk incorporating all of the actions
listed above.
Further details on preventing infection are contained in the publication “The Control of
Legionellosis including Legionnaries Disease”- Health and Safety Series booklet HS (G) 70.
6
Use of Residual Current Device as an Electrical Safety Device
The equipment described in this instruction manual operates from a mains voltage electrical
supply. The equipment is designed and manufactured in accordance with appropriate regulations
relating to the use of electricity. Similarly, it is assumed that regulations applying to the operation
of electrical equipment are observed by the end user.
However, it is recommended that the RESIDUAL CURRENT DEVICE (RCD) supplied

(alternatively call an EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER -ELCB) be fitted to this
equipment. If through misuse or accident the equipment becomes electrically dangerous, an RCD
will switch off the electrical supply and reduce the severity of an electric shock received by an
operator to a level which, under normal circumstances, will not cause injury to that person.
If the electrical supply to the laboratory already incorporated an RCD, then the device supplied
with the equipment need not be used. If the electrical supply does not incorporate such protection,
then the loose RCD supplied by Armfield Ltd. Should be fitted by a competent electrician either
in the supply to the laboratory or in the supply to the individual item of equipment.
NOTE: If any doubt exists whether the electrical supply incorporates a device then RCD supplied
should be fitted.
At least once each month, check that the RCD is operating correctly by pressing the TEST button.
The circuit breaker MUST trip when the button is pressed. Failure to trip means that the operator
is not protected and the equipment must be checked and repaired by a competent electrician before
it is used.
7
Lab Note Book Rubric
Assessment Criteria Superior (8 – 10) Acceptable (5 – 7) Unsatisfactory (0 – 4)

(%Weightage)
Objective (10%) Clear, briefly and Purpose Not or poorly
specific established presented.
broadly.
Equipment (10%) Complete description List of major tools Incomplete list or no
of major Tools and and instrument description of tools
instruments with only. and instruments.
working.
Introduction (10%) Brief background Broad description Background theories
theories and laws have of background and laws with
been described with theories and laws irrelevant data has
references as per with no link to the been described with
objective. objective. improper referencing.
Experiment Well described in the Described in Description of
procedure (10%) appropriate steps in disorder or a very procedure with
logical manner. short way. missing steps or not
presented at all
Experiment results Present all the results Present the results Not presented at all
(30%) needed for the report in partially.
an appropriate manner.
Conclusions (20%) Very well redacted and Presentation of a Not presented at all or
meaningful summary or other not related in any way
conclusions. parts of the report with the lab.
as conclusions
References (10%) Proper references listed Incomplete Not presented at all or
References not related in any way
with the report
8
Laboratory Performance Rubric
Assessment Grading
Criteria
(Weightage)
Excellent Good Average Weak Fail Evalu-
(9 – 10) (7 – 8) (5 – 6) (3 – 4) (0 – 2) ation
Equipment Can identify Can Can identify Can Can Identify
(20%) all major parts identify all all major identify some or no
of equipment, major parts parts of some major major parts
their working of equipment parts of of the
and have equipment but working equipment equipment.
basic and their of few parts. and their
knowledge of working. working.
troubleshootin
g
Experiment Can perform Can Can recall Can recall Cannot
Performance all steps with perform all all steps few steps recall some
(50%) sequence and steps with with with or no steps
their logic to sequence sequence sequence and their
achieve an but don’t and sequence.
objective know their rationale.
rationale.
Safety Have general Have Have Have Have no
Measures and general general general awareness
(30%) experiment awareness awareness awareness of safety
specific of lab of lab safety of Lab measures
awareness of safety and and practice safety but for the
lab safety and practice it. it. But don’t don’t experiment
practice it. Have have practice
experiment experiment
specific specific
safety safety
awareness awareness.
but don’t
practice it.
9
Equipment Status in Fluid Flow Lab as on date 12-12-2016
S.
Equipment Quantity Status Remarks Recommendations
No.
Working
1 Centrifugal Pump 1
Condition
Repairing 1. Temperature Sensor 1. Temperature sensor

2 Axial Fan 1
Needed is out of order. should be repaired.
Cut Way Models
(Centrifugal pump,
Good
3 Tapper plug valve, 4
Condition
Tapper Globe valve,
Venturimeter)
1. Vacuum pump is
1. Vacuum pump and
Repairing missing.
4 Bernoulli’s Theorem 1 Pitot tube should be
Needed 2. Pitot tube is also
purchased.
missing.
Working
5 Flow Over Weirs 1
Condition
1. Vacuum pump is 1. Vacuum pump should
missing. be purchased.
Flow meter Repairing
6 1 2. One of the six- 2. Six-channel tube should
Demonstration Needed
channel manometer be fixed by cutting in
tube is damaged. proper size.
Hydraulic Bench Repairing 1. Pump is 1. Pump should be
7 1
Apparatus Needed malfunctioned. repaired.
Osborne Reynolds’ Working

8 1
Apparatus Condition
Orifice and Free Jet Working

9 1
Apparatus Condition
Free and Forced Working

10 1
Vortex Apparatus Condition
1. Vacuum pump and
1. Vacuum pump is
Pressure gauge should
Repairing damaged.
11 Fluid Friction in Pipe 1 be repaired.
Needed 2. Pressure gauge is out
2. Pressure tapping should
of order.
be purchased.
10
3. Pressure tapping
(outer dia=11mm) is
damaged.
Working
12 Air Flow Rig 1
Condition
Repairing 1. One of the pumps is 1. Pump should be

13 Series-Parallel Pump 1
Needed out of order. repaired.
Mobile Bed Model Working

14 1
Tank Condition
Working
15 Sedimentation Unit 1
Condition
1. Compatible
Compressible Flow Repairing 1. Thermocouple is
16 1 thermocouple should be
Bench Needed damaged.
purchased.
Permeability/ 1. Steel valves are 1. Steel valves should be
Repairing
17 Fluidization 1 blocked due to replaced with plastic
Needed
Apparatus rusting. valves.
11
List of Consumables for Fluid Flow Lab as on 27-10-2017
S.
Chemicals Required Quantity Availability
No.
Calcium Carbonate (powder
1 1 kg 0.3 kg
form) (CaCO3)
2 Sand (Coarse particles) 0.5 kg 0.25 kg
3 Ink 500 ml 0 ml
Red Gauge Oil (Hydro-treated
4 0 ml 500 ml
Light Naphenic Distillate)
List of Glass Wares for Fluid Flow Lab as on 27-10-2017
S.
Apparatus Detail Required Quantity Availability
No.
1 Beakers 0 × (1 L) 1 × (1 L)
12
Equipment Detail Manuals
1. Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit

2. Axial Fan Demonstration Unit
3. Cut Way Models (Centrifugal pump, Tapper plug valve, Tapper
Globe valve, Venturi meter)
4. Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration
5. Flow Over Weirs
6. Flow Meter Demonstration Apparatus
7. Hydraulic Bench Apparatus
8. Osborne Reynolds’ Demonstration
9. Orifice and Free Jet Flow Apparatus
10. Free and Forced Vortices Apparatus
11. Fluid Friction in Pipes Apparatus
12. Air Flow Rig
13. Series-Parallel Pumps Bench
14. Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Table
15. Sedimentation Studies Apparatus
16. Compressible Flow Bench Apparatus
17. Permeability and Fluidization Apparatus
13
Instruction Manual
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP DEMONSTRATION UNIT
14
Introduction:
Pumps fall into two main categories: positive displacement pumps and rotodynamic pumps.
In a positive displacement pump, a fixed volume of fluid is forced from one chamber into another.
One of the oldest and most familiar designs is the reciprocating engine, utilizing a piston moving
inside a cylinder. Steam pumps, the ‘nodding donkey’, stirrup pumps and hydraulic rams are all
of this type. Animal hearts arc also positive displacement pumps, which use volume reduction of
one chamber to force flow into another chamber.
The FM50 pump is, by contrast, a rotodynamic machine. Rotodynamic (or simply dynamic) pumps
impart momentum to a fluid, which then causes the fluid to move into the delivery chamber or
outlet. Turbines and centrifugal pumps all fall into this category.
The FM50 provides an example of a centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pumps are widely used in
industrial and domestic situations. Due to the characteristics of this type of pump, the most suitable
applications are those where the process liquid is free of debris, where a relatively small head
change is required, and where a single operating capacity or a narrow range of capacities is
required. The general design is usually simple with few mechanical parts to fail, however, and it
is possible to operate a centrifugal pump outside ideal parameters while maintaining good
reliability.
Fig 1.1: The FM50 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit
15
The centrifugal pump converts energy supplied from a motor or turbine, first into kinetic energy
and then into potential energy: The motor driving the impeller imparts angular velocity to the
impeller. The impeller vanes then transfer this kinetic energy to the fluid passing into the center of
the impeller by spinning the fluid, which travels outwards along the vanes to the impeller casing
at increasing flow rate. This kinetic energy is then converted into potential energy (in the form of
an increase in head) by the impeller casing (a volute or a circular casing fitted with diffuser vanes)
which provides a resistance to the flow created by the impeller, and hence decelerates the fluid.
The fluid decelerates again in the outlet pipe. As the mass flow rate remains constant, this decrease
in velocity produces a corresponding increase in pressure as described by Bernoulli's equations.
Fig 1.2: Front View of FM50 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit
16
Fig 1.3: Top View of FM50 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit
Name of components:
1- The Reservoir
2- Outlet Valve
3- Flow Sensor
4- Pump
5- Electronic Pressure Sensor
6- Inlet Valve
7- Temperature Sensor
17
8- The Baseplate
9- System Drain Valve
10- Drain Line
11- Storage positive for Impeller
12- Pump Drain Valve
13- Electronic Pressure Sensor
Description:
The equipment comprises a centrifugal water pump driven by an electric motor, which is mounted
on a support plinth together with a clear acrylic reservoir and associated pipework for continuous
circulation. A flow control valve on the discharge side of the pump regulates the flow of water
through the centrifugal pump. A valve in the inlet pipework of the pump allows the effect of suction
losses to be investigated. Appropriate sensors are incorporated to allow analysis of pump
performance. The pump operating parameters are controlled using the supplied Armfield software
on a suitable computer, via an Armfield interface device (1FD). The software also allows all sensor
outputs to be logged, and performs the required calculations for the investigations presented in this
manual. Where necessary, refer to the 1.2 & 1.3 figures.
The baseplate (8) supports the other components of the system. The reservoir (1) is formed of clear
acrylic and is mounted on the baseplate. The reservoir may be filled through the open top. Flow
exits the reservoir from the lower front pipe connection, is drawn through the pump, and re-enters
the reservoir from the upper rear pipe connection. A central baffle encourages mixing in the tank.
A drain (10) in the base allows the reservoir to be drained after use. The pump (4) is a motor-
driven centrifugal pump. The speed of the motor may be adjusted using the Armfield FM50
software. The pump body and cover plate are made from clear acrylic, allowing the impeller to be
observed. The cover plate is secured with six thumbscrews and sealed using an o-ring, and may be
removed to allow the pump impeller to be changed. Changing the impeller is described in the
Operation section of this manual. Always ensure the acrylic cover plate is fastened in position on
the pump when the pump is powered. The pump must always be switched off and the system
drained before removing the plate. The plate must always be secured in place and the system
prepared for use before the pump is operated.
18
Two interchangeable impellers are supplied, allowing the investigation of different impeller
designs. A storage position (11) is provided for the impeller that is not in use. Changing the
impeller is described in the Operation section of this manual. A manual ball-type inlet valve (6)
controls the inlet (suction) head supplied to the pump. This valve should be fully open except when
investigating the effect of inlet pressure on pump performance and cavitation formation. The valve
is operated by turning the handle on the top. The valve is fully open when the handle is in line with
the pipework, and is fully closed when the handle is at right angles to the pipework. A manual
gate-type outlet valve (2) controls the flow rate through the pump. The valve is operated by turning
the handle on the top. The valve is fully open (maximum flow) when the handle is fully
anticlockwise (when viewed looking down at the top of the valve), and is fully closed (no flow)
when the handle is fully clockwise. The correct directions are marked on the handle.
A turbine-type flow sensor (3) is situated in the outlet pipework to measure the flow rate through
the pump. The output from the sensor is displayed on the Armfield computer software. Two
electronic pressure sensors (5) and (13) are fitted to the equipment, one in the pump inlet and one
at the pump outlet. Outputs from the pressure sensors are displayed on the Armfield software. A
(system) drain valve (9) beneath the baseplate controls flow from the reservoir drain. The valve
should be closed while the equipment is in use. A (pump) drain valve ( 12) in the side of the pump
casing allows the pump to be drained after use. The valve should be closed while the equipment is
in use. A temperature sensor (7) is situated at the outlet from the reservoir, to measure the
temperature of the fluid within the system.
Commissioning of Equipment for operation:
Where necessary, refer to the 1.2 & 1.3 figures.
Filling the reservoir:
Ensure the equipment is switched off before filling the reservoir (1). Ensure that the drain valve at
the base of the reservoir (9) is closed. The reservoir must be filled with clean water at less than
30°C. The reservoir is filled through the open top, either through a hose connected to a suitable
water supply, or using a suitable container. Fill the reservoir to within approximately 10cm of the
upper rim, and remove any hose end from the reservoir after filling.
19
Operating the pump:
The pump (4) is driven via an inverter, which allows the speed of the pump
to be adjusted. The speed is set from the FM50-304 software using the
control box shown. The required setting may be typed directly into the box.
Alternatively the up and down arrows to the right of the box may be used to
adjust the setting to a higher or lower value. The speed may be set from 0%
to 100%, with the design operational speed of the pump being 80% of the
maximum.
Controlling flow rate using the outlet valve:
The flow rate through the pump can be controlled using the manual gate valve (2). This alters the
back pressure on the pump, and hence the head against which the pump must do work. The valve
is fully open (maximum flow) when the valve handle is turned fully anticlockwise. The valve is
fully closed (no flow) when the handle is turned fully clockwise. When adjusting the flow rate,
turn the valve handle smoothly and steadily and observe the result of the change on the software
screen. The system will require a few moments to respond to any changes, so allow time for the
sensor readings to settle and re-adjust the valve if necessary before taking a data sample.
Controlling inlet (suction) pressure:
The inlet head pressure is controlled using the manual inlet valve (6). This valve is used to
investigate the effect of changes in inlet pressure. Flow rate should always be controlled using the
outlet valve (2), not the inlet valve. The valve is fully open (maximum inlet head) when the valve
handle is in line with the pipework and the body of the pump. The valve is fully closed (no inlet
head) when the handle is at rightangles (perpendicular) to the pipework and to the body of the
pump. The valve should not be left closed when the pump is running.
Measuring sensor outputs:
Signals from the temperature, pressure and flow rate sensors are sent to the Armfield software via
the IFD7 interface device, and are displayed on the mimic diagram screen.
Draining the pump, pipework and reservoir:
20
To drain the system, fully open both the inlet valve and the gate (outlet) valve. Ensure the system
drain valve (9) and pump drain valve (13) are connected to a suitable drain then fully open both
drain valves.
Changing the impeller:
The system must be drained before changing the impeller. Unscrew the thumbnuts holding the
clear pump cover plate in position. Place the nuts in a convenient location. Undo the union
connector in the inlet pipe and remove the cover plate. Undo the thumbscrew and slide the pump
impeller from its axle. Remove the second impeller from the storage point (11), slide this onto the
axle and replace the thumbscrew. Place the first impeller into position on the storage point. Replace
the cover plate of the pump, sliding the inlet pipe back into position at the inlet valve. Ensure that
the rubber o-ring seal is correctly positioned in the groove. Secure the cover plate with the
thumbnuts.
Equipment setup:
1. Ensure the drain valve is fully closed. If necessary, fill the reservoir to within 20cm of the
top rim. Ensure the inlet valve and outlet gate valve are both fully open.
2. Ensure the equipment is connected to the IFD7 and the IFD7 is connected to a suitable PC.
The red and green indicator lights on the IFD7 should both be illuminated.
3. Ensure the IFD7 is connected to an appropriate mains supply, and switch on the supply.
4. Run the FM50-304 software. Check that ‘IFD: OK’ is displayed in the bottom right corner
of the screen and that there are values displayed in all the sensor display boxes on the mimic
diagram.
21
Instruction Manual
AXIAL FAN DEMONSTRATION UNIT
22
Introduction:
Fluid machines are usually characterized in two distinct classes: rotodynamic and positive
displacement. In a rotodynamic machine, relative motion is required between the rotating element
of the machine (the rotor or impeller) and the fluid stream. In a positive displacement machine, the
machine components mechanically displace a set volume of fluid. In a rotodynamic machine, the
changes in fluid velocity and pressure between inlet and outlet are of considerably greater
significance in determining performance than for a positive displacement machine, where machine
speed is the key parameter. Centrifugal fans (such as air-bed inflators), and axial fans (such as desk
fans and computer power supply coolers), are both types of rotodynamic machines. A bicycle
pump is an example of a positive-displacement machine.
The axial fan is an axial flow rotodynamic machine. Air is drawn along by fan blades rotating
about an axis parallel to the direction of air flow (hence the name axial fan), as in an aircraft
propeller. The air stream does not undergo a significant change of mean flow direction (as is seen
in the centrifugal fan), but turbulence and swirling within the air stream is introduced by the action
of the fan blades.
Fig 2.1: Direction of air flow with the rotating blades of an axial fan
Axial fans may be run in either direction, so that the direction of the air flow can be reversed by
reversing the direction of fan rotation. However, many blade designs are asymmetrical and hence
the fan performance will not be identical in both directions. Flow rates obtained are steady, unlike
those obtained using positive displacement air pumps, and axial fans can generally be started with
a very low applied torque. The exact characteristics of an axial fan will depend on several factors
including the depth, surface area, camber, pitch and number of fan blades, whether the blades are
located within a case or shroud, and the blade clearance within any fan case. Pressure differentials
and flow rates obtained tend to be lower than with many other types of rotodynamic fan, and axial
fans may stall if powered beyond their operating range.
23
Axial fans can be subdivided into three categories. Propeller fans, which can move high volumes
of air but cannot work against high pressures. Tube-axial fans, which are similar to propeller fans
but which have a case or shroud around the propeller, which increases efficiency. Vane-axial-fans,
which have both a shroud and integral straightening fins for smooth outlet flow and greatest
efficiency. Any axial fan type may be designed with variable-pitch impeller blades, for optimizing
performance across the operational range of the fan.
Axial fans are the most commonly used type of fan, and are made in a great variety of sizes.
Depending on the way in which motive force is supplied, axial fans may be extremely quiet, and
they can be very compact. They are therefore a popular choice for applications in which space and
noise are considerations, such as computer power supply and processor cooling fans, image
projectors and cameras. Desk fans are another common application, and axial fans may also be
found in numerous other areas such as aviation, automotive, agricultural and railway technology.
The FM41 Axial Fan Demonstration Unit consists of a small induction-powered fan with the clear
horizontal inlet and outlet ducts. A variable aperture at the end of the outlet duct allows user to
alter the outlet pressure, and an orifice at the inlet provides a means of measuring air flow rate.
The system is fitted with electronic pressure sensors that measure the differential pressure across
the inlet orifice and across the fan, and a temperature sensor measures the temperature of the inlet
air stream. The inverter supplying the motor provides an output signal indicating the motor torque
and speed. These sensor and inverter signals are sent to a computer via an interface device. Signals
sent from the PC via the interface device control the motor speed. The unit is supplied with data
logging and control software as standard.
Fig 2.2: The FM41 Axial Fan Demonstration Unit
24
Fig 2.3: Front View of FM41 Axial Fan Demonstration Unit
25
Fig 2.4: Top View of FM41 Axial Fan Demonstration Unit
26
Description:
The FM41 comprises of an axial fan with clear acrylic ducting. Sensors measure the differential
pressure across the inlet orifice and across the fan, and the temperature at the inlet. The fan is an
induction-powered axial fan mounted between clear ducting, allowing the motion of the fan blades
to be observed. The clear acrylic inlet duct has an orifice positioned at the inlet end of the duct for
flow measurement. There are two tapping points in the inlet duct. One is connected to one side of
a differential pressure sensor, with the other side of the sensor connected to a similar tapping in
the outlet duct, providing differential pressure measurement across the fan. The second tapping is
connected to a differential pressure sensor positioned at the orifice, to provide a reading for the
orifice pressure relative to atmosphere. The inlet duct has an internal diameter of 123mm and the
inlet orifice has an orifice diameter of 100mm.
An electronic temperature sensor mounted on the inlet duct measures the temperature of the inlet
air stream. An infra-red optical sensor mounted facing the central hub of the fan is used to detect
the rotational speed of the fan. The face of the fan hub is partitioned into black and white segments
for use with this sensor. The clear acrylic outlet duct has an aperture device positioned at the outlet
end, allowing the flow rate to be controlled. A tapping point in the outlet duct is connected to a
differential pressure sensor, with the other side of the sensor connected to a similar tapping in the
inlet duct, providing a differential pressure measurement across the fan. The outlet duct has an
internal diameter of 123mm (the inlet and outlet ducts are of the same diameter).
A variable aperture device is mounted at the end of the outlet duct. This is rotated manually to
reduce or increase the cross-sectional area of the outlet, and thus to vary the head and/or flow
produced by the fan. A small thumb nut is used to secure the aperture device at the required setting.
Installing the Software and USB drivers:
The software should be installed before connecting the equipment, to ensure that the PC has the
correct drivers available for the IFD7. The software installation program must write files to the
27
operating system directory and writes to the registry, and so the installation must be performed
using an account with administrative rights for the PC.
If for some reason the correct USB driver cannot be found or the wrong driver becomes associated
with the IFD7 USB, first remove any incorrectly associated driver using Windows System
Manager. Install the software, then connect the IFD7 USB and allow Window’s Add New
hardware Wizard to run. If the system fails to locate the correct driver files then these can be
manually located within the Wizard as follows:
.inf files: Windows\inf\Other
.sys files: Windows\system32\drivers
Disconnecting USB leads:
If using Windows XP, it is important to properly disconnect USB leads linking the PC to the
hardware. Failure to do so may cause the PC to crash or restart, which will cause the loss of any
unsaved data and may lead to later errors due to file corruption. Before removing the USB lead
from the equipment and the PC, always select the ‘Safely Remove Hardware’ icon from the bottom
left of the Windows screen, and disconnect the USB lead only when the PC indicates that it is safe
to do so.
Disconnecting the USB lead while the Armfield software is in use may cause the software to stop
responding or to stop controlling the equipment, even after the lead is reconnected and the software
indicates TFD: OK’. If this occurs then save any logged data (if possible) and restart the PC.
Whenever possible, avoid disconnecting the USB if the equipment is in use.
Operating the Fan:
The fan must be switched on within the software using the ‘Fan On ’ button on the mimic diagram
screen before the fan can be operated. The fan setting is shown as a percentage of the maximum,
in the ‘Fan setting’ box on the software mimic diagram. To operate the fan, either type the required
setting into the box, or use the up and down arrows beside the box to raise and lower the setting.
Adjusting the Outlet Aperture:
28
To adjust the aperture on the outlet duct, first loosen the locking screws. Turn the cylinder (holding
the aperture) around the top of the duct. Monitor the sensor outputs as required to find the correct
setting. Tighten the locking screws again to secure the aperture in the new position. Usually a
single screw will be sufficient to hold the aperture cylinder in place when taking a single reading.
When taking several readings at the same setting, users may prefer to tighten both screws to ensure
that the cylinder does not slip.
Taking Sensor Readings:
Outputs from the sensors are displayed on the software mimic diagram in appropriately labelled
boxes. The units in which the sensor outputs are calibrated are displayed next to the sensor readings
in the display boxes.
The pressure sensor readings should be set to zero before collecting sensor data. Ensure that the
fan is set to 0% and that the blades are not moving. Use the ‘Zero’ button beside each pressure
sensor box on the mimic diagram to zero the sensor. Check that the calculated flow rate reading
indicates zero after the inlet orifice pressure sensor has been zeroed.
Sensor readings can be recorded to the results table in the software by selecting the icon (note that
these recorded results must be saved using the ‘File’ menu, or they will be lost when the software
is closed).
Configuring the IFD7:
The software can detect the configuration of the IFD7. If it detects that the IFD7 has been set up
for an item of equipment other than the FM41, it will display a warning message indicating that
the IFD7 needs reconfiguring.
The IFD7 to be used with the FM41 must be configured with the correct parameters and
calibrations in order for the equipment to operate correctly. The device supplied with the
equipment is configured ready for use. However, any 1FD7 may be configured for use with the
FM41, if required, by uploading the correct parameters to the inverter contained within the device.
The procedure for doing so is as follows:
Connect the PC to the 1FD7 using the USB cable supplied. Run the inverter programmer (from
the Armfield menu within the Windows Start menu). From the drop-down selection box, select the
29
FM41. Select the ‘Write’ button. The configuration takes a few minutes to complete, and progress
is indicated with a progress bar on the screen. If this fails to indicate any activity after more than
a minute, check that the connection between the PC and the IFD7 is secure. Also, check that the
IFD7 is connected to an appropriate mains supply, that the mains supply and the IFD7 are both
switched on, and that all breakers at the back of the IFD7 are in the ON (up) position. Ensure that
the configuration is complete before attempting to run the FM41 software.
It is possible to view the full list of parameters that are set within the IFD7 inverter by selecting
the ‘details’ button. These parameters match those in the printed product manual for the IFD7
inverter, and the values provided may be required if not using the Armfield supplied software, e.g.
if the user is instead creating their own data logging and control program using Lab View or
similar.
Equipment setup:
1. Check that the outlet aperture is fully open.

2. Check that the sensor and power leads from the FM41 are connected to the sockets on the
front of the IFD7.
3. Check that the IFD7 is connected to a suitable mains supply, and that the USB socket on
(he front is connected using the lead provided to a suitable PC. Check that the red and green
indicator lights on the front of the IFD7 are illuminated.
4. Run the Armfield FM41-304 software on the PC, and check that the software indicates
‘IFD: OK' in the bottom right-hand corner of the window.
5. Switch on the mains supply to the IFD7, and switch on the 1FD7 using the power switch
on the front. Check that the power switch on the 1FD7 is illuminated.
6. On the software mimic diagram screen, select the ‘Fan On’ button to switch on the FM41.
Check that the green watchdog indicator on the mimic screen is illuminated.
7. Check that the sensor readings on the software screen give sensible values. The air velocity
and the pressure readings should be zero when the fan is not moving. Zero the pressure
readings if required using the ‘Zero’ buttons. The temperature should be sensible given the
ambient conditions in the room (typically between 15 and 30 °C).
30
Instruction Manual
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION
31
Introduction:
Bernoulli’s Principle is a physical principle formulated that is “as the speed of a moving fluid
increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases”. It also states that for an in viscid flow, an
increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or decrease in
the fluid’s potential energy. It can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy.
The Bernoulli’s equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation. As
a fluid passes through a pipe that narrows or widens, the velocity and pressure of the fluid vary.
As the pipe narrows, the fluid flows more quickly. Bernoulli’s Principle tells that as the fluid flows
more quickly through the narrow sections, the pressure actually decreases. It can be explained in
terms of the law of conservation of energy. As a fluid moves from a wider pipe into a narrower
pipe or a constriction, a corresponding volume must move a greater distance forward in the
narrower pipe and thus have a greater speed. Meanwhile, Continuity equation is about in physics
is an equation that describes the transport of a conserved quantity. Continuity equations are a
stronger, local form of conservation laws.
However, Bernoulli’s Principle can only be applied under certain conditions. The conditions to
which Bernoulli’s equation applies are the fluid must be frictionless (in viscid) and of constant
density; the flow must be steady, continuous, incompressible, non-viscous fluid flow, the total
energy or total head remains constant at all the section along the fluid flow provided there is no
loss or addition of energy.
Fig 3.1: The FME-03 Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit
32
Fig 3.2: The General overview of Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit
Description:
The main element for the test is a transparent conduit (9), of a very precise mechanization that, in
a section of its length, presents a gradual change in its transversal section and that has eight
pressure takes, thanks to which, we can measure, simultaneously, the values of the static pressure
that corresponds to each of these eight sections.
In each of the ends of this conduit, there is a removable joining piece (11) to place it easily, as our
convenience depending on the test to be made, in a convergent or divergent position with respect
to the flow sense.
It has, as well, a probe (Pitot tube) (7) that can be moved along the interior tube of the conduit and
makes known the total height load in each of its sections. To move the probe, it is necessary to
loosen previously the nut; this nut will be tighten again, manually, once the displacement has been
33
done. To avoid damages on the probe in a storing or movement, it is convenient to have it always
inside the conduit. The probe can be displaced along the conduit just by pulling it out or pulling it
inside, without the necessity of loosening any nut.
The eight pressure takes are connected to a manometric tube panel (2) of pressurized water. The
pressurization is made by the manual pump (10), connected to the air inlet valve (4), which is
coupled in the panel, through a flexible tube and an anti-return valve.
For its use, the device will be place on the Hydraulic Bench and it will be balanced using the
adjustable legs (12). The inlet conduit (1) has in one end a female connector that can be directly \
coupled to the driving of the Hydraulic Bench.
The end of the flexible tube, connected to the outlet (5) of the device, will have to drain on the
volumetric tank. The flow and the pressure, in the equipment, can be modified independently,
regulating the control valve (6) and the supply valve of the Hydraulic Bench.
Once unpacked the equipment and checked the packing-list, you only have to proceed by placing
the equipment in a stable place with enough space to operate and placing the hoses as well, one
with the fast connector is the inlet hose.
Manometric tubes:
In this section, we explain the procedure to be followed for a correct filling of the manometric
tubes.
1. Close the flow control valve of the Hydraulic Bench or Group (CV) and close the flow
control valve of the equipment (CCV).
2. Switch on the water pump and open completely the CCV valve. Open slowly the CV valve
until a maximum flow is obtained. When all the manometric tubes are completely filled of
water and there is not any air bubble, close the CCV and the CV after switching off the
pump.
3. It is very important that the equipment is a watertight compartment.
4. Remove the non-return valve or open the purge valve.
34
5. Open slowly the CCV valve. You can observe how the manometric tubes begin to fill itself
of air.
6. When all the tubes have obtained the desired height (70 or 80 mm).
7. Close the CCV valve and put the non-return valve or close the purge valve.
8. In this moment, all tubes have the same water level.
Fig 3.3: Graduated Manometric tubes of Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit
Practice procedure:
In this section, we explain how to make one experiment to demonstrate me equipment operation:
1. Connect the equipment to the hydrostatic bench or hydrostatic group in convergent or

divergent direction. Direction is not very important in this experiment.
2. Fill all the manometric tubes as indicated on the previous section.
3. Open the flow valve of the hydrostatic bench and open the regulator valve of the equipment
too.
4. Fix the water flow, for example 10 L/min. For example, use the graduated glass supplied
with hydrostatic bench and use a stopwatch to determine the water flow.
35
5. Place the Pitot’s tube in the first pressure taking, minimum section. Wait until the height
of the Pitot’s manometer becomes stable. This process can last some minutes. You can
observe the Pitot’s tube has a height superior to manometric tube.
6. When the heights of both tubes are stable, determine the difference of height between the
two manometric tube; static pressure and total pressure (Pitot’s tube).
7. This difference corresponds with the kinetic pressure given by “V2/2g”.
8. Repeat all steps described in the previous practices for each pressure taking.
9. Repeat all previous steps for different water flows.
Equipment setup:
1. Close the flow control valve of the Hydraulic Bench or Group (CV) and close the flow
control valve of the equipment (CCV).
2. Switch on the water pump and open completely the CCV valve. Open slowly the CV
valve until a maximum flow is obtained. When all the manometric tubes are completely filled of
water and there is not any air bubble, close the CCV and the CV after switching off the pump.
3. It is very important that the equipment is a watertight compartment.
4. Remove the non-return valve or open the purge valve.
5. Open slowly the CCV valve. You can observe how the manometric tubes begin to fill
itself of air.
6. When all the tubes have obtained the desired height (70 or 80 mm).
7. Close the CCV valve and put the non-return valve or close the purge valve.
8. In this moment, all tubes have the same water level.
36
Instruction Manual
FLOW OVER WEIRS
37
Introduction:
In open channel hydraulics, weirs are elevated structures that are used to control outflow and/or
measure flow from basins and drainage channels. Sharp-crested or thin-plate weirs consist of a
plastic or metal plate that is set vertically and across the width of a channel. These weirs are used
where highly accurate discharge measurements are required, such as hydraulic laboratories and
industries. For a weir to be considered sharp crested, the ratio between the thickness of the weird
and the height of water above the weir should be greater than 1.5. Sharp-crested weirs are usually
classified per their cross-sectional shape. The main types of sharp-crested weirs are rectangular
and triangular weirs.
Fig 4.1: The Flow Over Weirs Apparatus
38
Description:
The equipment has many elements that are used in combination with the Hydraulic Bench. A
special mouthpiece that is coupled to the outlet mouthpiece for water in the Hydraulic Bench. Two
soothing screens that, together with the previous element, they provide a slow current in the
channel.
A level meter consistent in a “nonius” that is adjusted in a mast, where the heights are pointed out
in a caliber coupled to it. A small hook or a point, are coupled to the inferior base of the mast to
carry out the measures. Two drains of rectangular neckline and in a V-shape that are assembled in
a support joined to the final part of the channel of the Hydraulic Bench.
Fig 4.2: Elements of the Flow Over Weirs Apparatus
Fig 4.3: Elements of the Flow Over Weirs Apparatus
39
The equipment has many elements that are used in combination with the Hydraulic Bench. A
special mouthpiece that is coupled to the outlet mouthpiece for water in the Hydraulic Bench. Two
soothing screens that together with the previous element, they provide a slow current in the
channel.
Assemble the equipment (screen, mouthpiece and weir board) as it is indicated in figures 4.4 and
4.5, depending on the practice you are going to make and the weir you need. Place the support
with the nonius at the half, approximately, of the distance between the weir and the screen.
Supply water to the channel until it unloads through the weir. Close the supply control valve and
stop the pump. Let the water level in the channel to stabilize.
Fig 4.4: Rectangular Weir arrangement of the Flow Over Weirs Apparatus on Hydraulic Bench
Fig 4.5: V-shape Weir arrangement of the Flow Over Weirs Apparatus on Hydraulic Bench
40
Instruction Manual
FLOW METER DEMONSTRATION APPARATUS
41
Introduction:
Fluid mechanics has developed as an analytical discipline from the application of the classical laws of static,
dynamics and thermodynamics, to situations in which fluids can be treated as continuous media. The
particular laws involved are those of the conversion of mass, energy and momentum and, in each
application, these laws may be simplified in an attempt to describe quantitatively the behavior of fluid.
The hydraulic bench service module provides the necessary facilitation to support a comprehensive range
of hydraulic models each of which is designed to demonstrate a particular aspect of hydraulic theory.
The specific hydraulic model that we are concerned with for this experiment is the Flow meter
demonstration apparatus. A full description of the apparatus is given blow.
Fig 5.1: Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus
Name of Components:
(1) Outlet Pipe
(2) Flow Control valve
(3) Orifice Plate
(4) Air inlet valve
(5) Variable area meter
(6) Eight-bank manometer
(7) Venturi meter
(8) Pressure tappings
42
Description:
The accessory consists of a Venturi meter, a flowmeter and an orifice plate, installed in a series
configuration to permit a direct comparison.
There are several pressure tapping connected to a panel of eight tubes, which would be connected to the
hydraulics bench of pressurized water.
The apparatus should be positioned on the side channels of the bench top channel. The Venturi meter,
variable area meter, and orifice plate are installed in a series configuration to permit direct comparison.
Flow control valve, permits the variation of the flow rate through the circuit and the adjustment in
conjunction with the bench control valve allows the system static pressure to be varied.
The inlet pipe should be connected to the bench outlet pipe, positioned in the volumetric tank. The pressure
tapping of the circuit are connected to an eight-bank manometer, which incorporates an air inlet valve in
the top manifold with facilities for connection of a hand pump.
This enable the levels in the manometer bank to be adjusted to a convenient level to suit the system static
pressure.
Equipment Setup:
1. First of all, fill the manometer tubes, for this, close the flow control valve of Hydraulic bench or
Hydraulic Group (VC) and also close the flow control valve of the equipment (VCC).
2. Connect the pump and open the VCC valve completely. Then carefully open the VC valve until
reaching a flow of 40 l/min. Wait a few minutes until all the manometric tubes are completely
filled of water and no air bubbles are inside of them.
3. Close VC and then VCC. You must make sure that the equipment is watertight, no water goes in
or out. Remove the anti-return valve or, by defect, open the purge valve.
4. Open carefully the VCC. It can be observed how the manometric tubes will be filled with air. Once
the required level has been reached (70 or 80 mm), close the VCC and place again the anti-return
valve or by defect, close the purge valve. All the tubes should reach the same height level.
5. Once the equipment is completely assembled, we will make measures of the flow introduced in the
equipment seeing the level of water reaches in it in a determinate time.
6. For each flow introduced, we will have to see the readings in the manometric tubes 1 and 3, which
corresponds to the Venturi.
43
Instruction Manual
OSBORNE REYNOLDS’ APPARATUS
44
Description:
Fig 6.1: Osborne Reynolds Demonstration Apparatus
The accessory is designed to be used with Hydraulic bench.
The inlet pipe is connected directly to the bench supply. The inlet pipe is connected to the base of the
constant head tank, glass marbles providing stilling to the flow. The flow visualization pipe is connected to
a bell mouth entry which promotes smooth entry to the pipe.
Flow through the pipe is regulated using a flow control valve. In use this valve should face the volumetric
tank. A short length of flexible piping attached to the valve will prevent splashing.
Dye contained in a reservoir is injected into the pipe via a hypodermic tube. The flow of dye is controlled
via a valve and its position is adjusted using a screw.
45
Equipment setup Procedure:
1. Position the Reynolds apparatus on a fixed, vibration free surface (not the hydraulic bench) and
ensure that the base is horizontal, i.e. the test-section is then vertical. Attach the bell-mouth entry
and add marbles to head tank, as shown in the diagram. This combination produces an inflow to
the test-section with a low level of disturbances.
2. Connect the bench outflow connection to the head tank inlet pipe.
3. Connect the head tank overflow to the hydraulic bench volumetric tank.
4. Attach the outflow tube to the apparatus flow control valve and clamp the end of this tube at a fixed
position above the volumetric tank, allowing enough space for insertion of the measuring cylinder.
5. Mentioning here, Movement of the outflow tube end during a test will cause changes in volumetric
flowrate, which is driven by the height difference between the head tank surface and outflow point.
6. Start the pump, open the bench valve and the apparatus flow control valve and allow the system to
fill with water. Then, adjust the bench control valve to produce a low over flowrate from the head
tank.
7. As the test section flowrate is reduced, adjust the bench valve to keep the overflow rate at a lower
level.
8. Before, mounting the dye injector, add dye to the reservoir until it is approximately two thirds full
with the dye control valve closed.
9. Attach the hypodermic needle, and open the valve (holding the assembly above a sink) to check for
free flow of the dye.
10. Use the stylus provided to clean the needle, if a steady flow of the dye cannot be established. Then
mount the dye injector on the head tank and lower the injector until its outlet is just above the bell
mouth and centered on its axis.
11. Close the apparatus outlet flow control valve; open the bench valve and slowly fill the head tank to
the overflow level then close the inlet valve.
12. Ensuring that the test-section is water filled. Allow the apparatus to stand for at least five minutes
before proceedings.
46
Instruction Manual
ORIFICE AND FREE JET FLOW APPARATUS
47
Fig 7.1: Orifice and Jet free Apparatus
Description:
The rig is designed to be positioned on the side channels of the hydraulics bench top channel. The inlet
pipe should be connected to the bench supply.
An adjustable overflow pipe is provided adjacent to the header tank to allow changes in the head. A flexible
hose attached to the overflow pipe returns excess water to the sump tank. A scale indicates the water level.
Finally a baffle at the base of the tank promotes smooth conditions prior to the orifice plates.
Two orifice plates of different diameters are provided and may be interchanged by slackening the two
thumb nuts. The orifice plate is sealed against an ‘O’-ring by means of a special fitting which gives a flush
inside surface.
The trajectory of the jet may be plotted using the vertical needles. In operation, a piece of paper is attached
to the backboard, and the needles are adjusted to follow the profile of the water jet. The needles may be
locked using a screw on the mounting bar. The profile may be plotted by marking the position of the needle
top.
48
Equipment setup:
1. Position the reservoir across the channel on the top of hydraulics bench and level the reservoir by
adjustable feet using a spirit level on the base.
2. Remove the orifice plate by releasing the two knurled nuts and check the orifice diameter, take care
not to lose the ‘O’-ring seal.
3. Replace the orifice and connect the reservoir inflow tube to the bench flow connector.
4. Position the overflow connecting tube so that it will discharge into the volumetric tank, make sure
that this tube will not interfere with the trajectory of the jet flowing from the orifice.
5. Turn on the pump and open the bench valve gradually. As the water level rises in the reservoir
towards the top of the overflow tube, adjust the bench valve to give a water level of 2 to 3 mm
above the overflow level. This will ensure a constant head and produce a steady flow through the
orifice.
49
Instruction Manual
FREE AND FORCED VORTICES APPARATUS
50
Fig 8.1: Free and Forced Vortex Apparatus
Description:
The accessory is designed to be positioned on the side channels of the Hydraulic bench top channel.
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical vessel having two pairs of diametrically opposed inlet tubes.
Overflow cut-outs ensure a constant level in the tank during experiments. A smooth outlet is centrally
positioned in the base of the vessel, and a set of push-in orifices of various diameters are supplied.
51
The 12.5mm diameter inlet tubes, which are angled at 150 degrees, impart a swirling motion to the liquid
entering the vessel, and are used as entry tubes for the free vortex experiment. The forced vortex is created
by using the 9mm inlet tubes, which are angled at 60 degrees to the diameter. The input from these tubes
impinges on a paddle which acts as a stirrer/flow straightener. The paddle rotates on a stud mounted on a
bushed plug inserted in the central orifice.
A bridge piece incorporating measuring needles is used to determine the profile of the forced vortex. The
needles are set at fixed distances from the side of the tank. The distances are given below.
If the profile of the free vortex is required this can be determined by replacing the measuring needles with
a gauge which measures the depth of the vortex at different diameters. Velocity heads may be visualized
by the insertion of various pitot tubes in this measuring bridge.
Forced Vortex
1. Position the apparatus into working channel of the bench and connect the supply.
2. Place the blanking plug in to central hole in the base of the cylinder.
3. Press the paddle onto stud. Connect a flexible hose to the outlet pipe and close the outlet valve.
4. Switch on the bench pump, open the bench control valve and open the three way inlet valve so that
water enters the cylinder from the 9mm diameter tangential inlet ports, set at 60 degree, and leaves
through the larger ports, discharging into the volumetric tank.
5. Raise the outlet pipe and allow it to fill with water, then lower it into the volumetric tank. This
induced a symphonic effect hence increasing the discharge rate.
Free Vortex
6. Position the apparatus into working channel of the bench and connect the supply.
7. Place an orifice into center hole in the base of the cylinder.
8. Switch on the bench pump, open the bench control valve and open the three way inlet valve so that
water enters the cylinder from 12mm diameter tangential inlet ports set at 150 degrees and
discharges through the orifice into the volumetric tank.
52
Instruction Manual
FLUID FRICTION IN PIPES APPARATUS
53
Introduction:
This equipment is designed to study the behavior of closed flows. It allows the study of the load
losses in pipes as well as in different hydraulic accessories. The losses by friction in right pipes of
different sizes can be investigated on a certain range of the number of Reynolds. This way,
different types of flows can be established:
 Flow in laminar regime

 Flow in turbulent regime
Osborne Reynolds distinguished between laminar and turbulent flow in pipes in his publication of
1883. Ludwig Prandtl, Thomas Stanton and Paul Blasius analyzed the flow data in pipes later on,
at the beginning of last century and they created the graph well-known as the “Stanton Diagram”.
John Nikuradse extended the work to cover the case of rough pipes, as the one supplied with this
equipment in which here are different ruggedness degrees with the purpose of comparing the
currents. The friction in pipes is one of the classic experiments in a laboratory and it has always
taken a place in the practical teaching of fluid mechanics. The results and the underlying principles
are of a lot of importance for aeronautical, industrial engineers, mechanics, etc. The unit is
completely instrumented and it is supplied as a complete equipment.
54
Fig 9.1: The Fluid Friction in Pipes Apparatus with Hydraulic Bench
Name of components:
1. Flowmeter
2. Rough pipe of diameter D=17 mm.
3. Rough pipe of diameter D=23 mm.
4. Smooth pipe of diameter D=6.5 mm
5. Smooth pipe of diameter D=16.5 mm.
6. Smooth pipe of diameter D=26.5 mm.
7. Valve of inclined seat
8. Floodgate valve
9. Filter
10. Membrane valve
11. Abrupt broadening
55
12. Venturi meter
13. Diaphragm
14. Abrupt contraction
15. Pipes in parallel configuration
16. Elbows of 90° in series
17. “T” junction
18. Ball valve
19. Elbow of 45 0
20. 45° “ T"
21 & 22. Manometers
23. Flow regulation valve 1 .
24. On/off switch of the pump
25. Centrifugal pump
26. Volumetric tank
27. Flow regulation valve 2
28. Equipment drain
29. Flexible tube with quick connection taking
30. 90° Elbow
Description:
The experiment bench to study the load losses in pipes, represented schematically in figure 9.1, if
it is supplemented by the Hydraulic Bench.
The circuits have ball valves On/Off, necessary to distribute the current How through the different
elements to experiment with. The equipment has a system of anti-closing pressure takings, located
upstream and downstream each element to practice with. Each one of them has a quick and easy
connection to the water and Bourdon type manometers.
The differential manometer of the Bourdon type will be used to measure important differences of
pressure, while the water one will be used to measure small differences of pressure.
The columns of the water manometer are communicated by their top section by a collector, which
has in one of its ends the necessary elements to connect an anti-return valve with quick plugs. The
level of the manometers can be adjusted using a manual air pump, just connecting it to the anti-
56
return valve and pressurizing the system. In the case of wanting to take the air out, it will be
necessary to disconnect the tube of nylon of the quick plug of the collector.
The tubes of transparent polyethylene are also supplied, so any pair of pressure takings can be
quickly connected to any of the two manometers. The relation between the tube diameter and the
distance of the derivations of pressure at the ends of each tube has been selected to minimize the
inlet and outlet effects. The flow can be controlled through the regulation valves placed at the
output of the AFT (27) well as with the one placed at the output of the pumping system (23).
By means of this last one, one the static pressure of the system can be also conveniently adjusted
in function of the experiment type that will be carried out. The energy contribution to the fluid is
carried out by means of a centrifugal pump, placed inside the Hydraulic Bench or next to the
Hydraulic Group. This is activated and stopped by means of the on/off switch (24) located in the
front panel of the Bench as well as of the Hydraulic Group.
1. The installation of the AFT panel should be made on a table with enough dimensions to
support this panel.
2. In the rear upper part of the equipment has a support that, leaning on the wall, conforms it
an extra rigidity to the panel. On the left part of the panel there is a water taking. This
should come from a water supply with a pressure of 2.5 bars and an approximate flow of
80 L/min. By means of the 8 valves, placed in the panel, we can select the pipe to study.
3. This equipment can be used with the Hydraulic Group as well as with the Hydraulic Bench.
4. When it is foreseen to stop the use of the equipment for a long period, it will be necessary
to cast the main tank, for what, at this time, it will be necessary to have an appropriate place
for the drainage. Water will have to be removed from all pipes. It can be easily made
opening all the valves, including those for the control of the output and input current. It is
also advisable to carry out a general cleaning of the Equipment periodically.
5. The mercury required is not supplied with the equipment. The equipment has pressure
takings (quick connectors) strategically placed that that allow us to determine the energy
losses in the different elements.
6. In case the manometers are not assembled, you will proceed to their assembly. To facilitate
it, the panel of the manometers has a fold in its left end, where it has four drills. These drills
57
will coincide with those made on the right end of the main panel, with the purpose of fixing
the panels with screws. Once assembled, connect the flexible tubes to the manometer
takings
7. The equipment is supplied with two manometers, one to be filled with water and two
Bourdon types’ manometers form the other. This manometer is used to measure the high
pressure and the water manometer is used by low pressure. This last one has an air l pump
that allows us to pressurize the water manometer.
58
Instruction Manual
AIR FLOW RIG
59
Introduction:
The movement of air is a concept which relates to many disciplines in engineering. The losses
incurred in pipes or ducts, the losses in associated fittings and measurement of the air flows
involved form a basic part of most engineering courses anti demands a practical demonstration in
the laboratory.
The majority of equipment designed to demonstrate these principles serves as an introduction only,
taking the student no further than measurement of head loss and flow rate. For this reason Armfield
Ltd has developed the F6 Air Flow Rig which incorporates experiments in Air Jet Dispersion and
Boundary Layer Growth as an adjunct to the basic principles. The equipment is therefore a
comprehensive tool for basic or advanced studies in air flow at technician or engineering levels.
60
Fig 10.1: Installation diagram of The Air Flow Rig
Name of components:
1. Fan support frame

2 .Test Pipe support frame
61
3. Test pipe
4. ‘U’ clamps
5. Static pressure tappings
6. Pitot tube
7. Conical exit of test pipe
8. Other half of test pipe
9. Four bolts
10. Ring clamps
11. Manometric board
12. Support road
13. Reservoir
14. The end frame
15. Horizontal tie-bar
16. Instrument rails
17. Flexible tubes
18. Traversing carriage
19. Cursor
20. Pitot tube assembly
21. 22. 23 Pressure tapings
24. Flow Splitter
25. Smooth bend
26. Small nozzle
27. Mitered bend
Description:
The equipment comprises a long smooth-walled test pipe connected to the suction side of a
centrifugal fan that is driven by a fixed speed electric motor.
The 80mm diameter test pipe is connected to the inlet of the fan to minimize turbulence inside the
pipe. A profiled bell mouth at the inlet to the test pipe prevents air separating from the wall and
straightening vanes suppress swirl and the formation of vortices. These features allow the
boundary layer to develop naturally on the inside wall of the test pipe.
62
One end of the test pipe is connected to the suction side of the centrifugal fan via a conical inlet
duct, while the other end is open to atmosphere. Pressure tapings along the complete length of the
test pipe permit the pressure gradient to be determined.
A traversing Pitot tube enables the measurement of the velocity profile at five different stations
along the length of the test pipe and hence the boundary layer growth inside the test pipe can be
determined.
Bolted flanges allow the test pipe to be separated half way along its length for the insertion of an
orifice plate for flow measurement or different bends for comparison of head loss. A large radius
bend and a mitred cascade elbow allow comparison of pressure losses for each fitting.
Large or small nozzles can be fitted at the inlet to the test pipe allowing high and low flow rates to
be measured.
The fan discharge can be fitted with a flow control damper that allows the velocity inside the test
pipe to be varied when performing closed conduit experiments alternatively the damper can be
replaced by a plate incorporating a small orifice for jet dispersion experiments.
A Pitot tube is used to measure variations in air velocity when performing air jet dispersion
experiments. The Pitot tube is mounted vertically on a graduated traversing carriage that allows
the tip of the tube to be moved laterally across the jet and longitudinally along the jet for jet
dispersion profiles at various distances downstream from the orifice.
The fan is supported on a floor standing steel frame with an adjacent support frame for the test
pipe.
A fourteen tube manometer bank, mounted on the support frame, allows head loss and velocities
within the pipe and jet velocities at the fan discharge to be measured. The manometer can be
inclined to increase its sensitivity. Manometer fluid (Red colored Kerosene) is supplied.
1. Connect the equipment to the electrical supply.

2. With the manometer board in the vertical position (xl) and the reservoir adjacent to the
lower manifold on the manometer, fill the reservoir with manometer fluid until the level in
the manometer tubes , is at the first graduation, (raise the height of the reservoir to fill all
63
of the tubes with fluid and check for leaks. Lower the reservoir until the level in the tubes
returns to the bottom graduation.
3. Switch on the fan motor. Air should now enter the inlet of the test pipe and should be
ejected from the discharge duct at the top of the fan/Open the sliding shutter at the exit
from the fan to give maximum air flow, then check that the pressure drop along the pipe is
indicated on the manometer tubes) with the highest level nearest to the fan.
4. Remove a blanking plug from one of the five traversing Pitot stations. Insert the traversing
Pitot tube ensuring correct orientation of the Pitot tube with the tip facing upstream (away
from the fan). Traverse the Pitot tube across the test pipe and observe that level in
manometer tube No. 14 responds accordingly (lower readings in the middle of tire pipe
because the velocity is higher than at the walls). Switch off the fan motor.
5. Slide the vertical Pitot longitudinally along the instrument rails and laterally across the
traversing carriage. Check operation of the locking devices in both directions. Undo the
Pitot tube clamp and slide the Pitot tube vertically up and down. Clamp the Pitot tube.
6. Position the jet dispersion orifice at the exit from the fan. Traverse the Pitot tube assembly
towards the orifice so that the tip of the Pitot tube just touches the orifice plate. Check that
in this condition the cursor on the carriage aligns with the zero on the horizontal scale.
7. Position the traversing carriage 200 mm away from the jet dispersion orifice. Switch on
the fan motor. Raise the reservoir until the maximum level in the
manometer tubes is near the top. Traverse the Pitot across the jet by moving the carriage;
check that manometer tube No. 13 responds accordingly (lower readings at the center of
the jet because the velocity is higher). Switch off the fan motor.
8. Remove the four fixing bolts that join the two pipe lengths together, insert the orifice plate
and clamp in position ensuring that sealing gaskets are fitted * on both sides of the orifice
plate.
Note: Before switching on the fan motor ensure that the manometer fluid level is at a
minimum level in the tubes '(reservoir low down), this will prevent fluid from being drawn
into the flexible tubing.
Switch on fan motor. Check that tubes 6 and 7 show a marked difference in fluid level
indicating the pressure drop across the orifice plate. Switch off fan motor. Remove the
orifice plate.
64
9. Remove the flexible tubing from the large nozzle on the entrance pipe, and refit the
ancillary fittings onto the pipe. Ensure all the fittings fit correctly.
10. Check that flow splitter fits onto large nozzle at entrance to test pipe.
65
Instruction Manual
MOBILE BED AND FLOW VISUALIZE TABLE
66
Introduction:
Flow pattern is the name usually given to a description of the main features of fluid flow within a
stated zone. A complete flow pattern gives information throughout the zone about the velocity
field (and hence streamlines), turbulent levels, pressure variation and any vibration of solid
boundaries. Often only a partial knowledge of such properties is needed for making major
engineering decision: about the design of the boundaries. However, considerable errors can be
made engineering work if the significance of a flow's behavior is not appreciated at an early stage.
For a preliminary (and sometimes the only) study of a flow a knowledge of velocity distribution
is essential; potential flow theory, with all its mathematical complexity can sometimes provide this
knowledge but only where a real flow's behavior ca be approximated by the theory's ideal
predictions. In general, where flow-boundaries are complicated, potential theory is invalid. In such
cases a rapid and relative! inexpensive experimental method is needed to provide at least a first
approximate; to the velocity distribution, not just at selected points but throughout the flow field
The aim of this manual is first to describe such a method, and then to show how that method can
be used to illustrate many important flow patterns in engineering practice. Most of the material is
presented in a form suitable for an undergraduate teaching course but the techniques are applicable
to more advanced studies.
An experimental technique for illustrating flow patterns of real fluids was apparently first
developed about 1900 by F. A. Ahlborn, a German engineer. It was further exploited by Prandtl,
Hunter Rouse, (in U.S.A.) and C. M. White (in Britain) to show the details of phenomena in fluid
mechanics. The method involves a slow, shallow water-flow of constant depth which passes over
the horizontal bed of a tank. The flow is constrained in plan by adjustable boundaries and the
velocities of the water surface are inferred from the behavior of dust particles boating on the
surface. The ‘Ahlborn’ technique can most readily demonstrate steady, two-dimensional flows
because, in many cases, the behavior of flow at the surface is representative of most of the flow at
greater depths. Steady, three-dimensional flow can also be illustrated with the additional aid of
paint or dye for demonstrating flow patterns below the water surface.
Unsteady flows can be reproduced and, with the substitution of a sand bed for the solid lower
boundary of the tank, local scour can be observed.
67
Fig 11.1: The Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Tank
Description:
An isometric view of Armfield tank (Figure 11.1) shows the apparatus is self-contained and
requires only an electrical supply. The tank itself is molded in fiber glass and the pipework, valve
and pump are plastic; the main elements of the apparatus are thus resistant to corrosion.
The pump, flowmeter and electrically actuated valve are mounted on a bedplate beneath the
working section of the flow visualization tank. Water is pumped from the sump in the downstream
tank to the base of the upstream tank where it rises through a perforated baffle plat to distribute
the flow evenly before it enters the working section of the tank. A shallow trough approximately
2000 mm long (4000 mm long on the 4 m version), 600 mm wide and 150 mm deep provides the
68
working section. Most experiments require a plane bed with a small frictional resistance in the
working section. A plain glass sheet (two sheets on the 4 m version) is supplied for this purpose,
with supports having levelling screws which should be adjusted until the sheet lies in a horizontal
plane. Tire sheet must be wedged along its sides to prevent it lifting by hydraulic up thrust. For
experiments involving an erodible bed a 65 mm deep layer of sand or other suitable material is
accessed by removing the glass sheet. Tire depth of flow in the working section is controlled by
adjusting the height of a weir at the downstream end of the working section.
The sump should be filled with clean water to a depth of approximately 800 mm when the pump
is not running. Clean water is essential for good flow visualization and consequently the water
must be changed from time to time because it becomes contaminated with paint or dust.
The volumetric flow of water through the working section is measured by a flowmeter and
indicated on a display on the control console. The velocity of tire water in the working section can
be calculated from the volume flowrate and depth of water (measured using the hook and point
gauge).
1. Ensure that the four drain cocks are closed.

2. Place the instrument carriage and depth gauge on the instrument rails.
3. Fill the sump tank with clean water to just below the level of the weir plate hinge. Lower
the weir plate by turning the hand wheel.
4. Switch on the electrical supply and check the operation of tire electrically actuated valve
by operating the ‘Increase’ and ‘Decrease’ switches between the fully open and fully closed
positions. Leave the valve fully closed.
5. Start the pump then gradually open the electrically actuated valve to establish a flow
through the flow visualization tank. Check that the flowmeter display on the control
console is indicating the volume flowrate.
6. Raise the weir plate to allow the working section to fill with water. Close the electrically
actuated valve fully then switch off the pump and allow the surface of the water to settle.
Using the depth gauge on the instrument carriage, adjust the height of the instrument rails
to be level with the surface of the water. When correctly adjusted the instrument rails will
be level with the surface of the water.
69
7. Slowly lower the weir plate and allow the water to drain from the working section. Using
the depth gauge on the instrument carriage, level the glass in the bed of the working section,
using the adjustable supports beneath the glass, taking care not to damage or scratch the
glass when raising and lowering it. When correctly adjusted the instrument rails will be
level with the glass bed.
70
Instruction Manual
SERIES PARALLEL PUMPS BENCH
71
Introduction:
A hydraulic pump is a generator machine able to communicate energy to the fluid that circulates
through its interior. This way, this fluid can overcome the geometric difference or the adverse
gradient of pressures that could exist between two points of a hydraulic net.
Among all the hydraulic machines, the pumps are the most versatile, because it is possible to adapt
them to a great diversity of conditions of exploitation (powers, flows, elevation heights, liquids,
materials, etc.).
The form of the impeller element determines the type of pump and it confers to it the same specific
characteristics. The most usual types of pumps according to the impeller element are the ones of
positive or volumetric displacement and the rotodynamic ones.
The first ones (gear, pistons, numberless screw pumps, etc.) confine a finite volume of fluid among
their mechanical components and once it is tightly enclosed it displaces it or impels it towards the
area of bigger pressure. In this type of pumps there is, therefore, a clearly defined physical frontier
among the area of high pressure and that of low pressure.
The second ones (axial, diagonal, radial pumps, etc.) get the increase of pressure by forcing the
fluid to move by the divergent conducts that are among the vanes of the bun, by the effect of the
centrifugal force to which the fluid is subjected with the turn of the bun or instigator. As a
consequence of the above-mentioned, in this type of pumps there is not a clearly defined physical
frontier between the area of high pressure and that of low pressure, but the pressure increases
progressively as the fluid advances.
The rotodynamic pumps are normally the most used. The field of use of these pumps grows day
by day and with them we obtain the drive from big flows and small heights to small flows and big
heights, going through all the intermediate situations.
The regulation of the flow in the rotodynamic pumps is very simple and you can approach it in
very different forms, by variation of the turn speed, by adjustment of shift keys in series or in
parallel, etc. This wide range of possibilities that exists to modify its point of operation allows its
easy adaptation to the different work situations that it can face during its life. The placement of
pumps or impellers in series or in parallel enlarges the field of application of the rotodynamic
72
pumps invading land to the volumetric pumps, of almost obliged use for applications of small
flows and big working pressures.
Due to the great importance that this type of pumps have in the industry it is necessary for the
technicians of the industry to know its behavior well. With this equipment the student will be able
to obtain the parameters and more important characteristic curves of this type of pumps as well as
of that of its coupling in series and in parallel.
Since the equipment has a speed regulation, you can obtain the point of design of each pump and
the characteristic curves of the series-parallel coupling for similar pumps (rotating at the same
speed) and for different pumps (rotating at different speed).
Fig 12.1: The front and side view of Series Parallel Pumps Bench
Description:
The test equipment consists of two centrifugal pumps, an “interface” control panel,_a deposit and
circulation pipes with valves at the inlet and outlet of the pumps, three pressure- sensors, a
rotameter, a load cell and a speed sensor.
The centrifugal pumps supplied with the equipment can operate: alone, coupled in series or in
parallel. The nominal flow of the pumps is of around 4800 1/hour and a nominal height of 25 mwc
(meter water column) at the maximum turn speed of the motor (2950 rpm). A three-phase motor
activates a pump with possibility of adjustment and measurement of the turn speed as well as of
73
the transmitted mechanic torque. From now on, we will identify this pump as “B1”. A single-phase
motor activates the other pump “B2”.
Fig 12.2: Hydraulic outline of the Series Parallel Pumps Bench
The pumps are installed in a pipes system like the one shown in Fig 12.2, which, as it is a closed
circuit, avoids the permanent waste of water during the operation.
By the appropriate positioning of the valves, it is possible to connect the pumps individually, in
series or in parallel, depending on which test is going to be performed.
As it can be seen in fig. 12.2 there is an instrumentation that allows the measurement of the most
representative parameters of the pumps and of their couplings.
The reading of the magnitudes measured is carried out in the corresponding “PSBPC” software
that it is given with the equipment and that allows to control the turn speed of pump B1, as well as
the graphical representation of the characteristics of the pumps.
In the instructions manual that is given with the equipment we indicate how you can modify and
adjust the configuration of the pressure sensors, rotameter and load cell when necessary in case of
problems or faults, although this operation is already done by factory and its manipulation is not
advisable.
74
Instruction Manual
SEDIMENTATION STUDIES APPARATUS
75
Introduction:
The characteristics of very small particle settling in water are of great importance in both naturally accruing
systems and in process plants, particularly that involving water treatment.
The removal of undesirable suspended solids from water may be achieved in many ways, including the use
of cyclones, centrifugal, sedimentation tanks and ‘thickeners’. The latter two equipment type are the most
commonly used in industry, because the capital and operating costs are relatively low. The great majority
of sewage treatment plants employ several sedimentation tanks in the primary treatment stage, and both
these and thickeners are found extensively as final water treatment stages in effluent disposal systems of
chemical and metallurgical process plants.
The study of how particles settle in a liquid is therefore of important to many industries, and the Armfield
sedimentation studies rig provides students with opportunity of observing settling or sedimentation
phenomenon in a simple and readily identifiable manner. Students are able to measure settling rates as a
function of particle size, density and concentration in a static water system. From these results, batch settling
curves may be deduced, which can then be used for the design of industrial settlers and thickeners. The
equipment supplied also allows industrial tests to be made on any slurry system of interest.
Fig 13.1: Sedimentation Studies Apparatus
Description:
76
Five equal sized glass cylinders are mounted vertically on a backboard incorporating measuring scales.
Each of the cylinders may be removed from the board for washing, filling and mixing of the solid particles.
Suspensions containing different sediments can be placed in the cylinders and the differences in
sedimentation rate observed by measuring the changes in height of the various solid/liquid interfaces with
respect to time.
Equipment Setup:
1. The equipment should be setup on a level laboratory bench. It is important that when the glass tubes
are clipped into place, they are assembled vertically.
2. Verticality of tubes can be adjusted by using a plumb line or spirit level, utilizing packing pieces
underneath the rubber feet.
3. It consists of five sample glass tubes with clamps on them. Measuring scale on glass tubes is
calibrated in mm.
4. The observation light is also fitted on the apparatus, it should be wired up to an appropriate single
phase plug.
5. Each sedimentation tube should be carefully unclipped from its retaining support and thoroughly
cleaned and rinsed out in water.
6. When the appropriate slurries of varying concentration (or particle size or density) have been made
up according to experimental procedure, this apparatus is ready to use.
77
Instruction Manual
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW BENCH
78
Introduction:
The Compressible Flow Bench has been developed jointly between Armfield Ltd and an
experienced lecturer in mechanical engineering, Mr. G. Taylor of Reading College of Technology.
The bench serves to introduce students to all the basic concepts of compressible flow through a
number of experimental procedures with a variety of interchangeable clear acrylic test sections.
The variable speed multi-stage compressor unit is supplied with a single convergent-divergent test
section and all the instrumentation necessary for carrying out experiments on it. Additional
interchangeable test sections are available as options. Performance tests may be earned out on the
compressor over a wide range of shaft speeds using an optional test duct. An optional Armfield
data logging device with associated software allows the readings to be logged onto a connected
PC. The software includes exercises for each of the accessories, performs the required calculations,
tabulates the results, and allows graphs to be plotted.
Fig 14.1: The Compressible Flow Bench Apparatus
Description:
Where necessary, refer to the Fig 14.2 and 14.3.
79
Fig 14.2: Front View of the Compressible Flow Bench Apparatus
80
Fig 14.3: Top View of the Compressible Flow Bench Apparatus
The C1 MkII Compressible Flow Bench comprises a motor driven multi-stage air compressor unit
supplied with a convergent-divergent test section. A compressor test duct or five interchangeable
test sections are available as options to expand the experimental capability. Integral electrical
sensors provide a digital readout of the pressure with respect to atmosphere at up to four points (or
up to four differential pressures between pairs of tapings), and of the compressor speed and motor
torque. An optional computer interface device with associated Armfield software allows these
readings to be logged onto a connected PC, and is additionally supplied with electronic temperature
81
sensors allowing the compressor inlet and outlet temperatures to be measured and recorded
electronically.
The motor, compressor (4) and control console (8) are mounted on a single baseboard (1) for
convenience when carrying and positioning the unit.
The compressor is driven by a three phase electric motor via a drive belt. A guard protects the
operator from contact with the rotating pulleys or drive belt. The motor speed is controlled via an
inverter that is located inside the control console. The airflow can therefore be varied by changing
the speed of the motor / compressor but the flow rate may also be controlled using a throttle valve
fitted at the outlet of the compressor. The inlet incorporates a gland for thermometer insertion to
measure the air temperature entering the compressor. Compressor speed and motor torque readings
are displayed digitally on the control console.
Type: Multistage centrifugal
Number of Stages: Four
Inlet port bore: 51 mm
Discharge port bore: 51 mm
Motor rating: 0.75 h.p. (0.56 kW)
Enclosure: Drip-proof
Motor shaft speed: Variable from 0 to 3050 rpm
Pulley Ratio: 71:18 (i.e. 4:1 increase)
Corresponding Blower speed: 12200 rpm (max)
The flowrate of most experiments is controlled via speed controller knob (7) on the controller
console. This controls the fine adjustment of the air flowrate. The speed of the compressor is
displayed on a digital display on the control console in thousands of revolutions per minute
(kRPM), and the motor torque is displayed in Newton meters.
The compressor is fitted with a throttle valve assembly (2) at the outlet. The throttle valve consists
of a tapered disk that gradually restricts the compressor outlet as it is screwed towards the
compressor. The disk may be held in position after adjustment using a locking nut at the back. The
82
valve allows fine control of flow rates whilst maintaining a fixed shaft speed from the inverter.
The throttle assembly incorporates a pressure tapping and a gland for thermometer insertion to
measure air stream temperature at the compressor outlet.
For most of the experiments presented in this manual the throttle is not normally used for flow rate
control and the throttle should be locked fully open. Where use of the throttle is required (e.g.
compressor tests at constant speed) this is described in the experimental procedure.
Internal diameter of outlet: 51mm
Each of the test sections and the throttle valve assembly incorporate pressure tapping points at
appropriate locations. The control console incorporates four differential pressure sensors. The
pressure tapings are connected with flexible tubing to the appropriate barbed hose-tails (10) on the
front panel of the console, which are labelled P1 through to P4. Each sensor measures the
differential pressure between two tapping points, by connecting the two tapping points to the same
sensor (Higher pressure to top hose-tail, lower pressure to bottom hose-tail). Alternatively a
pressure sensor may measure the pressure at a tapping point with respect to atmospheric pressure,
by connecting the tapping point to the lower socket of the sensor and leaving the upper socket open
to atmosphere (Note that this will give a positive value when connected to a tapping on the suction
side of the compressor. To determine the absolute pressure, the reading is subtracted from the
ambient atmospheric pressure)
Sensors P1 and P2 are designed for large differential pressure ranges, and sensor readings are
displayed on the console in kilopascals (kNm-2). Sensors P3 and P4 are designed for small
differential pressure ranges, and sensor readings are displayed on the console in Pascal’s (Nm -2).
Appropriate connections between the test section and the pressure sensors are described in each
exercise. Note that when measuring high pressures the range of P1 is 3 times the range of P2.
The air stream temperature at the compressor inlet and outlet may be measured by inserting the
liquid-in-glass (spirit) thermometers supplied into the glands (3) and (5). Two thermometers are
required to taker readings simultaneously, and the thermometers are read manually. The
thermometers may also be used to take a reading of the ambient temperature of the room before
commencing use of the equipment.
83
If the optional Armfield data logger and software (Cl -MKII-50) is used then this option is supplied
with two electronic temperature sensors. These are inserted into the same glands as those q I used
for the glass thermometers and the sensors are connected to the sockets provided on the back of
the control console. Temperature readings from the sensors are then sent to a connected PC via the
data logging unit.
Fig 14.4: Test section, convergent divergent duct.
The Cl MkII is supplied complete with a convergent-divergent (Venturi) test section (6). When
using this or the other optional test sections, the compressor is used as an exhauster: air enters the
duct from the atmosphere and is sucked into the inlet of the compressor. The flow rate is controlled
by the previously described inverter linked to the motor. The intake is thus unobstructed, and the
flow rate can be determined from the depression at the first parallel-sided section, (Patms-Pinlet).
A substantial pressure recovery is obtained in the divergent portion of diffuser and a throat
depression Patms-Pthroat is thereby achieved which is several times the pressure difference developed
by the compressor itself. At high throttle openings the speed of sound is reached and the duct
becomes choked. Tapings for pressure measurement are provided at the inlet, throat and outlet.
Any tapping not used in an experiment should be blanked off with the rubber stoppers provided.
Flow metering section diameter d1: 24mm
Upstream (throat) pipe diameter d2: 9.5mm
Downstream pipe diameter d3: 24mm
84
1. If required, measure the diameters of the convergent-divergent duct inlet, throat and outlet
using calipers or similar. Default values are provided in the Description section of this
manual (page 4 onwards) which will produce acceptable results.
2. If required, fit the test section to the motor/compressor inlet.
3. Connect pressure sensor P1 to read the pressure differential Patmos - Pthroat by connecting a
tube between the throat pressures tapping on the test section to the lowermost socket
labelled PI on the control console. Leave the upper socket open to atmosphere.
4. Connect pressure sensor P2 to read the pressure differential Patmos - Poutlet by connecting a
tube between the outlet pressures tapping on the test section to the lowermost socket
labelled P2 on the control console. Leave the upper socket open to atmosphere.
5. Connect pressure sensor P3 to read the pressure differential Patmos - Pinlet by connecting a
tube between the inlet pressures tapping on the test section to the lowermost socket labelled
P3 on the control console. Leave the upper socket open to atmosphere.
6. The liquid-in-glass thermometers are NOT required for this exercise and may be removed
for safety.
7. Check that the equipment is connected to a suitable electrical supply and switched on, and
that the displays on the control console are illuminated.
8. If using the optional data logger and software, check that the IFD5 is connected to the 50-
way connector on the control console, and to the USB port on the PC. Run the Armfield
software and ensure that the software displays ‘IFD OK’ in the bottom right-hand corner.
85
Instruction Manual
PERMEABILITY AND FLUIDIZATION APPARATUS
86
Introduction:
The flow of a liquid through porous media is a common phenomenon occurring in groundwater
flow, seepage and infiltration, dewatering of slurries and sledges in industry, clarification of
industrial liquids, fuels and food products, sewage treatment and water purification. In all these
cases the flow rate is proportional to the pressure drop (conveniently measured and expressed as
head loss), expressed by Darcy's Law, where the constant of proportionality is the permeability.
This permeability depends on physical characteristics of the liquid and geometric characteristics
of the porous media, expressed by the Kozeny-Carman equation.
In some industrial processes, and very importantly in the washing of deep bed filters (as in water
purification and sewage treatment), porous granular media are fluidized by upward flow of liquid.
The relationships between flow rate, pressure drop (head loss) and degree of expansion during
fluidization are important to the designers and operators of such processes. A semi-empiric
equation expresses these relationships.
An important characteristic of granular media which undergoes this fluidization washing process
is that it should be durable, and resist attrition. An accelerated attrition test can be carried out which
simulates 3 years’ normal working in a 100 hour test.
The W3 Permeability/Fluidization Apparatus enables permeability, fluidization and attrition

testing to be demonstrated using tap water, and suitable porous granular media, usually sieved
sand. It can also be used for laboratory testing of various granular media that may be contemplated
for use in deep bed filters.
87
Fig 15.1: The Permeability and Fluidization Apparatus
88
Description:
All numerical references relate to the Fig 15.1.
The apparatus consists of a Perspex column (A; 38mm bore, 500mm long with inlet and outlet
connections so that water may flow either upwards or downwards through the column. At the base
of the column is a 0.5mm gauze mesh (B.S. 30 sieve mesh) to retain granular media. The top
capping piece to the column can be quickly removed by unscrewing the knurled screw.
T Water is introduced into the apparatus via a constant head tank (F) o-f 8.3 litres capacity, fitted
with an overflow weir which maintains the constant level. Ihis-tank should be mounted about .2.5m
above the apparatus.
The water from the constant head tank enters at the base of a variable area flow measuring device
(B) (range 50-800 cc/min). The flow rate is indicated by the top edge of the float. A tee connection
above the flowmeter has a needle control valve on each branch, the right hand valve (1) to the top
of the column. The left-hand valve (2) to the base of the column. The outlet at the top of the column
connects to the top of a manifold block (C), and the outlet from the bottom of the column connects
to the lower end of the manifold block (C).
The upper and lower ends of the manifold block are isolated. The upper end has a drain valve (3),
and. valves (5) and (7) with connections to the left-hand limbs of the water and mercury
manometers respectively.
Tire lower end of tire manifold has a drain valve (4) and valves (6) and (8) with connections to the
right-hand limbs of the water and mercury manometers respectively. The water manometer (D)
has the two limbs joined at the top. The pressure of the air • above the water in the two limbs can
be adjusted using the bleed screw connected to the top manifold. The mercury manometer (E) has
the two limbs joined at the base, forming a mercury U-tube.
The valves and tubing connectors are made of chrome plated brass. All tubing is 7mm bore
translucent plastic except the constant head tank overflow which is 25mm bore.
Ancillary’ Apparatus Required (Not Supplied)
Glass beaker 500ml capacity.
Funnel 100mm diameter.
89
Thermometer -10 to 110°C.
Trap tank (500ml wide mouth conical flask with covering of B.S. 44 mesh brass gauze).
Wash bottle, squeeze typo.
Mercury for manometers; 350g.
The constant head tank for the apparatus should be mounted 2.5m directly above the site chosen
for the framework. The tank has two 10.0mm diameter mounting holes attached to it to enable wall
mounting if required. Alternatively the tank can be placed on a suitable support.
Connect the smaller tube from the base of the tank to the connection at the base of tire flowmeter.
(B)
Connect the lager tube from the base of the tank to a suitable drain.
Connect the tube from the side of the tank to a supply of clean tap water.
Connect the tubes from valve (4) at the base of the manifold block and valve (3) at the side of the
manifold block to a suitable drain.
Kinematic viscosity 𝑣 m2/s 𝜇

𝑣=
𝜌
All numerical references in brackets relate to the Fig 15.5.
1. Fill the clear acrylic column with suitable granular material to a depth of approximately
300 mm (refer to Data Sheet 2 for details on preparing the media and filling the column).
2. Ensure that the constant head tank has been installed and connected.
3. Close all valves (1-8) on the W3.
4. Turn on the water supply to the constant head tank and allow the tank to fill until water
flows to drain via the overflow pipe. Adjust the flow of water from the supply until a steady
flow of water flows via the overflow to drain.
5. Open valve (3) fully then gradually open valve (2) to allow water to flow upwards through
the clear acrylic column then to drain. Air at the top of the column can be released through
the air-release screw in the cap at the top of the column. Allow' air to be displaced from
90
the tubing and column then adjust valve (2) to give a steady reading of 700 cc/min on the
flowmeter. Check that a small amount of water is flowing to drain via the overflow in the
constant head tank. If the flow has stopped or the flow is excessive adjust the flow of w'ater
from the tap supply as required.
6. Reverse the flow of water through the column by closing valves (2) and (3) then opening
valves (1) and (4). Allow air to be displaced from the tubing and column then adjust valve
(1) to give a steady reading of 700 cc/min on the flowmeter.
7. Return the column to upward flow by closing valves (1) and (4) then opening valves (2)
and (3) as before. Ensure that all air has been removed from the column and tubing then
adjust valve (2) to give a steady reading of 700 cc/min on the flowmeter.
Commissioning the Mercury Manometer:
1. To ensure safe and accurate operation of the mercury manometer the following priming
procedure should be adopted.
2. Before filling the manometer with mercury it will be necessary to prime the manometer
with water as follows.
3. Open valves (7) and (8) and allow water to flow through the manometer and connecting
tubing (this will only occur when a differential pressure exists because water is flowing
through the granular material in the column).
4. Partially unscrew the fitting at the top of each catch pot (at the rear of the manometer) to
allow any trapped air to escape. When all air has escaped ensure that these fittings are
tightened again. When all air bubbles have been purged from the manometer (including the
tubes and catch pots at the rear) close valves (7) and (8) to isolate the manometer from the
column.
5. Carefully remove both of the screwed plugs from the top manifold on the mercury
manometer. Using a small funnel (not supplied) carefully pour clean mercury (not
supplied) into one of the manometer tubes. As the mercury fills the manometer water is
displaced from the filling point ensuring that no air is entrained. When the mercury is at
the required level, half way up the measuring scale, replace and tighten the two screwed
plugs.
6. Open valves (7) and (8) to measure the differential pressure in die column.
91
7. To ensure that the manometer remains fully primed ensure that valves (7) and (8) are only
opened when the column is filled with water and closed before draining the column.
8. Readings are obtained by measuring the difference in height between the two mercury
levels in the manometer tubes using the scale on the back plate. Since the surface of the
mercury in the manometer tube is not flat (a meniscus forms against the sides of the tube)
accurate readings are obtained by taking the measurement to be at the top of each meniscus.
9. Plastic rings attached to the manometer tubes can be used to assist in taking readings. The
rings can be pushed along the tubes to any required position and can be used to relate levels
in the tube to the scale on the back plate or can be left in position from previous
measurements to allow comparison of readings.
10. Note: Mercury is a poison and great care should be used when handling. Any spillages
when handling the mercury must be collected immediately. The manometer incorporates
catch pots to retain the mercury if the range of the manometer is accidentally exceeded. It
is suggested that the mercury is collected in a vessel filled with water if it is necessary to
recover the mercury from the catch pots. The vessel should be large enough to contain the
lower end of the manometer to prevent loss of mercury when the drain plug on the catch
pot is unscrewed.
Commissioning the Water Manometer:
1. Reduce the flow of water by closing valve (2) to give a reading of 200 cc/min on the
flowmeter (excessive flowrate will exceed the range of the water manometer).
2. Open valves (5) and (6) to allow water to flow to the water manometer.
3. Ensure that the tubing to the manometer is full of water and is clear of air bubbles.
4. If air bubbles cannot be removed disconnect the appropriate tubing from the tapping on the
manometer and allow water to flow through the tubing until the air bubbles are dispersed.
Reconnect the tubing to the manometer.
5. The two levels in the manometer should be located at mid height. If the levels are too low
carefully open the bleed screw on the top manifold of the water manometer until the levels
rise to the required position then close the bleed screw.
6. If in use the pressure difference exceeds the range of the water manometer (water levels
disappear from the top and bottom of the manometer) then valves (5) and (6) must he closed
and the mercury manometer used for measurements. If valves (5) and (6) remain open in
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this condition then the reading on the mercury manometer will be incorrect because water
is flowing through the water manometer.
7. Readings are obtained by measuring the difference in height between the two water levels
in the manometer tubes using the scale on the back plate. Since the surface of the water in
the manometer tube is not flat (a meniscus forms against the sides of the tube) accurate
readings are obtained by taking the measurement to be at the bottom of each meniscus.
8. Plastic rings attached to the manometer tubes can be used to assist in taking readings. The
rings can be pushed along the tubes to any required position and can be used to relate levels
in the tube to the scale on the back plate or can be left in position from previous
measurements to allow comparison of readings.
9. Close all valves (1 - 8) and turn off the water supply to the constant head tank. Tire
equipment is ready for use as described in the experimental section of this instruction
manual.
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Instruction Manual
HYDRAULIC BENCH
94
Introduction:
Fluid mechanics has developed as an analytical discipline from the application of the classical laws of static,
dynamics and thermodynamics, to situations in which fluids can be treated as continuous media. The
particular laws involved are those of the conversion of mass, energy and momentum and, in each
application, these laws may be simplified in an attempt to describe quantitatively the behavior of fluid.
The hydraulic bench service module provides the necessary facilitation to support a comprehensive range
of hydraulic models each of which is designed to demonstrate a particular aspect of hydraulic theory.
Fig 16.1: Hydraulic Bench Apparatus
Description:
The Hydraulic Bench is a service module designed to accommodate a range of accessories, each of which
demonstrates, each of which demonstrates an aspect of hydraulic theory.
A self-priming centrifugal pump draws water from the sump tank and delivers into a vertical transparent
pipe. A panel mounted control valve is used to regulate the flow in the pipe which terminates in a quick
release pipe connector situated in the bed of a channel. The male connector at the end of the pipe allows for
rapid substitution of accessories which are supplied with a flexible supply tube terminating in a mating
connector. Special purpose terminations may be connected to the pump supply by unscrewing this
connector. No hand tools are required for either of these operation.
95
Fig 16.2: (a) Control valve (b) Male connector for flexible tubing (c) Dump valve of Hydraulic Bench
Apparatus
A drain valve, is incorporated in the end wall of the sump tank to facilitate emptying.
The molded bench top incorporates an open channel, and side channels, to support the accessory on test. In
addition to the inlet connector the channel incorporates a pair of wall slots and a weir carrier for use with
testing accessories.
Electrical supply to the pump motor, is via a pump switch. Water discharging from the accessory on test is
collected in a volumetric measuring tank. This tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flowrates and
incorporates a stilling baffle to reduce turbulence. A remote sight tube and scale, is connected to a tapping
in the base of the volumetric tank and gives an instantaneous indication of water level.
A dump valve in the base of volumetric tank is operated by a remote actuator. Lifting the actuator open the
dump valve allowing the entrained water to return to the sump for recycling. When lifted, a twist of 90° at
96
the actuator will return the damp valve in the open position. An overflow adjacent to the sump returns water
to the sump in the event of incorrect use.
A measuring cylinder is provided for measurement of very small flowrates. The cylinder is stored in the
compartment housing the pump.
Measurement of Volumetric Flowrate:
The molded bench top incorporates a volumetric measuring tank which is stepped to accommodate low or
high flowrates.
A remote sight tube and scale, is connected to a tapping in the base of the volumetric tank and gives an
instantaneous indication of water level. The scale is divided into two zones corresponding to the volume
above and below the step in the tank. In operation, the volumetric tank is emptied by lifting the dump valve,
allowing water to return to the sump. When the model on test is stabilized, the dump valve is lowered,
retaining the water in the tank.
Timings are taken as the water level rises in the tank. Low flowrates are monitored on the lower portion of
the scale corresponding to the small volume beneath the step. Larger flowrates are monitored on the upper
scale corresponding to the main tank.
When extremely small volumetric flowrates are to be measured, the measuring cylinder should be used
rather than the volumetric tank. When using the measuring cylinder diversion of the flow to and from the
cylinder should be synchronized as closely as possible with the starting and stopping of the watch.
97
Experiment Manual
LAB MANUALS (EXPERIMENTS)
98
Experiment 1
Objective:
To obtain head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump.
Apparatus:
The FM50 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit
The IFD7 Armfield Interface device
Compatible PC with Armfield FM50-304 software installed
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
a) Ensure proper working of Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
b) Wear laboratory coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
2. Equipment safety:
a) Ensure proper working of miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
b) Do not start the equipment without supply water
Nomenclature:
Column Heading Abbreviation Units Description

Pump Setting S % Measured
Pump speed (rotational) n rpm Measured
Inlet Pressure Pin kPa Measured
Outlet Pressure Pout kPa Measured
Motor Torque t Nm Measured
Volumetric Flowrate Q dm3/s Measured
Inlet diameter din m Diameter of inlet pipe
din=0.0235m
99
Outlet diameter dout m Diameter of outlet pipe
dout=0.0175m
Inlet Area Ain m2 Cross-sectional area of inlet pipe
𝑑𝑖𝑛 2
𝐴𝑖𝑛 = 𝜋 ( )
2
Outlet Area Aout m2 Cross-sectional area of outlet pipe
𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜋 ( )
2
Inlet Velocity Vin m/s 𝑄
𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
𝐴𝑖𝑛
Outlet Velocity Vout m/s 𝑄
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡
Change in Static Head Hs m (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖𝑛 )
𝐻𝑠 =
𝜌𝑔
𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Change in Velocity Head Hv m (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 )2
𝐻𝑣 =
2𝑔
Change in Elevation He m Vertical distance between inlet and outlet
Head
Change in Total Head Ht m Ht = Hs + Hv + He
Hydraulic Power Ph W 𝑃ℎ = 𝐻𝑡 𝑄𝜌𝑔
(Where Q is in m3/s)
Mechanical Power Pm W 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑚 =
60
Pump Efficiency E % 𝑃ℎ
𝐸 = 100 ×
𝑃𝑚
Experiment Procedure:
1. Switch on the IFD7. Switch on the FM50 pump within the software using the Power
On/Standby button.
2. Using the software, set the speed to 80%. The interface will increase the pump speed until
it reaches the required setting. Allow water to circulate until all air has been flushed from
the system. Slightly closing and opening the inlet valve and gate valve a few times will
help in priming the system and eliminating any bubbles caught within the valve
100
mechanism. Leave the inlet valve fully open. In the results table, rename the spreadsheet
(Selects Format > Rename Sheet) to 80%.
3. Close the gate valve to give a flow rate Q of 0. (Note that the pump will not run well with
the gate valve closed or nearly closed, as the backpressure produced is outside normal
operating parameters. The pump should begin to run more smoothly as the experiment
progresses). Select the ‘GO’ icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the
results table of the software.
4. Open a little to give a very low flow. Allow sufficient time for the sensor readings to
stabilize then select the ‘GO’ icon to record the next set of data. Increase the flow in small
increments, allowing the sensor readings to stabilize then recording the sensor and pump
data each time.
5. Using the arrow buttons on the software display, reduce the pump speed to 0%. Select
‘Save’ or ‘Save As...’ from the ‘File’ menu and save the results with a suitable file name
(e.g. the date and the exercise).
6. Switch off the FM50 within the software using the Power On/Standby button then switch
off the IFD7 and close the FM50 software.
Theory:
The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump may be described by using graphs of pump
performance. The three most commonly used graphical representations of pump performance are:
 Change in total head produced by the pump, Ht

 Power input to the pump, Pm
 Pump efficiency, E
Total Head:
The change in total head produced because of the work done by pump can be calculated as:
Ht = Change in static head + Change in velocity head + Change in elevation
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑠 + 𝐻𝑣 + 𝐻𝑒
Where
(𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖𝑛 )
𝐻𝑠 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
𝜌𝑔
101
Where, Pin is the fluid pressure at inlet in Pa and Pout is that fluid pressure at outlet in Pa.
(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 )2
𝐻𝑣 = 𝐶ℎ𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
2𝑔
Where, Vin is the fluid velocity at inlet in m/s and Vout is that fluid velocity at outlet in m/s.
𝐻𝑒 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑
The vertical distance between inlet and outlet which is 0.075m for FM50.
Power Input:
The mechanical power input to the pump may be calculated as:
2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
60
where n is the rotational speed of pump in revolutions per minute (rpm) and t is the shaft torque in
Nm.
Pump Efficiency:
The efficiency of the pump may be calculated as
𝑃ℎ
𝐸 = 100 ×
𝑃𝑚
Where Ph is the hydraulic power imparted to fluid.
𝑃ℎ = 𝐻𝑡 𝑄𝜌𝑔
Where Q is the volumetric flowrate in m3/s and Pm is the mechanical power absorbed by the pump.
2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑚 =
60
Each of these parameters is measured at constant pump speed, and is plotted against the volume
flow rate (Q) through the pump. An example of this type of graphical representation of pump
performance is given in Fig 1.4.
102
Fig 1.4: Performance curves of the centrifugal pump
Examining Figure 1.4, the general performance of the pump can be determined. The H t - Q curve
shows the relationship between head and flow rate. The head decreases as flow rate increases. This
type of curve is referred to as a rising characteristic curve. A stable head-capacity characteristic
curve is one in which there is only one possible flow rate for a given head, as in the example here.
The Pm-Q curve shows the relationship between the power input to the pump and the change in
flow rate through the pump. Outside the optimum operating range of the pump, this curve flattens,
so that a large change in pump power produces only a small change in flow velocity.
The E-Q curve shows the pump capacity at which the pump operates most etliciently. In the
example here, the optimum operating capacity is 0.7 dm3/s, which would give a head of 1.2m.
When selecting a pump for an application where the typical operating capacity is known, a pump
should be selected so that its optimum efficiency is at or very near that capacity.
Results:
Using the graph facility, plot a graph of Head against Flow Rate. On the secondary axis, plot a
graph of Mechanical Power and of Efficiency against Flow Rate. Alternatively, the results sheet
103
may be exported to an alternative spreadsheet program (or results may be manually plotted on
graph paper) to produce a chart as shown in Figure 1.4.
References:
1. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Climbala “Fluid Mechanics” 2nd Edition.

2. W. L. McCabe, J. C. Smith “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering” 7th Ed, McGraw Hill
Education (Pvt.)
3. www.discoverarmfield.com
104
Experiment 2
Objective:
To obtain the fan characteristic curves for an axial fan operating at constant speed.
Apparatus:
The FM41 Axial Fan Demonstration Unit
The IFD7 Armfield Interface device
Compatible PC with Armfield FM50-304 software installed
Chemicals:
Air
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
Nomenclature:

Fan pressure drop dps Pa Pressure drop between fan inlet and outlet.
Fan speed N Hz Rotational speed of the fan
Inlet Temperature Ta °C Air temperature measured within the inlet duct.
Barometric Pressure Pa Pa The ambient pressure of the surrounding
within the inlet duct.
Differential pressure P1, P2 Pa The different pressure between a duct pressure
tapping and atmosphere. Subscripts are
referred to respective ducts.
Volumetric Flowrate Qv m3/s Volumetric flowrate of air passing through fan
105
Inlet Cross-sectional Area A1 m2 Cross-sectional area of inlet pipe
𝑑1 2
𝐴1 = 𝜋 ( )
2
Where d1=123mm
Outlet Cross-sectional A2 m2 Cross-sectional area of outlet pipe
Area 𝑑2 2
𝐴2 = 𝜋 ( )
2
Inlet Velocity v1 m/s 𝑄𝑣
𝑣1 =
𝐴1
Outlet Velocity v2 m/s 𝑄𝑣
𝑣2 =
𝐴2
Fan total pressure ptF Pa Total pressure increase resulting from the work
by the fan on the air passing through it.
𝑝𝑡𝐹
𝜌(𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 )
=( )
2
+ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑛
Fan Power input Pu W The fan power output is the work done by the
fan that may also be considered as the energy
gained by the air passing through it.
𝑃𝑢 = 𝑄𝑣 × 𝑝𝑡𝐹
Mechanical Power input Pm W The mechanical power input is the work done
on the fan by the motor.
2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑚 =
60
Overall Efficiency Egr % Overall efficiency of the fan, calculated as the
useful energy absorbed by the air stream as a
fraction of the electrical power supplied to the
motor, expressed as a percentage.
𝑃𝑢
𝐸𝑔𝑟 = 100 ×
𝑃𝑚
1. Read through the experiment before starting, to familiarize yourself with the procedure.
2. Set the fan speed to maximum (100%) and note the rotational speed of the fan.
106
3. Take readings for air temperature, orifice differential pressure, fan differential pressure and
motor power by selecting the ‘GO’ icon on the software toolbar.
4. Using the maximum air velocity as a guide, select incremental values for air velocity that
will give 10-15 individual steps between minimum and maximum velocity.
5. Close the aperture to increase the air velocity by approximately one step. Select the ‘GO’
icon.
6. Repeat for the next flow velocity increment, adjusting the aperture and fan setting to give
the required values and selecting the ‘GO’ icon to record the data once the settings are
correct.
7. Continue in steps until the aperture is fully closed, recording the data each time. NOTE:
There will always be a small-indicated discharge even when the aperture is fully closed,
because of the fan blades acting on the air within the inlet and outlet ducts. Always monitor
the aperture visually at low discharge rates, and do not twist the aperture beyond the point
at which it is fully closed. Over-twisting the aperture device will damage the aperture.
8. Create a new results table using the ‘Table’ icon on the software toolbar.
9. Select a new fan rotational speed, for example half the value for the first set of data. Adjust
the fan speed to give this new rotational speed, and note the maximum flow velocity. Select
the ‘GO’ icon.
10. Open the aperture in steps as before, recording each set of data with the ‘GO’ icon.
11. Fully open the outlet aperture after recording the last set of data.
12. If time permits, additional rotational speed settings may be investigated to give a full series
of performance data. Remember to create a new results sheet for each set of data.
Alternatively, each student or set of students may take data for different rotational speeds,
and the results can then be combined.
Theory:
Pump manufacturers and fan system designers require a method for indicating fan requirement
performance, to allow the correct fan to be selected for any given system and performance
requirement. Designers will wish to select a fan that will be able to produce the required flowrate
and pressure difference under typical system conditions, and also to select a fan that will operate
efficiently under normal use.
107
The general relationship between the various forms of energy, based on the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics applied to a unit mass of fluid flowing through a control volume (such as the fan
itself) is expressed as:
(𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 ) 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
−𝑊𝑠 = + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + + 𝐹 … (1)
2 𝜌
-Ws is the mechanical shaft work performed on the fluid. On the right hand side, represents the change in
Kinetic energy, Potential energy and Pressure energy respectively. F is the frictional loss as the heat to the
surrounding or in raising the temperature of the fluid itself as it travels from inlet to outlet.
For the FM41, the change in potential energy g(z2–z1) may be considered negligible as the mass
of a unit volume of air is so small. The equation may then alternatively be presented as the Fan
Total Pressure ptF of the fan, by converting the units from work per unit mass to pressure.
𝜌(𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 )
𝑝𝑡𝐹 = ( ) + (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) … (2)
2
Friction losses have been removed. It is also assumed for the purposes of the following practical
experiments that the fluid is incompressible (i.e. p is constant).
A common method of presenting the sort of information required is to plot the fan power,
efficiency, and total pressure produced against the flow rate across the full range of the fan or a
constant fan speed:
108
Fig 2.5: Typical Axial Fan characteristics at constant speed
When lines of constant efficiency are superimposed on such a graph for a range of fan rotational
speeds, a comprehensive illustration of pump performance is obtained:
Fig 2.6: Axial Fan characteristic curves at increasing discharge for a range of fan speed
Results:
The software logs the following variables:
Inlet Temperature, T (°C )

Orifice Pressure, P1 (Pa)
Fan Diff. Pressure, P2 (Pa)
Fan Setting, - (%)
Fan Speed, n (Hz)
Input Power, P (W)
From these, the software calculates the following values:
Air Density, ρair (kg/m3)

Inlet Velocity, v1, (m/s)
Outlet Velocity, v2, (m/s)
109
Discharge, Qv, (m3/s)
Fan Total Pressure, ptF (Pa)
Power Absorbed, Pu (W)
Fan Efficiency, Egr (%)
The software assumes the following constants:
Acceleration due to gravity, g (m/s2)
On the same set of axes, for each rotational speed setting, plot a graph of fan total pressure against
capacity (discharge).
Print this graph, and from the table of data manually plot lines of equal efficiency as shown in the
example in the Theory section. Select appropriate efficiency values to give two to four lines.
Alternatively, if more sophisticated graphing software is available then the data can be exported
from the Armfield FM41-304 software and the graphs produced electronically (note that Microsoft
Excel is not capable of producing the required graph without additional manipulation of the data).
References:

Education (Pvt.)
110
Experiment 3
Objective:
To investigate the validity of Bernoulli’s equation when applied to steady flow of water in a Divergent-
convergent duct.
Apparatus:
The Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit
Hydraulic Bench
Chronometer watch
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
Nomenclature:

Velocity V1,V2 m/s Velocity at point 1 and point 2
Pressure P1, P2 Pa Pressure at point 1 and point 2
Volumetric Flowrate Q m3/s Volumetric flowrate of water passing through
duct
Density ρ Kg/m3 Density of water
Height Z, h m Height of water in the manometric tubes
111
Specific weight 𝛾 Nm-3 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
Pressure loss ΔH m Pressure loss between the sections in terms of
head
1. Place the equipment is convergent-divergent position according to water flow direction.

2. Connect the inlet pipe to the quick connector of the hydraulic bench.
3. The other pipe is located in the drain of the bench.
4. Fill the manometric tubes as indicated in the equipment setup section.
5. Move the Pitot’s tube towards the position of the first pressure taking. Write down the
height obtained through both manometric tubes (static and Pitot’s tubes).
6. Move the Pitot’s tube towards the next manometric pipe and write down the reading.
7. Repeat the previous steps for each pressure taking.
Theory:
Bernoulli’s Equation:
Considering the flow in two different sections of a pipe, and applying the law of conservation of
the energy, Bernoulli's equation may be written as:
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 … (1)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Where, in this equipment, 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 and 𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ
In one given pipe with two sections, 1 and 2, the energy between its sections is constant. The sum
of the three previous terms is constant and so, Bernoulli’s theorem can be shown as:
𝑃 𝑉2
𝐻= + … (2)
𝛾 2𝑔
Where;
𝑉2
= 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2𝑔
𝑃
= ℎ = 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝛾
112
Piezometric height is the height of one water column associated with pressure of the gravitation field.
Fig 3.4: Graphical representation of Bernoulli’s Theorem
In this theoretical basis, it is considered that the fluid is ideal, but the particles are grazing to each
other. In this process, the velocity of the particles decrease and the energy of the system is
transformed into heat.
We consider that the ΔH is the pressure loss between both sections, so
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄∆𝐻
Where, operating
∆𝑃
∆𝐻 =
𝜌𝑔𝑄
and ΔP is the potential loss.
With this, we consider Bernoulli’s equation as:
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + ∆𝐻 … (3)
Pitot’s tube:
The operation with Pitot’s tube is:
First, we consider a fix obstacle in the moving fluid.
113
The ΔP line finishes in the impact point (P), if we make an orifice in this point P and we link it
with a manometric tube, we are measuring the total pressure.
We can also know the velocity in the pipe, that is
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ = + … (3)
Where:
𝑉1 = 𝑉 (𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦), 𝑉2 = 0
𝑉 2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
= = ∆ℎ ⇒ 𝑉 = √2𝑔∆ℎ
2𝑔 𝛾
Fig 3.5: Graphical representation for Pitot’s tube
114
Results:
No. of Flowrate Area of Flow Kinetic Piezometric Kin.+Piez. Pitot’s

Obs. (m3/s) section velocity Height Height Height Height
(m2) (m/s) (m) (m) (m) (m)
References:

Education (Pvt.)
115
Experiment 4
Objective:
To determine the unloading coefficient and study the flow characteristics through a rectangular and a V-
shape neckline made on a thin wall.
Apparatus:
The Flow Over Weirs Apparatus
Hydraulic Bench
Chronometer watch
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
Nomenclature:

Volumetric Flowrate Q m3/s Volumetric flowrate of water passing through
Unloading Coefficient 𝜇𝑚 - Unloading coefficient for rectangular and V-
shape weirs
Height of load H m Height of the load or the height of the water on
the crest or weir threshold.
Width of Neckline B m Width of the neckline or width of the weir.
Vertex semi-angle 𝜗⁄ degree Vertex semi-angle of the neckline
2
116
1. Assemble the equipment (screen, mouthpiece and weir board) as it is indicated in figure
4.4 (for rectangular weir).
2. Place the support with the nonius at the half, approximately, of the distance between the
weir and the screen.
3. Supply water to the channel until it unloads through the weir.
4. Close the supply control valve and stop the pump.
5. Let the water level in the channel to stabilize.
6. Once a minimum precise contact between the point of the lancet, or the tangency point of
the hook, and the free surface of water, has taken place, adjust and immobilize the nonius
of the caliber to zero.
7. Supply water to the channel adjusting the flow control valve to obtain, successively, step
increments of the load height, h.
8. In each step increment of the flow, and once the regimen conditions are stabilized, measure
and note down the value of the load height, as well as the flow using the scales in the
volumetric tank and the chronometer.
9. With the values obtained in the practice, complete the table. (Take values first for the lancet
and then for the hook)
10. Repeat the experiment for V-shape weir and set the equipment as figure 4.5 (for V-shape
weir).
11. Determine the angle 𝜗, in the vertex of the neckline to, together with the data obtained in
the practice, complete the table.
Theory:
The flow through a rectangular orifice is given by the expression:
2 3
𝑄= 𝜇𝑚 𝑏√2𝑔ℎ2
3
For the V-shape weir, the expression that lets us to obtain the liquid flow that circulates through it
is:
8 𝜗 5
𝑄= 𝜇𝑚 √2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ℎ2
15 2
117
Results:
Rectangular Weir:
No. of Volume Time Flowrate Height Q2/3 log Q h/b µm

Obs. (m3) (s) Q (m3/s)
To make the calculus, it will be necessary to measure first the width of the neckline, b. Make, at a
convenient scale, the following graphs:
 Q2/3 in function of h
 Log Q in function of log h
 µm in function of h
V-shape Weir:
No. of Volume Time Flowrate Height Q2/5 h5/2 µm

Obs. (m3) (s) Q (m3/s)
Make, at a convenient scale, the graph of the function Q2/3= ɸ(h) and try to determine the value
of µm from the gradient of the line represented.
References:
118
Education (Pvt.)
119
Experiment 5
Objective:
Determination of Discharge coefficient (𝐶𝑑 factor) in the Venturi and Orifice Plate and Comparison among
Venturi, Orifice Plate and variable area meter.
Apparatus:
The FFM00 Hydraulics Bench
The Flow Meter Demonstration Apparatus
Chemicals:
Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
b) Do not start the hydraulic bench without supply water
Nomenclature:
Column Units Abbreviation Type Description

Heading
Area m2 𝐴 Given Area of two sections of Venturi meter.
𝐴1 = 8.04 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐴2 = 3.14 × 10−4 𝑚2
Area of two sections of Orifice meter.
𝐴1 = 9.62 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐴2 = 2.83 × 10−4 𝑚2
120
Pressure mmH2O 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 Input The Pressure difference can be measured
difference 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑃 through corresponding manometric tubes
Specific kg/m2s2 𝛾 Calculated Specific weight of Water
weight 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
Time s T Input Time taken to collect the known volume of
water. (for volumetric flowrate)
Real m3/s 𝑄𝑟 Input Flowrate induced in to the equipment.
Flowrate
Theoretical m3/s 𝑄𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑂𝑃 Calculated Theoretical Flowrate through Venturi and
Flowrate Orifice Plate. See Theory
1. After equipment-setup, we introduce the flow to the equipment.

2. This way, the real flow 𝑄𝑟 (the flow introduce to the equipment) will be directly given by our
hydraulic bench or group. Supposedly, the flow measured with the help of the Venturi would have
to be same (there are no losses) to the calculated 𝑄𝑉 (𝑉𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖) and given by the following
equation:
𝐴2 2𝑔(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑄𝑉 = ×√
2 𝛾
√1 − [𝐴2 ]
𝐴 1
3. As we know 𝑄𝑟 ≠ 𝑄𝑉 , due to the fact that an experimental factor (𝐶𝑑 ) will have to be introduced.
The new expression will be expressed as:
𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑 √∆𝑃 × 𝑐𝑡𝑒
Where 𝑐𝑡𝑒 will be
𝐴2 2𝑔
𝑐𝑡𝑒 = ×√
2 𝛾
√1 − [𝐴2 ]
𝐴 1
So, as it can be seen, it only depends on the areas (Be careful with units when introducing the values
in the equation).
121
4. Knowing 𝐶𝑑 , the balance 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑄𝑉 will be accomplished. For this, we will plot 𝑄𝑟 𝑣𝑠 √∆𝑃 × 𝑐𝑡𝑒.
The gradient of this representation will give the 𝐶𝑑 factor for the Venturi.
5. For pressure measurements of the orifice plate, the reading in the manometric tubes 6 and 7 will
correspond. Exactly the same procedure for the calculation of 𝐶𝑑 factor for the Orifice Plate as
above for the Venturi with the same formulas (using ∆𝑃 values for orifice plate). The gradient of
the plot 𝑄𝑟 𝑣𝑠 √∆𝑃 × 𝑐𝑡𝑒 will give the 𝐶𝑑 factor for the Orifice Plate.
6. For the comparison of three flowmeters (Venturi, Orifice Plate and Variable area meter); note down
the manometer readings, the variable area meter and measured flowrates. Repeat the procedure for
different valve positions.
7. To demonstrate similar flowrates at different system static pressures, adjust bench and flow control
valve together, adjusting the manometer levels required. For it, disconnect the nylon tube from the
switch of the anti-return valve if or pressurize more the inlet air to the system with the hand pump
if the level wants to be lowered.
8. From the readings obtained in the Venturi and in the Orifice Plate, calculate the volumetric flowrate
using basic equation with relevant to 𝐶𝑑 factor. Compare these values with the variable area meter
and determine the volumetric flowrate using the hydraulic bench.
9. The readings of the manometric tubes 1 and 2 corresponds to the Venturi. The readings of the
manometric tubes 1 and 3 indicate the loss in the Venturi. Manometric tubes 4 and 5 indicate lose
in the variable area meter. Manometric tubes 6 and 7 corresponds to the Orifice Plate readings.
Manometric tubes 6 and 8 indicate the energy loss in the Orifice Plate.
Theory:
Considering the flow at two sections in the Venturi and in the Orifice Plate and apply the law of
conservation of energy, Bernoulli’s equation may be written as:
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
As, in this equipment, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ
So, Bernoulli’s Theorem is reduce to:
2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1
=
𝛾 2𝑔
According to the flow continuity:
𝐴1 . 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 . 𝑉2
122
𝐴1
𝑉2 = .𝑉
𝐴2 1
For theoretical flowrate (without any losses),
𝐴2 2𝑔(𝑃1 − 𝑃3 )
𝑄𝑉 (𝑉𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖) = ×√
2 𝛾
√1 − [𝐴2 ]
𝐴 1
𝐴2 2𝑔(𝑃6 − 𝑃7 )
𝑄𝑂𝑃 (𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒) = ×√
2 𝛾
𝐴2
√1 − [ ]
𝐴 1
For Actual flowrate after experiment,
𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑 √(𝑃1 − 𝑃3 ) × 𝑐𝑡𝑒
𝑄𝑂𝑃 = 𝐶𝑑 √(𝑃6 − 𝑃7 ) × 𝑐𝑡𝑒

Where 𝑐𝑡𝑒 will be
𝐴2 2𝑔
𝑐𝑡𝑒 = ×√
2 𝛾
√1 − [𝐴2 ]
𝐴 1
The gradient of the plot 𝑄𝑟 𝑣𝑠 √∆𝑃 × 𝑐𝑡𝑒 will give the 𝐶𝑑 factor.
𝑄𝑟 = 𝐶𝑑 √∆𝑃 × 𝑐𝑡𝑒
Assumed 𝐶𝑑 values for Venturi meter is 0.98 and for Orifice Plate is 0.63.
123
Fig 5.2: Velocity and Pressure Profile in Venturi meter
Fig 5.3: Streamlines of Flow through Orifice meter
124
Calculations:
For 𝐶𝑑 measurement of Venturi meter:
No. of Flowrate 𝑃1 𝑃2 ∆𝑃 √∆𝑃 × 𝑐𝑡𝑒 Slope

Observations 𝑄𝑟 𝐶𝑑
Units l/min m3/s mmH2O mmH2O mmH2O Pa
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25
For 𝐶𝑑 measurement of Orifice Plate:
No. of Flowrate 𝑃6 𝑃7 ∆𝑃 √∆𝑃 × 𝑐𝑡𝑒 Slope

Observations 𝑄𝑟 𝐶𝑑
Units l/min m3/s mmH2O mmH2O mmH2O Pa
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 15
For Comparison among Venturi, Orifice Plate and Variable area meter:
No. of Manometer Readings (mmH2O) Flow Flow Variable Flow

Observ rate rate Area rate
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ations 𝑄𝑉 𝑄𝑂𝑃 meter 𝑄𝑟
(l/min) (l/min) (l/min) (l/min)
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25
* 1 mmH2O = 9.80665 Pa
125
References:
1. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. “Fluid Mechanics” 2nd Edition

Education (Pvt.)
3. www.edibon.com
126
Experiment 6
Objective:
To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent pipe flow and calculate Reynolds’ Number.
Apparatus:
The FME00 Hydraulics Bench (to measure flow by timed volume collection)
The Osborne Reynolds’ Demonstration Apparatus
Thermometer (to check the temperature of water)
Stopwatch (to determine the flowrate of water)
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Dyes or inks
Precautions:
1. Personnel safety:
b) Wear lab coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
b) Don’t start the hydraulic bench without supply water
c) Thermometer should be dealt with care
d) Use appropriate way to inject dye in dye reservoir
3. Chemical safety:
Dyes or inks should be handled carefully.
127
Nomenclature:
Column Units Appreciation Type Description

Heading
Diameter of M d Given Technical Data:
test pipe d = 0.01 m
2
Cross section m A Given Technical Data:
area of test A = 7.854 × 10-5 m2
pipe
Volume m3 V Input Measured with the measuring cylinder. Note:
collected Cylinder calibrated in ml.
Time to S t Input Time take to collect the known volume of
collect water in the measuring cylinder or hydraulic
bench.
Temp. of ℃ T Input Measured with thermometer for the sample
Water water.
Kinematic m2/s 𝜈 Input See Table
Viscosity Note: 1𝑐𝑆𝑡 = 10−6 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
Flowrate m3/s Qv Calculated 𝑄𝑣 = 𝑉⁄𝑡
= Volume collected/time of collection
Velocity m/s v Calculated Fluid velocity through the pipe.
v = Flowrate/Area of pipe.
Reynolds Unit- Re Calculated 𝜐𝑑
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜈
(Theory)
Number less
Technical Data:
The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If required these
values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with your own measurements.
Diameter of test pipe d = 0.01 m
Cross section area of test pipe A = 7.854 × 10-5 m2
1. Open the bench control valve slightly until water tickles from the overflow pipe.
128
2. Open the outlet control valve fractionally and adjust the dye control valve until a slow flow with
clear dye indication is achieved.
3. In order to observe the velocity profile in laminar flow, close the bench valve and open the dye
control valve to deposit a drop of dye at bell mouth entry. When the outlet control valve is opened
observe the dye as it deforms to take up a three dimensional paraboloid profile.
4. Measure the volume flow rate by timed collection (measure at least three values of volume filled
in 10 seconds and then takes the average) and measure the outflow temperature (of fluid gathered
in the measuring cylinder).
5. Measure the kinematic viscosity from the data sheet provided and check the Reynolds number is
less than 1800.
6. Increase the flow rate by opening the apparatus flow control valve and repeat the dye injections to
visualize transitional flow and then, at the highest flow rates, turbulent flow as characterized by
continuous and very rapid mixing of the dye.
7. Note that at intermediate flows it is possible to have a laminar characteristics in the upper part of
the test-section, which develops into transitional flow lower down. This upper section behavior is
describe as an “inlet length flow”, which means that the boundary layer has not yet extended across
the pipe radius.
Theory:
A flow can behave in very different ways depending upon which forces predominate within it. Slow flows
are dominated by viscous forces. Tend to be well ordered and predictable and are described as laminar. In
laminar pipe flow the fluid behaves as if concentric layers (laminae) are sliding over each other with a
maximum velocity on the axis, zero velocity at the tube wall and a parabolic velocity distribution. Dye
injected carefully at a point in a laminar pipe flow will be stretched out by the flow to form a clear well
defined line. The only mixing that can occur is by molecular diffusion.
Increasing the flow rate substantially will alter the flow behavior dramatically, as the inertia of the fluid
(due to density) becomes more significant than viscous forces; this is then a turbulent flow. In turbulent
pipe flow, dye injected at a point is rapidly mixed due to the substantial lateral motion in the flow and the
dye behavior appears chaotic. These motions appear random and arise from the growth of instabilities in
the flow. Detailed behavior is impossible to predict except in statistical terms.
There is an in-between stage, transitional flow, in which a dye stream will appear to wander about and will
show intermittent bursts of mixing, followed by a more laminar behavior.
The Reynolds number, Re, provides a useful way of characterizing the flow, it is defined as:
129
𝜐𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
and 𝜈 is kinematic viscosity
v is the mean velocity given in terms of volume flow rate
d is diameter of pipe.
It is common practice to take a Reynolds number of 2000 as the value which decides laminar from
turbulent flow. However, this does not take account of the transition region and it may also be possible
(with great care) to keep a flow laminar for Reynolds numbers up to 10,000 or more. Also, pipe flows
with Reynolds number <1800 are inherently laminar.
Calculations:
No. of No. of Average Velocity Reynolds Type of Flow

Observations readings Readings (m/s) Number
(ml/10s) (m3/10s) 𝜐𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
1
2 . . . . .
3 . . . . .
4 . . . . .
5 . . . . .
6
7
8
9
130
Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure:
Temperature (℃) Kinematic Viscosity (𝜈) Temperature (℃) Kinematic Viscosity (𝜈)
(10-6 × m2/s) (10-6 × m2/s)
0 1.793 25 0.893
1 1.732 26 0.873
2 1.674 27 0.854
3 1.619 28 0.836
4 1.568 29 0.818
5 1.520 30 0.802
6 1.474 31 0.785
7 1.429 32 0.769
8 1.386 33 0.753
9 1.346 34 0.738
10 1.307 35 0.724
11 1.270 36 0.711
12 1.235 37 0.697
13 1.201 38 0.684
14 1.169 39 0.671
15 1.138 40 0.658
16 1.108 45 0.602
17 1.080 50 0.554
18 1.053 55 0.511
19 1.027 60 0.476
20 1.002 65 0.443
21 0.978 70 0.413
22 0.955 75 0.386
23 0.933 80 0.363
24 0.911 85 0.342
E.g. at 20℃ the Kinematic viscosity of water is 1.002 × 10-6 m2/s.
131
Experiment 7
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of velocity from the trajectory of a jet.
Apparatus:
The FME00 Hydraulics Bench
The FME-17 Orifice and Jet free Apparatus
Stopwatch (to determine time for flow rate)
Sight Glass (to measure volume)
Chemicals:
Water
Precautions:
1. Personnel safety:
c) Make sure that the screws of orifice are tight enough
d) Make sure there is no bend in the supply pipe
132
Nomenclature:

Heading
Orifice 𝑚 𝑑 Given 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 0.0035 𝑚
Diameter 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 0.006 𝑚
Head 𝑚 ℎ Input Head in reservoir for which trajectory data
has been taken. Scale is calibrated in mm.
Horizontal 𝑚 𝑥 Input Distance from the orifice of measuring

Distance needle.
Vertical 𝑚 𝑦 Input Distance the jet has fallen from the level of
Distance the orifice.
√𝑦ℎ 𝑚 - Calculated Calculation to allow us to plot the straight

line relationship between √𝑦ℎ and the
horizontal distance 𝑥 for the jet.
Coefficient of - 𝐶𝑣 Calculated 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐶𝑣 =
Velocity 2
1. Position the overflow tube to give a high head. Note the value of head and determine the volumetric
flowrate using the measuring cylinder and stop watch (take three reading and take its average).
2. The jet trajectory is obtained by using the needles mounted on the vertical back-board to follow the
profile of the jet.
3. Release the securing screw for each needle in turn and move the needle until its point is just
immediately above the jet and re-tighten the screw.
4. Attach a sheet of paper to the back-board between the needle and board and secure it in place with
clump provided so that its upper edge is horizontal.
5. Mark the location of the top of each needle on the paper. Note the horizontal distance from the plan
of the orifice (taken as 𝑥 = 0) to the coordinate point marking the position of first needle.
6. This first coordinate point should be close enough to the orifice to treat it as having the value 𝑦 =
0. Thus y-displacements are measured relative to this position.
7. Estimate the likely experimental errors in each of the quantities measured.
8. Repeat this test for a low reservoir head.
133
9. Then repeat the above procedure for the second orifice.
10. Plot 𝑥 vs √𝑦ℎ and determine the slop of graph.
11. The velocity coefficient 𝐶𝑣 is equal to average slop.
Theory:
From the application of Bernoulli’s Equation (conversation of mechanical energy for a steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow):
The ideal orifice out flow velocity at the jet vena contracta (narrowest diameter) is
𝑣𝑖 = √2𝑔ℎ
where ℎ is the height of fluid above the orifice.
Fig 7.2: Flow through the Orifice
The actual velocity is
𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ ⋯ (1)
𝐶𝑣 is the coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity and, therefore 𝐶𝑣 < 1
𝐶𝑣 can be determined from the trajectory of the jet using the following argument:
Neglecting the effect of air resistance, the horizontal component of the jet velocity can be assumed to remain
constant so that in time, 𝑡, the horizontal distance travelled,
134
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 ⋯ (2)
Because of the action of gravity, the fluid also acquires a downward vertical (y-direction) component of
velocity. Hence, after the same time, t, (i.e. after travelling a distance 𝑥) the jet will have a 𝑦 displacement
given by
𝑡2
𝑦=𝑔
2
which can be rearranged to give:
𝑦
𝑡 = √2 ⋯ (3)
𝑔
Substitution for 𝑡 from (3) into (2) and for 𝑣 from (1) into (2) yields the result:
𝑥 = 2𝐶𝑣 √𝑦ℎ
Hence, for steady flow conditions, i.e. constant h, 𝐶𝑣 can be determined from the 𝑥, 𝑦 co-ordinates of the
jet. A graph of 𝑥 plotted against √𝑦ℎ will have a slop of 2𝐶𝑣 .
Calculations:
No. of Orifice Head Horizontal Vertical Velocity

Observations Diameter Distance Distance √𝑦ℎ Coefficient
𝑑 ℎ 𝑥 𝑦 (m) 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐶𝑣 =
(m) (m) (m) (m) 2
1 0.0035 0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
2 0.006 0.05
0.10
0.15
135
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
References:
1. R. L. Daugherty and J. B. Franzini, “Fluid Mechanics”, 6th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill
Education (Pvt.)
3. www.edibon.com
136
Experiment 8
Objective:
To determine the surface profile of free and forced vortex.
Apparatus:
The FFM00 Hydraulics Bench
The Free and Forced Vortex Apparatus.
Stopwatch (to determine the time for rotation speed of the paddle)
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
c) Use appropriate way to inject dye crystals in cylinder
Nomenclature:

Heading
Number of - N Input Revolutions of the paddle.
revolutions
Time s t Input Time for count of revolutions
Revolutions rps 𝜔 Calculated Speed of paddle
per sec 2𝜋𝑁
𝜔=
𝑡
137
Radius m r Given Position of needle for measuring profile.
(The figures given are relative to the center
of the tank.)
Measured m hm Input Length of needle at a given radius positon.
Needle
Length
Height from m ho Calculated Inverse of needle length, used to give datum
Datum as center of tank.
Calculated m zth Calculated Predicted height.
Height
Technical Data:
Positions of needles for measuring profile of a vortex
Needle Radius (m)
C (central axis of cylinder) 0.0
1 (from right side of axis) 0.030
1 (from left side of axis) 0.070
2 (from left side of axis) 0.110
Forced Vortex
12. For each value of flow rate, the outlet valve should be adjusted until water just flows through the
overflow cut-outs.
13. Place the bridge with the measuring needles across the top of the cylinder.
14. The profile of the surface is determined by lowering the measuring needles until the just touch the
water surface.
15. The speed of rotation of the paddle is measured by limiting a number of paddles rotations using the
marker spot as a reference.
16. Remove the bridge and record the length of each needle.
138
Free Vortex
1. For each orifice adjust the outlet valve until water just flows through the overflow cut-outs, this
keeps the level constant.
2. Determine the height of water filled in cylinder from the base using measuring scale after achieving
constant water level.
3. Determine the diameter of tornado by using measuring scale jaws.
4. Destruction of vortex can be achieved by placing an object into the core of the vortex. When using
a small orifice, the acrylic part of a pitot tube may be used.
5. Plotting the profile: Attach the gauge to the center hole of the bridge and use this and its associated
scale to determine the diameter of vortex at the range of depths.
6. The nature of a free vortex is such that it is unlikely that the surface edge of the vortex will settle
directly above the orifice. If the vortex is not sufficiently central within the tank it will not be
possible to use both arms of the measuring gauge to plot the vortex profile. If this is the case then
ensue that one arm is in the wall of the vortex and the unused arm is hanging in free space within
the vortex and not fouling the opposite wall.
7. Visualization of velocity head: Replace the profile measuring gauge with 15mm radius arm Pitot
tube and use the largest orifice in the base of the tank. Attach the Pitot tube scale and immerse the
tube until the nose is approximately 5mm from the vortex core profile surface. The water level in
the Pitot tube will be above the level of surrounding water. This raise in level is proportional to the
velocity of the water at the Pitot tube outlet.
Theory:
Forced Vortex:
For a constant speed of rotation, 𝜔
𝑣 =𝜔×𝑟
Where r = radius of cylinder
v = velocity of flow at radius r.
If the horizontal plane passing through the nadir (lowest point) of the vortex is taken as datum, theory shows
that
𝑣2
ℎ = ℎ𝑜 +
2𝑔
139
(𝑟 2 𝜔2 )
ℎ = ℎ𝑜 +
2𝑔
Which is the equation of parabola.
Taking ℎ𝑜 as datum (i.e. ℎ𝑜 = 0), the theoretical height (hth) of a vortex surface corresponding to a radius
r from the axis at a constant angular velocity ω can be expressed as
2 2𝜋𝑁 2
(𝑟 2 𝜔2 ) 𝑟 ( 𝑡 )
ℎ𝑡ℎ = =
2𝑔 2𝑔
Where N is the rotational speed of rotating fluid (revolution/sec, rps) Thus, the theoretical height (zth) of a
vortex surface relative to the actual measurement obtained from the experiment is;
𝑧𝑡ℎ = 𝑧𝑜 − ℎ𝑡ℎ
Where 𝑧𝑜 is the measured height of a vortex surface at the axis (i.e. r = 0).
Free Vortex:
When water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base, a free vortex is formed. In a free
cylindrical vortex, the velocity varies inversely to the distance from the axis of rotation.
𝑘
𝑣=
𝑟
Where, k is constant.
The equation governing the surface profile is derive from Bernoulli’s theorem:
𝑣2
+𝑧=𝐶
2𝑔
Thus
𝑘2
+𝑧 =𝐶
𝑟 2 × 2𝑔
Which is the equation to a hyperbola curve which is asymptotic to the axis of rotation and to the
horizontal through z = C
Calculations:
140
Forced Vortex:
Forced Vortex at height (m)

No. of Number of Time Revolutions Radius Measured Height from Calculated
Observ Revolutions t per sec r Needle length Datum Height
ations N (s) rps (N/t) (m) hm ho zth
(m) (m) (m)
1 0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.0
2
3
Free Vortex:
Diameter of Orifice Diameter of Tornado Height

No. of
Observation
(m) (m) (m)
References:

Education (Pvt.)
3. www.edibon.com
141
Experiment 9
Objective:
To determine the load loss by friction in rough and smooth pipes of different internal diameters
and investigate the effect on velocity.
Apparatus:
The FME00/B Hydraulics Group or The FME00 Hydraulic Bench
The Fluid Friction in Pipes Apparatus
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
b) Do not start the hydraulic group without supply water
Nomenclature:
Volumetric Flowrate Q L/min Volumetric flowrate of water passing

through.
Velocity u m/s Velocity of the fluid.
Density 𝜌 Kg/m3 Density of the fluid.
Pressure hf mmH2O Pressure in terms of height or from pressure

or gauge.
142
bar
Dynamic viscosity 𝜇 m Dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

𝑣=
𝜌
Reynolds Number Re - 𝜌𝑢𝑑

𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
1. Once carried out the setting operations previously described, open the appropriate valves
to make only circulate the fluid through the pipe that is going to be tested.
2. Before connecting the pumping equipment, we will close all the on/off valves (ball valves)
and, later on, we will open the pipe to study, which corresponds to the rough pipe of interior
diameter of d = 17mm.
3. We will open first valve V1 of the rough pipe of dint = 17mm, we will switch on the pump
and we will make water to circulate by opening the How regulation valve slowly, seeing
how the interior indicator of the flowmeter rises up.
4. The initial V1 corresponds to the ball valve of the rough pipe of dint = l 7mm that you can
locate in the scheme of figure 9.1 corresponding to the AFT with the Bench.
5. The valve of flow regulation will be kept completely opened, making only the fluid
circulate through the rough pipe of dint = 17mm.
6. The load loss will be determined through the Bourdon type manometers or through the
water manometer if was necessary in this case with the rough pipe of 17mm of diameter
opened and the others closed. The way to proceed will be the one described in the chapter
“setting in”.
7. To carry out the practice with different flows check the variations of the load loss
depending on the flow, we will see that the bigger the flow is, higher the load loss will be.
8. Caution: When using the Hydraulic Bench (FME00) once carried out the flow measures,
you have to lower the driver of the emptying valve to avoid that the tank drain is left without
water and the pump can seized up. When another time taking is going to be carried out, we
will go up the driver to fill the volumetric tank and, once the measures are finished, we will
lower it again.
143
9. Repeat the same procedure for different internal diameters (23mm) of the pipe and for
smooth pipe (6.5mm, 16.5mm and 26.5mm) as well and compare the results.
Theory:
Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two current types could be established inside a pipe.
Current in laminar regime: A proportionality relation exists between the load loss and the velocity
of the current.
Current in turbulent regime: The load loss is proportional to the square of the velocity.
He also observed between the two behaviors there was an area where a clear relation did not exist
between the load loss and the velocity of the flow. It was able to classify the current type
independently of the size and pipe type through a non-dimensional parameter; the Number of
Reynolds.
𝜌𝑢𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
The kinematic and dynamic viscosity can be related by the following equation.
𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌
And, from the number of Reynolds formula, it is obtained:
𝑢𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣
Having the number of Reynolds in function of the velocity and the inner pipe diameter and
inversely proportional to the kinematic viscosity.
Where we can know the viscosity values of the kinematic viscosity of water in function of the
temperature with the following table 9.1:
According to what we have seen, the flows inside two geometrically similar pipes obey the same
laws if the numbers of Reynolds are the same. The likeness should be extended to the interior
ruggedness of the pipes that play an important role. This will be translated in that the coefficients
of load loss will be same for the two pipes.
144
Temperature °C Kinematic Viscosity (m2/sec) .10-6
5 1.52
10 1.308
15 1.142
20 1.007
25 0.897
30 0.804
35 0.727
40 0.661
50 0.556
Table 9.1: Kinematic Viscosity at different values of Temperature.
Calculations:
No. of Flowrate Velocity Height (hf) Height Log u Log h

Obs. (Q) (u) (hf)
mmH O 2
L/min m/s bar
References:

2. W. L. McCabe, J. C. Smith “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering” 7th Ed, McGraw
Hill Education (Pvt.)
3. www.edibon.com
145
Experiment 10
Objective:
To determine the velocity distribution of a free non-buyout fluid jet at various cross sections and
different distances from the orifice.
Apparatus:
F6 The Air Flow Rig
Chemicals:
Air
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
b) Do not start the equipment before the proper inspection of air inlet
Nomenclature:
Height x1 or x2 m Vertical height of manometric tubes
Density 𝜌 Kg/m3 Density of the manometric fluid.
Pressure P or ΔP or Δh Nm-2 or Pressure in terms of height or from pressure

mH2O gauge.
1. Select three or more cross-sections of the jet well-spaced along its axial length.
146
2. The cross-section closest to the orifice will be fixed by the need to accommodate the total
head on the jet center line (point of maximum velocity) within the range of the ' manometer
provided. The position of the most remote cross-section will be fixed by considerations of
accuracy in the measurement of total head with the manometer.
3. Determine the jet axis or center at each cross-section selected by moving the total • head
tube through the center of the jet and stopping it at the point where the highest manometer
reading is obtained.
4. If this process is repeated a couple of times traversing alternatively in the horizontal and
vertical directions, the jet axis will soon be located. Do not assume that the Centre of the
jet occurs at the same y and z values at each cross-section as it may be inclined in either
the vertical or horizontal plane.
5. When the y and z co-ordinates of the point of maximum velocity have been located,
traverse the total head tube through this point recording the position and the manometer
liquid levels at each point.
6. Enough velocity points must be taken to ensure a clearly defined velocity profile. Pay
particular attention to the edges of the jet continuing to take velocity readings until well
clear of the mixing zone at each section.
Theory:
The differences between the liquid levels in the manometer tubes' are used to calculate the pressure
differences in each of the experiments.
Starting with the basic equation of hydrostatics:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Therefore the pressure difference ΔP corresponding to two different levels in manometer tubes 1
and 2 is
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
If the height of fluid in two vertical manometer tubes is x1 and x2 then
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
147
The manometer tubes can be inclined to increase the sensitivity of the readings. If the manometer
is inclined at an angle of θ from the vertical then the equivalent vertical separation of liquid levels
in the manometer tubes is given by
∆ℎ = (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Or
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
When using kerosene in the manometer ρ=787 kg/m3
Note: If required, the measured head difference using kerosene can be converted to an equivalent
‘head’ of water as follows: #
Assuming a density of 787.kg/m3 for kerosene and 998 kg/m3 for water gives:
∆ℎ = 0.797(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂
148
Fig 10.2: Velocity profiles along the test pipes
149
Fig 10.3: Tapping positions along the test pipe
150
Results:
Because the jet dispersion mechanism is essentially one of turbulent mixing at a free shear layer,
the flow being investigated will be highly turbulent. Point velocities therefore will vary with time,
especially near the edges of the jet, and mean (time averaged) velocity values can only be obtained
if the movement of the manometer fluid column is damped either by partial pinching of the
connecting tubes using the clamps provided, or by friction in long tube lengths.
References:

151
Experiment 11
Objective:
To visualize and sketch the flow pattern of a converging diverging nozzle to give a parallel flow
in the contracted outlet using different items.
Apparatus:
The Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Tank
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
Nomenclature:
Volumetric Flowrate Q L/min Volumetric flowrate of water
1. Arrange a converging-diverging nozzle in the working section (Fig 11.3) to give a parallel
flow in the contracted outlet, using items, 25, 14 and 11. Apply dust to the water surface
and sketch the flow pattern.
152
2. Observe the smooth acceleration of the flow and note the absence of turbulent eddies.
Observe the thin film of fluid at the wall which is retarded by friction and is known as the
boundary layer.
3. Converging flow is not strongly affected by friction because the normal, accelerating force
opposes the tangential, frictional force.
4. Arrange a diverging nozzle as shown in Fig.11.3 using items 25, 14 and 11.
5. Vary the divergence angle θ- from 0°- 30°.
6. For θ<5°, observe the more rapid thickening of the boundary layer in comparison with
converging flow.
7. For larger θ observe the separation of flow room the diverging boundary and thereafter the
widening region of turbulence between the separated mainstream and the boundary. Note
that flow is asymmetrical, tending to separate on one side only.
8. Diverging flow is strongly affected by friction because the normal, decelerating force and
the tangential, frictional force act in the same direction. At some point on the diverging
boundary, the slow boundary layer flow is brought to rest by the opposing forces and the
faster flow outside the layer is deflected away from the boundary. Beyond this reparation
point the flow has some of the features of a jet. Asymmetrical flow is a common feature in
two-dimensional diffusers.
Theory:
Dust:
Local speeds and directions of flow are estimated from the movement of dust particles sprinkled
on the water surface.) The dust should be lightly distributed upstream of the boundaries arranged
in the working section; a canister with a wire gauze in the lid is a suitable container for the dust
which facilitates an even application over the width of the working section.
Models of Flow Boundaries:
The bases of flow-boundaries inserted in the working section must be flush with the glass sheet to
prevent leakage of water beneath. Isolated models such as cylinders should have bases machined
at right angles to their vertical axes. Long walls can be easily made of metal strips but their lower
edges must be straight. The strips may be kept vertical by short lengths of angle (Figure 11.2) fixed
on the inner side of the wall where there is usually no flow; spare cylinders or tees may be placed
153
on the horizontal legs of the angles to prevent movement of the wall. Any grease on the models or
the working section itself may be removed with a detergent. Grease repel dust and flow patterns
will thus be unrepresentative. All traces of detergent must be carefully removed from surfaces after
cleaning to prevent the generation of foam a water flows through the tank.
Fig 11.2: Support for walls of The Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Tank
Suitable depth and velocity of flow:
The hook and point gauge (item 12) can be used to determine the depth of the water in the working
section.
A depth of flow in the working section 40-60mm will usually be satisfactory for most experiments.
Average free-stream velocities (estimated by eye) should be in the range 30-50mm/s unless
otherwise stated in instructions. The flow may become laminar below this range and may thus be
unrepresentative of normally turbulent flowy) Above this range surface waves and secondary
currents may become so important that a flow pattern intended to be two-dimensional will in fact
be three dimensional.
Recording of flow patterns:
Flow patterns may be recorded accurately (but expensively) on a photograph with the camera
mounted above the working section. The exposure time must be adjusted by trial and error until a
compromise is achieved in which the streak arising from the fastest and slowest dust particles are
neither too long nor too short Students should sketch flow patterns accurately to scale on squared
paper. In steady flow the paths of dust particles coincide with the streamlines and thus it is not
154
difficult to sketch the streamline geometry. In regions where the eye detects for example higher
velocity than that of the free stream the spacing between streamlines should be correspondingly
narrow, Figure 11.5 (a). For regions such as turbulent wakes where the flow is locally unsteady it
is more difficult to represent the flow pattern and two sketches are often necessary. Figure 11.5 (a)
shows the equivalent of a short time-exposure photograph in which the path lines of dust particles
in the wake clearly illustrate the size and distribution of eddies; this sketch nevertheless fails to
show the stead) velocity distribution in the wake on which the turbulent components are
superimposed. Figure 11.5 (b) supplies this information in the form of the streamline for the steady
components in the wake. These components are deduced from the general trends such as the
entrainment process seen at C in Figure 11.5 (a). The combination of Figures 11.5 (a) and (b) thus
provides a more complete representation of the flow pattern; the former gives an 'instantaneous'
view and the latter a 'time averaged’ view of the motion.
Fig 11.3: Diverging Flow through the Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Tank
155
Fig 11.4: Boundaries formed by Tees in the Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Tank
Fig 11.5: Flow about a cylinder in the Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Tank
156
Results:
Arrange a converging-diverging nozzle in the working section (Fig. 11.3) to give a parallel flow
in the contracted outlet, using items, 25, 14 and 11. Apply dust to the water surface and sketch the
flow pattern.
References:

157
Experiment 12
Objective:
To study the behavior of two centrifugal pumps of similar characteristics coupled in series and
parallel.
Apparatus:
The Series Parallel Pumps Bench
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
Nomenclature:
Volumetric Flowrate Q m3/s Volumetric flowrate of water passing

through.
Velocity u m/s Velocity of the fluid.
Pressure P Pa Pressure at different points
Series Coupling:
158
1. Verify that the deposit has a sufficient level of water (more than 20 cm height).
2. Verify that all the switches are disconnected.
3. Open valve VR-1 and V3, and keep closed the rest of the valves (V2, V4 and VR-2)
4. Connect the main switch of the interface.
5. Run the computer and execute the program PBSPC. For further information, follow the
instructions of software administration.
6. In the main menu select the option “Serial Coupling of two pumps”. A small window will
appear, in which you are advised that you need to select the file in which the reference data
is stored. The file that you have to select in your computer is the one of practice 3, in which
the data of the pump B1 was recorded. (The behavior of pump 2 should be the same than
the one of pump 1)
7. Next, the program requires the data of reference velocity, with which the pump B2 will
work. These two references are very important to carry out this practice, because we have
no information about the characteristics of the pump 2, or the velocity with which it will
work. Using the reference data of pump 1, we can define the characteristics of pump 2 (In
this practice should be equal) and setting the reference speed, we have almost completely
defined this pump.
8. By opening the valve “VR-2” the study of the pumps can be carried out, varying the flow
as done in practice 1. Since pump B1 is identical to pump B2, the characteristics obtained
for B1 are considered valid for pump B2.
9. Select one speed for pump B1 and press the PUMP2 button to run the B2.
10. Capture some data of this experiment, working the two pumps in series and with identical
characteristics. 12. When the variation of flows is completed, the data taking will have
concluded.
Parallel Coupling:
1. Verify that the deposit has a sufficient level of water (more than 20 cm height.
2. Verify that all the switches are disconnected.
3. Open the valves VR-1 and V4, -and keep closed the valves V2, V4 and VR-2.
4. Connect the main switch of the interface.
5. Run the computer and execute the program PBSPC. For further information, follow the
instructions of software administration.
159
6. In the main menu select the option “Coupling in parallel of two pumps”. A small window
will appear, in which you are advised that you need to select the file in which the reference
data is stored. The file that you have to select in your computer is the one of practice 3, in
which the data of the pump B1 was recorded. (The behavior of pump 2 should be the same
than the one of pump 1)
7. Next, the program requires the data of reference velocity, with which the pump B2 will
work. These two references are very important to carry out this practice, because we have
no information about the characteristics of the pump 2 or the velocity with which it will
work.
8. Using the reference data of pump 1, we can define the characteristics of pump 2 (In this
practice are equal) and setting the reference speed, we have almost completely defined this
pump. The speed should also be equal.
9. The value of speed of pump B1 should be equal than the one selected for pump B2
10. By opening the valve “ VR-2” the study of the pumps can be carried out, Connect the
switch of pump B1 and B2.
11. Capture some data of this experiment, working the two pumps in series and with different
speed.
12. When the variation *of flows is completed, the data taking will have
Theory:
160
Fig 12.3: Series coupling of centrifugal pumps with same characteristics
Fig 12.4: Parallel coupling of centrifugal pumps with same characteristics
Results:
Analyze the results commenting the possible theoretical discrepancies and the influence that the
loss of load of some conduction tracts has in it.
References:

3. www.edibon.com
161
Experiment 13
Objective:
To determine the rate of sedimentation and to draw sedimentation curve.
Apparatus:
The Sedimentation Studies Apparatus
Stopwatch (to determine time)
Chemicals:
Water
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
c) Safety glasses and gloves should be wear
b) Carefully mount/dismount the cylindrical glass tubes from the apparatus
3. Chemical safety:
Calcium Carbonate is hazardous in case of eye contact (irritant). Slightly hazardous in case of skin
contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation. Consult MSDS (Material Safety data Sheet) for further
details.
162
Nomenclature:

Heading
Time mintues 𝑡 Input Time taken corresponding to the
sedimentation after particular intervals.
Initial Height mm 𝐻𝑜 Input Initial height of the solution.
(Scale calibrated in mm).
Height of mm 𝐻𝑡 Input Height of suspension in the cylinder at any
Suspension at time ‘𝑡’
time ‘t’ (Scale calibrated in mm).
Height of mm 𝐻𝑠 Input Sludge Height at bottom of cylinder.
Sludge (Scale calibrated in mm).
1. Select a suitable, well mixed powder such as chalk (CaCO3).

2. Weigh out five separate quantities to make up five or six equal volume of chalk-in-water slurry of
say 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, 15% and 20% concentrations by weight.
3. Each slurry should be made up in a separate beaker and the volume in each should be identical and
sufficient to fill to the top of each sedimentation tube (approx. volume is 1.5 liter or 700mm height).
4. Stir each slurry in the preparation vessels, and then fill each sedimentation tube in turn, starting
with the most concentrated.
5. The tubes should then be removed from the retaining clips, supplied rubber bungs used to close off
the open ends. Each tube should be well shaken (with care) to give a consistent suspension.
6. The tubes should then be replaced in the clips on the supporting frame, and at the same interval of
time between mixing and testing, reading of the suspension interface (between clear liquid and
subsiding suspension) should be noted.
7. In addition to noting the fall of the interface in each sedimentation tube at convenient time intervals
(say 10 mints), the rise of the sludge interface at the base of the tube should also be recorded.
8. Graphs of height against time should be plotted as experiment proceeds (Sludge interface vs time
and Suspension interface vs time).
Theory:
When the concentration of a given suspension is low, the effects of mutual interference of the particles is
negligible, and the rate of settling is in accordance with Stokes Law:
163
𝑑2 (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑒 )𝑔
𝑣=
18𝜇
where 𝑑 is equivalent sphere diameter of particles, 𝜌𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑒 are the densities of solids particles and of
liquid respectively, 𝜇 is the viscosity of the liquid and 𝑣 is the velocity of fall. At higher concentrations,
however, conditions within the suspension are considerably modified.
There are usually four zones in the sedimentation of concentrated suspensions (Fig: 8.2). In the constant
composition zone, the suspension moves at a uniform rate which is less than that given by Stokes Law;
although for dilute suspensions Stokes Law is approximately obeyed. In the third region, the concentration
increases as agglomeration occurs, and at the base of the column the sediment or sludge builds up. Hindered
settling occurs in the zone of variable composition, and various correlations have been suggested as
applying in this region.
Fig 13.2: Sedimentation Phenomenon
As the interface of suspension moves down, so the level of the sludge builds up. The point at which those
two levels are equal is known as the ‘critical point’.
From the graph below (Fig: 13.3), it will be seen that initial rate of fall of the interface, i.e. sedimentation
rate, are linear although the departure form a linear pattern occurred more quickly for higher concentrations.
164
In general the height of initial suspension does not affect the rate of sedimentation, although of course large
heights mean a larger amount of sediment has to build up before critical point is reached.
Provided the particle size to tube diameter is not greater than 1:100, no wall effects should be apparent.
Fig 13.3: Typical Sedimentation Curves
165
Calculations:
Concentrations For 10g CaCO3 For 20g CaCO3

No. of Time Sludge interface at Suspension Sludge interface at Suspension
Observations 𝑡 time ‘t’ interface at time time ‘t’ interface at time
(min) 𝐻𝑠 ‘t’ 𝐻𝑠 ‘t’
(mm) 𝐻𝑡 (mm) 𝐻𝑡
(mm) (mm)
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 40
6 50
7 60
8 70
9 80
10 90
References:
1. Frank M. White “Fluid Mechanics” 4th Edition

Education (Pvt.)
166
Experiment 14
Objective:
To investigate the validity of the isentropic flow equations for compressible flow in a convergent
duct.
Apparatus:
The Compressible Flow Bench Apparatus
The Thermometer for measuring temperature
The Barometer for measuring ambient pressure
Chemicals:
Air
Precautions:
1. Personal safety:
b) Make sure the throttle must be fully closed before switching on the compressor
Nomenclature:
Diameter of test 𝑑 m Description section of Convergent-

section duct Divergent duct.
Area of test section 𝑎 m2 𝜋𝑑 2

𝑎=
duct 4
167
Pressure 𝑝 Nm-2 Can be measured through digital display at
different sections in the convergent divergent
duct.
Specific heat ratio 𝛾 Dimensi 𝑐𝑝

𝛾=
on-less 𝑐𝑣
Mass flowrate 𝑚̇ kg/s Adjusted according to flow/pressure

measurements.
1. Using a thermometer and a barometer or equivalent, measure and record the ambient
temperature and pressure of the laboratory or test area. If necessary, convert the units of
these measurements to match the units of the sensors on the C1 MkII (i.e. Centigrade for
temperature and kNm-2 for pressure).
2. If using the optional Armfield data logger and software then the experiment is fully
described in the software. The procedure may differ to that presented below, and students
should therefore refer to the software in preference to the procedure.
3. Adjust the compressor speed to give a pressure P3 of 50 Pa. Record the sensor readings for
P1, P2 and P3 from the control console displays.
4. Adjust the compressor speed to give a pressure P3 of 100 kPa. Repeat the sensor readings.
5. Continue to adjust the compressor speed to give pressure increments for P3 of 50 kPa,
recording the console display values each time, until maximum compressor speed is
reached.
6. If there is sufficient time, the compressor speed may be decreased in steps of 50 kPa to
give a second series of sensor readings.
7. Reduce the compressor speed to 0 and switch off the equipment.
Theory:
Isentropic flow equation for compressible flow in a convergent duct is as follows:

2 𝛾+1
𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 2 (𝛾 + 1)𝑘 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑜𝑡 𝛾 𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝛾
( ) [ ] = [( ) −( ) ]
𝑎𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝛾 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
168
Table 14.1: Values of K for Pressure drop calculations
Calculations:
The following headings are suggested for tabulating results:
Barometric Pressure, Patm ____________ Nm-2
Atmospheric Temperature, T _____________ °C
Atmospheric Density __________________kg/m3
No. of P1 P2 P3 𝑝3 2
𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝛾 𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡
𝛾+1
𝛾
𝑘[ ] [( ) ] [( ) ]
Obs. -2 -2 -2 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
Nm Nm Nm
169
4
5
Express all pressures in same units; tabulate
2 𝛾+1
𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝛾 𝑝2 𝛾
𝑘[ ] 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 [( ) − ( ) ]
𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜
Plot the graph between the above tabulated values.
The theoretical value of the slope of this graph is
𝑎1 2 𝛾 + 1
( )
𝑎2 𝛾
References:

3. www.edibon.com
170
Experiment 15
Objective:
To measure the pressure drop, validate the Kozney’s equation for flow through packed beds and
also measure the permeability of different solids.
Apparatus:
The Permeability and Fluidization Apparatus
Chemicals:
Supply Water
Precautions:
3. Personal safety:
Nomenclature:
Volumetric Flowrate 𝑣𝑎 m/s Volumetric Flowrate per unit cross sectional

per unit cross area
sectional area
Porosity 𝜀 - Porosity of the permeable media
Diameter d m Diameter of grains
gravity g m/s2 Acceleration due to gravity
171
Dynamic viscosity 𝜇 Pa.s Dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

𝑣=
𝜌
1. The valves should be set ready for down flow through the column, with both manometers
reading:
2. Valve (1) should be closed, but ready for adjustment, Valve (2) should be closed, Valve
(3) should be closed, Valve (4) should be closed, but ready for adjustment, Valves (5, 6, 7
and 8) should be open.
3. Tire media should be lightly consolidated by tapping gently along the length of the clear
acrylic column with a pencil. The consolidation should be such that any random vibration
to the bench or apparatus will not cause the media top level to fall.
4. The drain tube from valve (4) should be inserted into a beaker, which can overflow to drain.
A thermometer resting in this beaker will then indicate the temperature of tire water leaving
the apparatus.
5. The level of the media surface should be read (L) and the manometer water and mercury
zero levels noted. (Refer to the commissioning section for details on how to adjust the
levels in the water manometer).
6. By opening valves (1) and (4) water is admitted through the column in a down flow
direction, and about 7 settings of flow rate (Q) should be read on the flowmeter, with tire
manometer levels noted for each flow rate. When the levels in the water manometer
approach the scale limits, valves (5) and (6) must be closed to shut off the manometer and
prevent circulation of water through it. After 7 readings of increasing flow to the flowmeter
scale limit, a further set of readings should be taken with decreasing flow back to zero,
switching in the water manometer again for the lower readings.
7. During the experiment observations of water temperature should be made, to obtain the
mean water temperature.
172
Theory:
Permeability:
The linear relationship between head loss (h) and flow rate, expressed as approach velocity (va), is
given by Darcy’s Law:
𝑑ℎ
𝑣𝑎 = 𝑘
𝑑𝐿
Typical values of permeability are:
Clean gravel 1.0 m/s
Coarse sand 10-2 m/s
Fine sand 10-5 m/s
Silts 10-9 m/s
Clays 10-11 m/s
The concept of permeability, which includes characteristics of both the fluid and the porous media
was developed further by Kozeny, and later by Carman. They used the analogy that the porous
media could be represented by a bundle of tortuous capillary tubes, and that an equivalent hydraulic
radius could be developed for granular porous media. The permeability is then related to the
physical characteristics as
𝜌𝑔 𝜀 3 𝑑 2
𝑘= ( )
5𝜇 (1 − 𝜀)2 6
And the Kozney-Carmon equations results:
𝑑ℎ 5𝜇𝑣𝑎 (1 − 𝜀)2 6 2
= ( )
𝑑𝐿 𝜌𝑔 𝜀3 𝑑
173
Calculations:
No. of Flowrate Velocity Height Manometer Height Manometer Head

Obs. (Q) (va) difference mmH O difference loss
mmHg 2
cc/min m/s mm mm mmH2O
References:

3. www.edibon.com
174
Flexes
LAB FLEXES
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
MSDS
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS
1- WATER
196
197
198
199
200
201

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Fluid Flow Lab

Department of Chemical, Polymer and

Name Signature Date

Prepared by: Mr. Saqib Mehmood

Reviewed by: Mr. Ahmad Shakeel

Approved by: Dr. Tanveer Iqbal

Following are the potential hazards and their remedies:

S. No. Potential Hazard Mitigation

The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (1988)

Physical data about the substance

However, it is recommended that the RESIDUAL CURRENT DEVICE (RCD) supplied

Assessment Criteria Superior (8 – 10) Acceptable (5 – 7) Unsatisfactory (0 – 4)

Repairing 1. Temperature Sensor 1. Temperature sensor

Osborne Reynolds’ Working

Orifice and Free Jet Working

Free and Forced Working

Repairing 1. One of the pumps is 1. Pump should be

Mobile Bed Model Working

List of Glass Wares for Fluid Flow Lab as on 27-10-2017

1. Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP DEMONSTRATION UNIT

Fig 1.1: The FM50 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit

Fig 1.2: Front View of FM50 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit

Commissioning of Equipment for operation:

Where necessary, refer to the 1.2 & 1.3 figures.

Filling the reservoir:

Controlling flow rate using the outlet valve:

Controlling inlet (suction) pressure:

Measuring sensor outputs:

Draining the pump, pipework and reservoir:

Changing the impeller:

AXIAL FAN DEMONSTRATION UNIT

Fig 2.2: The FM41 Axial Fan Demonstration Unit

Where necessary, refer to the 2.3 & 2.4 figures.

Commissioning of Equipment for operation:

Where necessary, refer to the 2.3 & 2.4 figures.

Installing the Software and USB drivers:

.inf files: Windows\inf\Other

.sys files: Windows\system32\drivers

Disconnecting USB leads:

Operating the Fan:

Adjusting the Outlet Aperture:

Taking Sensor Readings:

Configuring the IFD7:

1. Check that the outlet aperture is fully open.

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION

Fig 3.1: The FME-03 Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit

Commissioning of Equipment for operation:

1. Connect the equipment to the hydrostatic bench or hydrostatic group in convergent or

3. It is very important that the equipment is a watertight compartment.

4. Remove the non-return valve or open the purge valve.

8. In this moment, all tubes have the same water level.

FLOW OVER WEIRS

Fig 4.1: The Flow Over Weirs Apparatus

Fig 4.2: Elements of the Flow Over Weirs Apparatus

Fig 4.3: Elements of the Flow Over Weirs Apparatus

FLOW METER DEMONSTRATION APPARATUS

Fig 5.1: Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus

OSBORNE REYNOLDS’ APPARATUS