METAL CASTING PROCESSES

•Non-Permenant mould
•Permenant mould

*Adopted from : ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing 3/e

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 Casting Methods

• Sand Casting • Investment Casting • Die Casting

High Temperature Alloy, High Temperature Alloy, High Temperature Alloy,
Complex Geometry, Complex Geometry, Moderate Geometry,
Rough Surface Finish Moderately Smooth Surface Smooth Surface
Finish
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 Sand Casting
Sand Casting

Metals: Most castable metals.

Size Range: Limitation depends on
foundry capabilities. Ounces to many
tons.
Tolerances:
Non-Ferrous ± 1/32² to 6²
Add ± .003² to 3², ± 3/64² from 3² to 6².
Across parting line add ± .020² to ±
.090² depending on size.
(Assumes metal patterns)
Surface Finish:
Non-Ferrous: 150-350 RMS
Ferrous: 300-700RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements:
1° to 5°
Cores: 1° to 1 1/2°
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
Non-Ferrous: 1/8² - 1/4²
Ferrous: 1/4² - 3/8²
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Solidification of Pure Metals

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Three Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
•FIGURE 5.8 Schematic
illustration of three cast
structures of metals
solidified in a square
mold:
•(a) pure metals;
•(b) solid-solution
alloys; and
•(c) the structure
obtained by
heterogeneous
nucleation of grains,
using nucleating agents.

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METAL CASTING PROCESSES
•Non-Permenant mould
•Permenant mould

1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations

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 Introduction
Definition of Casting:
• Refers to manufacturing process whereby the
desired material is heated to the liquid state,
then poured into a prepared mould cavity of
specified design and allowed to solidify
before being extracted, trimmed and cleaned.

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 Three Main Divisions

Casting in a bulk form

• Prior to processing to different component shapes
• e.g. ingot production

Casting in a continuous form

• Into a form which either a preliminary to further processing or may be
the finished product
• e.g. rod or tube sections

Casting to produce discrete components

• Cast to approximately the final form or shape
• e.g. engine cylinder block

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Rolling

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 Shapes of Workpiece

Slab Billet Bloom Rod

• A semi finished • A semis finished, • A solid semi • A solid round
steel product hot rolled or finished, hot rolled wrought product,
intermediate contimuous cast or continuous cast long in relation to
between ingot and metal product metal product of its cross section
plate • Rectangular cross uniform section • Commonly drawn
• Roughly 50- section more than • Rectangular with into wire products
150mm thick, 600- 155mm x 155mm rounded corners or used to make
1500mm wide and cross section bolts and nails
up to 155mm

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 Casting Process Requirements

Two types of mould : expendable and non-expendable

Pattern and molding sand for making expendable mould

Cores for providing internal cavity

Melting and pouring of molten material

Cleaning

Heat treatment

Sand reconditioning facilities and sand testing equipment

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 Important Selection Factors
1. Quantity of casting required
2. Design of the casting
3. Tolerance required
4. Complexity
5. Metal specification
6. Surface finish required
7. Tooling costs
8. Economics of machining vs casting costs
9. Financial limits on capital costs
10. Delivery requirements

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 Types of Casting
1. Sand Casting
• Green sand mould, dry sand, baked sand mould, CO2 mould, shell moulding
2. Plaster mould
3. Permanent mould casting
• Metal die, pressure die, slush casting
4. Investment casting
• Lost wax or plastic, frozen mercury, shaw, P&W directional

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Examples of Casting Products

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 METAL CASTING PROCESSES
1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations

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 Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make
mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of
metal and can be used to make many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

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Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part

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 Overview of Sand Casting
• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
• Castings range in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions

Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680

kg (1500 lb) for an air compressor frame (photo
courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).

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 Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand mold is
formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then
separating the mold into two
halves and removing the
pattern
• The mold must also contain
gating and riser system
• If casting is to have internal
surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
• A new sand mold must be
made for each part produced
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 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
– Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve
metallurgical properties

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 The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and
machining allowances in the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it
warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

Top center is the clay original, then the two part plaster
mold used for casting the lead at above, and wax cast from
mold, sprued for better brass casting, not yet cast. 2008-
01-12.
homepages.waymark.net/mikefirth/tapper6881b.jpg

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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.University
M P Groover, Technology MARA
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Types of Patterns
Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

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 Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the
core to form the casting's external and internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during
pouring, called chaplets

Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible
chapletFaculty
design,of(c)
Mechanical
casting Engineering,
with
©2007 John internal
Wiley University
M P Groover, Technology MARA
cavity.
& Sons, Inc.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact
with molten metal
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting
to shrink without cracking the casting
• Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused
to make other molds?
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 Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
• Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures
• Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
• Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape during pouring
• Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking, compared to round
grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
Binders
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase
strength and/or permeability
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 Types of Sand Mold
• Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and
water;
– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
• Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
– And mold is baked to improve strength
• Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a
green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps

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 Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation
• During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal
tends to displace the core, which can cause casting
to be defective
• Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced
liquid less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm - Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten
metal displaced; and Wc = weight of core

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 Other Expendable Mold Processes
• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
Here is a good reference web site:
http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/SandCasting

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 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell
of sand held together by thermosetting resin
binder

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag

metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed
with thermosetting resin.
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 Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto
the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away;

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 Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several
minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;

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 Shell Molding

From www.janfa.com

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled,
supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished; (7) the
finished casting with sprue removed.
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Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of shell molding:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten
metal and better surface finish
– Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not
required
– Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities

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 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which
vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam
process, and full-mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and
internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections
From www.wtec.org/loyola/casting/fh05_20.jpg

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene

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casting process:
Engineering,
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.University
pattern of
M P Groover, Technology MARA
polystyrene is coated withFundamentals
refractory compound;
of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene process: (3) molten metal is poured into
casting process: (2) foam pattern is the portion of the pattern that forms the
placed in mold box, and sand is pouring cup and sprue. As the metal
compacted around the pattern; enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is
vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,thus the resulting
University moldMARA
Technology cavity is filled.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold
– Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves
are not required as in a conventional green-sand mold
• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost
of producing patterns

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 Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Applications:
– Mass production of castings for automobile engines
– Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation

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Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
• "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition
of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail
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 Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2)
several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

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 Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin
layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated
tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid

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 Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position
and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6) the mold
is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is poured, and it solidifies

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 Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away
from the finished casting and the parts are separated from the
sprue
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 Investment Casting

Figure 11 9 A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils

made by investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet Corp.).

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of investment casting:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net
shape process
• Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process

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 Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of
plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
• In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and allowed
to set
– Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with
water
• Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish
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Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of plaster mold casting:
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross-sections
• Disadvantages:
– Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which
can cause problems in casting
– Mold strength is lost if over-baked
– Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so
limited to lower melting point alloys

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 Ceramic Mold Casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is
made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
• Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high-temperature alloys
• Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
• Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar
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Permanent Mold Casting Processes

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 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every casting
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
• The processes include:
– Basic permanent mold casting
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting

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 The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
• Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys
are commonly made of steel or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

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 Permanent Mold Casting

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated

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 Permanent Mold Casting

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted and
mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies.

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Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of permanent mold casting:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings are
stronger
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
– High cost of mold

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 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting
• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to
high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies,
and certain castings for aircraft and missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron

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 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
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 Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting-point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger
withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2) plunger forces
metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling
and solidification.
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Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die
cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring
step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
• Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its
use on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and
ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber

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 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.

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 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging
steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
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Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of die casting:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die

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 Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
• The group includes:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting

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 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
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 True Centrifugal Casting
Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.

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 Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather
than tubular parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys

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 Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured
into mold is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
• Used for smaller parts
• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

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 Furnaces for Casting Processes

• Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

– Cupolas
– Direct fuel-fired furnaces
– Crucible furnaces
– Electric-arc furnaces
– Induction furnaces

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 Cupolas

Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping

spout near base
• Used only for cast irons
– Although other furnaces are also used, the largest tonnage of
cast iron is melted in cupolas
• The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up height
of cupola
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 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by
natural gas fuel burners located on side of furnace
• Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
• At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten
metal
• Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper-base alloys and aluminum
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 Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning
fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of refractory material
or high-temperature steel alloy
• Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass,
and alloys of zinc and aluminum
• Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting
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 Crucible Furnaces
Figure 11.19 Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift-out crucible, (b) stationary pot,
from which molten metal must be ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace.

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 Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
• High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be designed for
high melting capacity
• Used primarily for melting steel

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 Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal
• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
• Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can be closely
controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and purity
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in
foundry work

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 Ladles
• Moving molten metal from melting furnace
to mold is sometimes done using crucibles
• More often, transfer is accomplished by
ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
two-man ladle.

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 Additional Steps After Solidification
• Trimming
• Removing the core
• Surface cleaning
• Inspection
• Repair, if required
• Heat treatment

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 Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash,
fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the
cast part
• For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken off
• Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used

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 Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
• Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates
• In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
• In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
• Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
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 Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise
enhancing appearance of surface
• Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse
sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
• Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
– In many permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided
• Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence
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 Heat Treatment
• Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
• Reasons for heat treating a casting:
– For subsequent processing operations such as machining
– To bring out the desired properties for the application of the
part in service

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 Casting Quality
• There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
• The defects can be classified as follows:
– General defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process

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 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before
completely filling mold cavity

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

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 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is
a lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

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 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

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 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

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 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow

Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by

release of mold gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

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 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or
slightly below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

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 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

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 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and
drag

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

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 Foundry Inspection Methods
• Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as
misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
• Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met
• Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal

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 Metals for Casting
• Most commercial castings are made of alloys
rather than pure metals
– Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product are
better
• Casting alloys can be classified as:
– Ferrous
– Nonferrous

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Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
• Most important of all casting alloys
• Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times
that of all other metals combined
• Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular
iron, (3) white cast iron, (4) malleable iron,
and (5) alloy cast irons
• Typical pouring temperatures  1400C
(2500F), depending on composition

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 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
• The mechanical properties of steel make it an
attractive engineering material
• The capability to create complex geometries
makes casting an attractive shaping process
• Difficulties when casting steel:
– Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other
casting metals  1650C (3000F)
– At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal
must be isolated from air
– Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.University
M P Groover, Technology MARA
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum
• Generally considered to be very castable
• Pouring temperatures low due to low melting
temperature of aluminum
– Tm = 660C (1220F)
• Properties:
– Light weight
– Range of strength properties by heat treatment
– Easy to machine

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 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys
• Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
• Properties:
– Corrosion resistance
– Attractive appearance
– Good bearing qualities
• Limitation: high cost of copper
• Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller
blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry

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Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys
• Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
• Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm =
419C (786F)
• Good fluidity for ease of casting
• Properties:
– Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to
prolonged high stresses

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 Product Design Considerations
• Geometric simplicity:
– Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design usually improves
castability
– Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
• Simplifies mold-making
• Reduces the need for cores
• Improves the strength of the casting

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 Product Design Considerations
• Corners on the casting:
– Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they are
sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing and
cracks
– Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners and sharp
edges should be blended

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 Product Design Considerations
• Draft Guidelines:
– In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of pattern
from mold
• Draft = 1 for sand casting
– In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal of the
part from the mold
• Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
– Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used

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 Draft
• Minor changes in part design can reduce need for
coring

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core: (a) original
design, and (b) redesign.

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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.University
M P Groover, Technology MARA
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Product Design Considerations
• Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:
– Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and
finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on
process:
• Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand
casting
• Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die
casting and investment casting

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 Product Design Considerations
• Machining Allowances:
– Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the
required dimensions and part features
– Additional material, called the machining allowance, is left on
the casting in those surfaces where machining is necessary
– Typical machining allowances for sand castings are around 1.5
and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)

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 Thank you
119
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