Unit 3 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing Processes Basic Mechanical Engineering
Unit 3
Manufacturing Processes
Introduction
Classification of M.P.
Sheet metal processing

Traditional Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Forging
Sheet metal processing
Forming processing
Joining
Casting process
• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a
significant majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and
titanium
• Castings range in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions
Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over

680 kg (1500 lb) for an air compressor frame
(photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
Transmission
Brake System Elements
Applications
Gearbox castings, generator housings, compressor casings
(Mg alloys)
Pulley, brackets, door handle boxes, clips, valve bodies of
hydraulic control systems (Aluminium alloys)
Compressor blades, turbine disks (Ti alloys)
Alternator Flow measurement Steering Transmission
Process of casting
1. Pattern making
2. Moulding & core making
3. Melting & Casting
4. Fettling (removal of sand)
5. Testing & Inspection
Casting
Refractory mold  pour liquid metal  solidify, remove  finish
• VERSATILE: complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow sections
• VERSATILE: small (~10 grams)  very large parts (~1000 Kg)
• ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used)
• ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all directions

Sand Casting Plant Layout

The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much
longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
Types of Patterns
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity
and the core to form the casting's external and internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity
during pouring, called chaplets
Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b)
possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
Advantages
• Low cost
• Complex design possible
• High degree of accuracy
• High volumes
DISADVANTAGES
1. Castings Limited to 20 Lbs or Less
2. Void & Porosity Possible in Complex
Shapes
3. Expensive machinery & Dies
4. Limited to Metals with Low Melting Points.
(normally aluminum & cooper based
alloys)
Forging
• is the process by which metal is heated and
is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably
applying compressive force. Usually the
compressive force is in the form of hammer
blows using a power hammer or a press.
Example products:
Crankshafts, Connecting rods, camshafts, bolts, nuts, railway
car axles, chains, valves, rivets, pipes & cables etc.
Forging
[Heated] metal is beaten with a heavy hammer to give it the required shape
Hot forging,
open-die
Forgeable Materials
• Forging calls for a property that the
materials possess that is ductility i.e. ability
to sustain substantial plastic deformation
without fracture even in the presence of
tensile stresses.
• While all ductile materials can be forged,
forgeability also depends upon
crystallographic structure, melting point,
yield strength, strain rate & dry friction.
Advantages of forging
1. Forged parts possess high ductility and offers great resistance
to impact and fatigue loads.
2. Forging refines the structure of the metal.
3. It results in considerable saving in time, labor and material as
compared to the production of similar item by cutting from a
solid stock and then shaping it.
4. Forging distorts the previously created unidirectional fiber as
created by rolling and increases the strength by setting the
direction of grains.
5. Because of intense working, flaws are rarely found, so have
good reliability.
6. The reasonable degree of accuracy may be obtained in forging
operation.
7. The forged parts can be easily welded.
Disadvantages of forging
1. Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high
temperature results in scaling
2. which wears the dies.
3. The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to
maintain.
4. Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for
parts having undercuts etc.
5. Some materials are not readily worked by forging.
6. The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their
maintenance is high.
7. The metals gets cracked or distorted if worked below a
specified temperature limit.
8. The maintenance cost of forging dies is also very high.
Forgeable Materials
The materials are ranked in the increasing order of
forging difficulties
1. Aluminum Alloys, Magnesium Alloys, Copper Alloys,
Carbon / Low-alloy steels (GF)
2. Marten. Stainless steel, Maraging steels, Austen.
Stainless steels, Nickel alloys – SD
3. Iron-based super alloys, Cobalt-based super alloys,
Tantalum alloys – D
4. Tungsten alloys, Beryllium - VD
Forging Process
Hot Forging Process Cold Forging Process
Open Die Forging Closed Die Forging

Process Process
Hand Forging Drop Forging Press Forging Machine or Upset

Process Process Process Forging Process
Hot Forging
• working a metal above its recrystallization
temperature
• Decrease in yield strength, therefore it is
easier to work
• Pores may reduce in size
• Undesirable reactions between the metal
and the surrounding
• Less precise tolerances
MERITS OF HOT WORKING

1. As the material is above the recrystallisation
temperature, any amount of working can be imparted
since there is no strain hardening taking place.
2. At a high temperature, the material would have higher
amount of ductility and therefore there is no limit on the
amount of hot working that can be done on a material.
Even brittle materials can be hot worked.
3. In hot working process, the grain structure of the metal
is refined and thus mechanical properties improved.
4. Porosity of the metal is considerably minimized.
5. If process is properly carried out, hot work does not
affect tensile strength, hardness, corrosion resistance,
etc.
MERITS OF HOT WORKING

7. No residual stresses are introduced in the metal due to
hot working.
8. Concentrated impurities, if any in the metal are
disintegrated and distributed throughout the metal.
9. Mechanical properties, especially elongation,
reduction of area and izod values are improved, but
fibre and directional properties are produced.
10. Larger deformation can be accomplished more rapidly
as the metal is in plastic state.
DEMERITS OF HOT WORKING

1. Due to high temperature in hot working, rapid oxidation or scale
formation and surface de-carburization take place on the metal
surface leading to poor surface finish and loss of metal.
2. On account of the loss of carbon from the surface of the steel piece
being worked the surface layer loses its strength. This is a major
disadvantage when the part is put to service.
3. The weakening of the surface layer may give rise to a fatigue crack
which may ultimately result in fatigue failure of the component.
4. Some metals cannot be hot worked because of their brittleness at
high temperatures.
5. Because of the thermal expansion of metals, the dimensional accuracy
in hot working is difficult to achieve.
6. The process involves excessive expenditure on account of high cost of
tooling. This however is compensated by the high production rate and
better quality of components.
7. Handling and maintaining of hot working setups is difficult and
troublesome.
Cold Forging
• working a metal below its recrystallization
temperature
• No heating required
• Better surface finish
• Superior dimensional control
• Higher forces are required
• Heavier and more powerful equipment and
stronger tooling are required
ADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

1. In cold working processes, smooth surface finish can be
easily produced.
2. Accurate dimensions of parts can be maintained.
3. Strength and hardness of the metal are increased but
ductility decreased.
4. Since the working is done in cold state, no oxide would form
on the surface and consequently good surface finish is
obtained.
5. Cold working increases the strength and hardness of the
material due to the strain hardening which would be
beneficial in some situations.
6. There is no possibility of decarburization of the surface
7. Better dimensional accuracy is achieved.
8. It is far easier to handle cold parts and it is also economical
for smaller sizes.
DISADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

1. Some materials, which are brittle, cannot be cold worked
easily.
2. Since the material has higher yield strength at lower
temperatures, the amount of deformation that can be
given to is limited by the capability of the presses or
hammers used.
3. A distortion of the grain structure is created.
4. Since the material gets strain hardened, the maximum
amount of deformation that can be given is limited. Any
further deformation can be given after annealing.
5. Internal stresses are set up which remain in the metal
unless they are removed by proper heat-treatment.
Open die forging:

• In this, the work piece is compressed between two platens.
• There is no constraint to material flow in lateral direction.
• Upsetting is an open die forging in which the billet is
subjected to lateral flow by the flat die and punch
Closed die forging process

• It is also known as impression die forging.
• Impressions are made in a pair of dies.
• These impressions are transferred to the work piece during
deformation.
• A small gap between the dies called flash gutter is provided
so that the excess metal can flow into the gutter and form a
flash.
Classification of Forging processes based on mode of

application of compressive force
Hand forging
• Hand forging is performed in the black smithy shop.
• The job is heated at the forging temperature in hearth
and it is then brought on anvil using tong.
• It is then forged using hand hammers and other hand
forging tools for imparting specific shape.
Drop forging
• Drop forging is a forging process

where a hammer is raised and then
"dropped" onto the workpiece to
deform it according to the shape of
the die.
• There are two types of drop
forging: open-die drop forging and
closed-die drop forging.
• As the names imply, the difference
is in the shape of the die, with the
former not fully enclosing the
workpiece, while the latter does.
Drop
forging
Press forging
• Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous
pressure or force, which differs from the near-
instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging.
• The amount of time the dies are in contact with the

workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the
milliseconds of drop-hammer forges).
• The press forging operation can be done either cold or

hot.
Press
forging
Upset forging
• Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by
compressing its length.
• Upset forging is usually done in special high-speed
machines called crank presses, but upsetting can also be
done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic press.
• A few examples of common parts produced using the
upset forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts,
screws, and other fasteners.
Sheet Metal Working (Press working)

• Sheet metals are widely used for industrial and
consumer parts because of its capacity for being bent
and formed into intricate shapes.
• Sheet metal parts comprise a large fraction of
automotive, agricultural machinery, and aircraft
components as well as consumer appliances.
• A numbers of sheet metal forming processes such as
shearing, bending, stretch forming, deep drawing,
stretch drawing, press forming, hydroforming etc. are
available till date.
• Each process is used for specific purpose and the
requisite shape of the final product.
• A set of dies is the required tooling for working with the
presses. A die set consists essentially of three parts:
(i) a punch (male tool),
(ii) a die (a female tool) and
(iii) stripper plate.
• The punch is fixed or bolted to the ram and the die is
fixed on the machine bed in such a manner that the
two are in perfect alignment.
• When the punch along with the ram of the press moves
downwards, the punch passes centrally through the
die.
Sheet metal
Sheet metal
shearing or
Sheet Metal forming process
cutting process
Drawing Deep Piercing

drawing process
Punching
Bending
Blanking
Forming Perforating
Slitting
coining
Lancing
Embossing Notching
Sheet metal shearing or cutting

• Piercing process
• The operation of producing a hole of any desired shape in
a metal sheet by using a punch and a die
In Piercing the metal sheet

with the hole is the
required component while
the material punched out
to form the hole is the
west portion
• Punching
Punching is the
operation in which the
desired part is the sheet
left out after making a
punch hole or contour
shearing.
• Blanking
• It is a kind of shearing operation, carried out along a closed
contour.
• The desirable part in this operation is the metal inside the
sheared contour, called blank.
Example is making
circular blanks out of
sheets for
subsequent deep
drawing of cups.
Punching
Main uses: cutting holes in sheets; cutting sheet to required shape
typical punched part

Perforating
• Is the operation of producing a

number of evenly spaced holes in
the metal sheet by using a punch
and die
Slitting
• Is the operation of cutting a metal sheet in a
straight line along the length
Lancing
• Is the operation of cutting a part of metal sheet through
some portion of its length & then bending the cut portion.
Lancing
Notching
• Is the operation of removal of a small part of metal sheet of
the desired shape from the edge of the metal sheet.
Sheet metal forming process

• Drawing and Deep Drawing
punch blank holder punch punch
blank punch
part
die die die die die
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Examples of deep drawn parts

• In deep drawing process, we start with a flat
metal plate or sheet and convert it into cup-
shape by pressing the sheet in the centre with a
circular punch fitting into a cup shaped die.
• If the depth of cup is more than half its
diameter, the process is termed as deep
drawing and with a lesser depth to diameter
ratio, it is called shallow drawing.
Types of Bending
1. V-Bending
2. U-Bending
Bending
3. Edge (warp)Bending
4. Angle Bending
5. Curling
• Bending
• Bending means deforming a flat sheet along a straight

line to form the required angle. Various sections like
angles, channels etc., are formed by bending, which
may then be used for fabrication of steel structures.
• V-Bending
• A wedge shaped punch forces the metal sheet into a
wedge shaped die. The bent angle may be acute, 90° or
obtuse
• U-Bending
• U-bending or channel bending process
Edge Bending
The metal sheet is held, like a cantilever
beam, on a die with the help of a blank
holder. The flat punch forces the
overhanging portion of the metal sheet
against the vertical face of the die
Angle Bending
The metal sheet is bent to a sharp angle
Curling
An edge of a circular cross-section is
formed along a sheet or at the end of a
tube. It is used in the manufacturing of
vessels, pan, pots, etc.
Typical bending operations and shapes
(a)
(b)
Forming
• Is a process of shaping a flat metal sheet into a
surface of desired profile
• Forming process the shape of punch and die
surface is directly reproduced. There is a little
metal flow
COINING AND EMBOSSING

• Both coining and embossing operations are done ‘cold’ and
mechanical presses with punch and die are used for these
operations.
• In embossing, impressions are made on sheet metal in such
a manner that the thickness of the sheet remains uniform
all over even after embossing has been done.
• It means that if one side of the sheet is raised to form a
design, there is a corresponding depression on the other
side of the sheet.
COINING AND EMBOSSING

Wire Drawing
• Wire drawing is a simple process. In this process, rods
made of steel or non ferrous metals and alloys are pulled
through conical dies having a hole in the centre.
• The included angle of the cone is kept between 8 to 24°.
• As the material is pulled through the cone, it undergoes
plastic deformation and it gradually undergoes a reduction
in its diameter. At the sametime, the length is increased
proportionately.
Metal Joining Processes

• Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar
metals by fusion.
• It joins different metals/alloys, with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat.
• The heat may be generated either from combustion of
gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical
reaction.
• During some type of welding processes,
pressure may also be employed, but this is
not an essential requirement for all
welding processes.
Lap weld joint weld joint

• Single-Lap Joint
• This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is
not recommended for most work. The single lap has very
little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily
for joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
• Double-Lap Joint
• This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the
disadvantage that it requires twice as much welding.
• Tee Fillet Weld
• This type of joint, although widely used, should not be
employed if an alternative design is possible.
Butt weld joint
• Single-Vee Butt Weld
• It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the
vee depends upon the technique being used, the plates
being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
• Double-Vee Butt Weld
• It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding
can be performed on both sides of the plate. The top vee
angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle is 80°,
depending on the technique being used.
weld joint
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
1. Welding is more economical and is much faster process as
compared to other processes (riveting, bolting, casting etc.)
2. Welding, if properly controlled results permanent joints
having strength equal or sometimes more than base metal.
3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and
dissimilar can be joined by welding.
4. General welding equipment is not very costly.
5. Portable welding equipments can be easily made available.
6. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
7. Welding can join welding jobs through spots, as continuous
pressure tight seams, end-to-end and in a number of other
configurations.
8. Welding can also be mechanized.
DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING
1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the
workpieces.
2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.
3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and
spatter.
4. Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and position
the parts to be welded
5. Edges preparation of the welding jobs are required before
welding
6. Skilled welder is required for production of good welding
7. Heat during welding produces metallurgical changes as
the structure of the welded joint is not same as that of the
parent metal.
Applications of welding
 The welding is widely used for fabrication of pressure vessels,
bridges, building structures, aircraft and space crafts, railway
coaches and general applications besides shipbuilding, automobile,
electrical, electronic and defense industries, laying of pipe lines and
railway tracks and nuclear installations.
 Specific components need welding for fabrication includes
1. Transport tankers for transporting oil, water, milk etc.
2. Welding of tubes and pipes, chains, LPG cylinders and other
items.
3. Fabrication of Steel furniture, gates, doors and door frames, and
body
4. Manufacturing white goods such as refrigerators, washing
machines, microwave ovens and many other items of general
applications
Basic Welding classification

1. Fusion welding, which involves heating the ends of metal
pieces to be joined to a temperature high enough to cause
them to melt or fuse and then allowing the joint to cool.
This process is somewhat similar to casting process. The
joint, after the fused metal has solidified will result in a
strong joint.
2. Pressure welding, which involves heating the ends of metal
pieces to be joined to a high temperature, but lower than
their melting point and then keeping the metal pieces
joined together under pressure for sometime. This results
in the pieces welding together to produce a strong joint.
Fusion (Non-pressure) welding

• Electric Arc
• Gas Welding
Electric Arc
• The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a
workpiece or between two electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is
called an arc welding process.
1. Carbon Arc Welding
2. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
3. Flux Cored Arc Welding
4. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
5. Gas Metal Arc Welding
6. Plasma Arc Welding
7. Atomic Hydrogen Welding
8. Electroslag Welding
9. Stud Arc Welding
10. Electrogas Welding
Specification
• Either A.C. or D.C. power supply may be used
for arc welding. For A.C., a transformer type
machine is used to supply current. For A.C., an
open circuit voltage of about 75–80 V is
required.
• The current requirement is however very
heavy and the welding machine should be
capable of delivering 100–300 Amperes.
Principle of
arc welding
Arc welding:
(a)overall process
welding area enlarged.

Process
• arc welding (AW) is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them with an
arc established between a sticklike covered electrode and the metals, as shown in
Fig. It is often called stick welding.
• The electrode holder is connected through a welding cable to one terminal of the
power source and the workpiece is connected through a second cable to the other
terminal of the power source.
• The core of the covered electrode, the core wire, conducts the electric current to
the arc and provides filler metal for the joint. For electrical contact, the top 1.5 cm
of the core wire is bare and held by the electrode holder.
• The electrode holder is essentially a metal clamp with an electrically insulated
outside shell for the welder to hold safely.
• The heat of the arc causes both the core wire and the flux covering at the
electrode tip to melt off as droplets .
• The molten metal collects in the weld pool and solidifies into the weld metal.
• The lighter molten flux, on the other hand, floats on the pool surface and solidifies
into a slag layer at the top of the weld metal.
• Advantages
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) can be carried out in

any position with highest weld quality.
2. MMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
3. Process finds innumerable applications, because of the
availability of a wide variety of electrodes.
4. Big range of metals and their alloys can be welded easily.
5. Joints (e.g., between nozzles and shell in a pressure vessel)
which because of their position are difficult to be welded
by automatic welding machines can be easily accomplished
by flux shielded metal arc welding.
6. The MMAW welding equipment is portable and the cost is
fairly low.
• Limitations
1. Due to flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag
entrapment and other related defects are more as
compared to MIG and TIG welding.
2. Due to limited length of each electrode and brittle flux
coating on it, mechanization is difficult.
3. In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one
electrode finishes, the weld is to be progressed with the
next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect (like slag
inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place
where welding is restarted with the new electrode
4. The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as
compared to MIG welding.
• Applications
1. Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their
alloys can be welded by this process.
2. Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication
process and for maintenance and repair jobs.
3. The process finds applications in
(a) Building and Bridge construction
(b) Automotive and aircraft industry, etc.
(c) Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrication
(d) Ship building
(e) Pipes and
(f) Penstock joining
Types of Electric Arc welding

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• Gas Tungusten Arc Welding (GTAW) or
Tungusten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
• Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal
Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
• Carbon Arc Welding
Gas Tungusten Arc Welding (GTAW) or

Tungusten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
• In this process a non-

consumable tungsten
electrode is used with an
envelope of inert shielding
gas around it.
• The shielding gas protects
the tungsten electrode and
the molten metal weld pool
from the atmospheric
contamination.
• The shielding gases
generally used are argon,
helium or their mixtures.
The TIG welding helps fusion welding of Aluminum & it’s alloys,
stainless steel, magnesium alloys, Ni alloys, Cu alloys.
Also used for combining dissimilar metals.
Not suitable for plates having thickness above 6.4 mm where
MIG welding is suitable.
AC or DC machines. Current from 3A to 250 A.
Advantages
1. High quality welds in nonferrous metals
2. Practically no welding cleaning necessary.
3. The arc & weld pool are clearly visible to
operators.
Disadvantages
1. The deposition rate in GTAW is low.
2. Excessive welding currents can cause melting
of the tungsten electrode and results in
brittle tungsten inclusions in the weld metal.
Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
• Gas–metal arc welding (GMAW) is a process that
melts and joins metals by heating them with an
arc established between a continuously fed filler
wire electrode and the metals, as shown in
Figure.
• Shielding of the arc and the molten weld pool is
often obtained by using inert gases such as argon
and helium, and this is why GMAW is also called
the metal–inert gas (MIG) welding process.
• Since non-inert gases, particularly CO2, are also
used, GMAW seems a more appropriate name.
Gas–metal arc
welding:
(a)overall process;
(b) welding area

enlarged.
Advantages –
1. No flux required
2. High welding speed
3. Increases corrosion resistance.
4. Easily automated welding.
5. Welds all metals including stainless steel & aluminum.
Disadvantages
1. GMAW guns can be bulky and difficult-to-reach small
areas or corners.
Gas Welding
• Gas welding is a welding process that
melts and joins metals by heating
them with a flame caused by the
reaction between a fuel gas and
oxygen.
• Oxyacetylene welding (OAW), shown
in Figure, is the most commonly used
gas welding process because of its high
flame temperature.
• A flux may be used to deoxidize and
cleanse the weld metal.
• The flux melts, solidifies, and forms a
slag skin on the resultant weld metal.
Oxyacetylene (Gas)
welding:
(a) overall process;
(b) welding area

enlarged
RESISTANCE WELDING
• In electric resistance welding (ERW) methods, a high
current is passed through the metal pieces to be joined
together and the heat is produced due to the resistance in
the electric circuit.
• This heat energy is utilized to increase the temperature of a
localised spot of the work pieces to produce coalescence,
and then applying pressure at this spot till welding takes
place.
• Electric resistance welding process is a pressure welding
process and not a fusion welding process.
• The following ERW processes are in vogue:

1. Spot welding process,
2. Seam welding process,
3. Butt welding process, and
4. Flash butt welding process.
Spot welding process

Seam welding
process
Butt welding process

Flash butt welding process

• Welding and its comparison with other manufacturing processes

Residual stresses are induced in welded components (development of
tensile residual stresses adversely affects the tensile and fatigue
properties of work piece)
Simple shape components to be joined are partially melted
Temperature of the base metal during welding in and around the weld
varies as function of time (weld thermal cycle)
Chemical, metallurgical and mechanical properties of the weld are
generally anisotropic
Reliability of weld joint is poor.
Little amount of metal is wasted in the form of spatter, run in and run
off
Process capabilities of the welding in terms of dimensional accuracy,
precision and finish are poor.
Weld joints for critical applications generally need post weld treatment
such as heat treatment or mechanical working to get desired
properties or reline residual stress.
• Welding processes with their field of applications are

given below:
Resistance welding: Automobile
Tungsten inert gas welding: Aerospace and nuclear
reactors
Gas metal arc welding: Joining of metals (stainless steel,
aluminium and magnesium) sensitive to atmospheric
gases
SOLDERING AND BRAZING

• Soldering and brazing are allied joining processes. The main
difference between welding on one hand and soldering and
brazing on the other is that, in either soldering or in brazing
process, the temperatures used are not high enough to
cause melting of parent metals to be joined.
• The difference in soldering and brazing is again based on
temperature considerations.
• In soldering temperatures up to 427°C are used and in
brazing process, temperatures above 427°C are employed.
• Strengthwise soldered joints are weakest, while welded
joints are strongest. Brazing produces joints with
intermediate strength
SOLDERING PROCESS
• Soldering is a process of joining two metal pieces by means of a low
temperature fusible alloy called solder applied in molten state.
• Solders are alloys of low melting point metals like lead, tin,
cadmium and zinc. Of these tin-lead alloys are most common and
are called soft-solders.
• A combination of 62% lead and 38% tin produces the lowest
melting point and is called 60–40 solder.
• This corresponds to the eutectic composition of Pb–Sn series and
has a fixed m.p. of 183°C.
• Increasing tin content produces better wetting and flow qualities.
• Hard solders are also available and have higher melting points.
Before applying solder, the surfaces to be joined are cleaned and a
flux like ammonium chloride is used.
• Then the solder is melted and spread upon one surface, while the
other surface is applied to it under pressure.
• When the solder solidifies, the two pieces get joined.
• The process of soldering does not call for any joint preparation.
• A common example of soldering can be seen in joining electrical
wires of P.C.B. circuits.
BRAZING PROCESS
• Brazing is a process of joining metals with a non-ferrous filler material.
• The filler material has a melting point above 427°C but below the melting
point of the parent metals to be joined.
• The filler material is called “spelter” in case of brazing and it must wet the
surfaces to be joined.
• In brazing, the joint has to be carefully designed and joint prepared with
due care. When spelter is molten, it flows into the joint clearances by
capillary action and fills up all vacant spaces.
• Since higher temperatures are involved in brazing, a light alloying action at
the surface layers of parent metal takes place. This lends considerable
strength to the brazed joints.
• Brazing may be done with the help of oxyacetylene brazing torch, or the
heat may be produced by induction/eddy currents. Sometimes electric
furnaces are also used.
• Common brazing filler materials are silver, copper, copper-zinc, copper
phosphorous, aluminium silicon and copper-gold alloys.
• These alloys are available as wires, rods, preformed rings and in powder
form. Brazing temperatures usually range from 427°–1200°C.
• Fluxes commonly used are borax, flourides and chlorides of potassium,
sodium and lithium. Most common example of brazing can be seen in
brazing of H.S.S. and tungsten carbide tipped tools.

Unit 3 Manufacturing Processes

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Unit 3 Manufacturing Processes

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Manufacturing Processes Basic Mechanical Engineering

Sheet metal processing

Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over

Refractory mold  pour liquid metal  solidify, remove  finish

• VERSATILE: complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow sections

• VERSATILE: small (~10 grams)  very large parts (~1000 Kg)

• ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used)

• ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all directions

Sand Casting Plant Layout

Hot Forging Process Cold Forging Process

Open Die Forging Closed Die Forging

Hand Forging Drop Forging Press Forging Machine or Upset

MERITS OF HOT WORKING

MERITS OF HOT WORKING

DEMERITS OF HOT WORKING

ADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

DISADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

Open die forging:

Closed die forging process

Classification of Forging processes based on mode of

• Drop forging is a forging process

• The amount of time the dies are in contact with the

• The press forging operation can be done either cold or

Sheet Metal Working (Press working)

Drawing Deep Piercing

Sheet metal shearing or cutting

In Piercing the metal sheet

typical punched part

• Is the operation of producing a

Sheet metal forming process

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Examples of deep drawn parts

• Bending means deforming a flat sheet along a straight

Typical bending operations and shapes

COINING AND EMBOSSING

COINING AND EMBOSSING

Metal Joining Processes

Lap weld joint weld joint

Basic Welding classification

Fusion (Non-pressure) welding

welding area enlarged.

1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) can be carried out in

Types of Electric Arc welding

Gas Tungusten Arc Welding (GTAW) or

• In this process a non-

Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or

(b) welding area

(b) welding area

• The following ERW processes are in vogue:

Spot welding process

Butt welding process

Flash butt welding process

• Welding and its comparison with other manufacturing processes

• Welding processes with their field of applications are

SOLDERING AND BRAZING

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