pOWER sYSTEM NOTE

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Theory
&
Objective
Covers ESE, GATE, IAS, State PCS, BSNL(JTO), DRDO, ISRO, and Other PSUs Exams.
Covers all topics of GATE & ESE objective & conventional papers.
Covers complete syllabus of GATE & ESE examination.
Highlights all major focus topics.
With complete theory & practice sheet, along with their detailed solutions.
CONTENTS
S.No. Topic Page No.
1. Modelling of Transmission Line .......................................................................... 1 – 57
Objective Sheet ................................................................................................... 58 – 64
2. Line Parameters ................................................................................................. 65 – 96
3. Symmetrical Fault Analysis.............................................................................. 97 – 162
Objective Sheet ............................................................................................... 163 – 173
4. Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis ....................................................................... 174 – 195
5. Load Flow Analysis ........................................................................................ 196 – 218
Objective Sheet ............................................................................................... 219 – 221
6. Power System Stability .................................................................................. 222 – 244
Objective Sheet ............................................................................................... 245 – 250
7. Power System Protection .............................................................................. 251 – 285
Objective Sheet ............................................................................................... 286 – 290
8. Economic Operation of Power System ......................................................... 291 – 307
Objective Sheet ............................................................................................... 308 – 313
9. HVDC ............................................................................................................... 314 – 327
10. Circuit Breakers .............................................................................................. 328 – 347
Objective Sheet ............................................................................................... 348 – 349
11. Corona ............................................................................................................ 350 – 359
12. Cable & Insulator ............................................................................................ 360 – 372
13. Smart Grid Concept ........................................................................................ 373 – 379
14. Power Plants ................................................................................................... 380 – 393
Objective Sheet ............................................................................................... 394 – 395
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Power Systems Modelling of Transmission Line 1
MODELLING OF TRANSMISSION LINE

1.1 PARAMETERS PERFORMANCE
A particular conductor of cross-sectional area ‘A’ and length ‘l’ having resistance R.
l
R=
A A I
l
 R=
A 
  Resistivity l
  Conductivity
Whenever a current is passed through a conductor it produces a flux ‘’.
Where,   I
  = LI
So there exists an inductance also

L= ; L  Inductance
I
There is some capacitance exists between two conductors where air behaves as insulator (dielectric). Practically
ideal dielectric can’t exist in nature, so there must be dielectric loss and losses are represented by resistance or
conductance
R L
C G
G  Shunt conductance/leakage
So there are four parameters R, L, C, G in power line. In power line transmitted power is represented in
“MW” and dielectric loss will be in “Watt”. So as compared to power transferred dielectric loss is negligible i.e.
leakage is neglected.
All the transmission line contains resistance and inductance and in between the conductors there is capacitance
and leakage present through out the transmission line. So that R, L, C, G are called as “distributed parameters”.
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
2 Modelling of Transmission Line Electrical Engg.
The capacitances in 3 line
a
Cab
b
Cbc Cca
c
Cao
Cbo Cco
Cao, Cbo, Cco  Capacitance between line and ground

Cab, Cbc, Cca  Capacitance between two lines.
Here capacitance between lines are in delta form and they can be represented as
a
Cab Cca
b c
Cbc
-Y conversion:
a
CaN

CbN CcN
b c
CaN = Capacitance between phase ‘a’ and Neutral.
CbN = Capacitance between phase ‘b’ and Neutral.
CcN = Capacitance between phase ‘c’ and Neutral.
c
Cao CaN
Cbo Cco CbN CcN
Total capacitance between phase ‘a’ and ground

Ca = CaN  Cao
Cb = C bN  C bo
Cc = CcN  Cco
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Ca Cb Cc
1.2 DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER MODEL
Z
R L R L
Z
Y Y
C C
L  Length of the line

Per unit length parameters:
Resistance = R
Inductance = L
Capacitance = C
Total series impedance: Z =  R  j L   l
1 1 1
Total shunt impedance: Zsh = jCl  j 2f Cl  j 2C fl
   
Total shunt admittance: Y = j 2C  fl
If “fl” (f × l) is very small say fl < 4000 Hz km

 Shunt impedance Zsh  very large
 Shunt admittance Y  very small
i.e. effect of shunt capacitance neglected and total series impedance can be represented as concentrated
hence the simplified circuit will be
RT=Rl LT=L×l Z

Where Z is the total series impedance

It is said to be short line model
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Short line model:
(f × l) < 4000 Hz km
+ RT LT +
f  Frequency of line
VS VR
l Length of line
– –
For power line
f = 50 Hz
 f  l < 4000 Hz km
4000
 l< km
50
l < 80 km
Zsh  Neglected
1.2.1 Medium Line Model
If (f × l) is not small say
4000 < f × l < 12000 Hz km
1
Zsh = j 2C fl
  
f × l  Increases
Zsh  Decreases
 Zsh is small but it will not be neglected.
Series impedance Z =  R  j2  f L    l
i.e. series impedance will increases.

Shunt admittance is not very large so leakage current can’t be neglected but it can be assumed to be concentrated
either at the centre of line (i.e. T-model) or equally at the corners of the line (i.e. -model).
1.2.2 Nominal T-Model
ZT ZT
2 2
YT
Nominal -Model:
ZT
ZT ZT
2 2

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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
These two are the medium line models.

For power line frequency f = 50 Hz
 80 km < l < 240 km
1.2.3 Long Line Model
(Exact distributed if fl is large i.e. parameter model)
(f × l) > 12000 Hz km
For power line frequency
f = 50 Hz
l > 240 km
1
If (f × l) is large Zsh = j 2C fl
  
Zsh  Decreases
Series impedance Z =  R  jL  l
Note:
1. Series impedance
Z(Long line) > Z(Medium line) > Z(Short line)
2. Shunt impedance
Zsh(Long line) > Zsh(Medium line) > Zsh(Short line)
Exact distributed parameter model i.e. long line
For communication line if f = 5 MHz (In general communication line is used at high frequencies)
Let f×l1 = 4000 Hz km
4000
 l1 = km
5  106
 l1 = 80 cm
Similarly f×l2 = 12000 Hz km
12000
 l2 = km
5  106
 l2 = 240 cm
If f = 5 MHz
For short line model l < 80 cm
For medium line model 80 cm < l < 240 cm
For long line model l > 240 cm
So for communication line always long line model is used practically
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
1.2.4 Short Line
IS IR
VS VR
3- Line
+ Z +
IS IR  VS VR
Sending Receiving
End End – –
Total series impedance
Z = R  jX L  R  jL
VS  Sending end voltage
VR  Receiving end voltage
IS  Sending end current
IR  Receiving end current
According to the diagram
VS = VR  Z IR ...(i)
and IS = I R ...(ii)
Transmission Parameter VS = AVR  BI R ...(iii)
IS = CVR  DIR ...(iv)

Equation (i) and (ii) also written as
VS = 1 VR  Z  I R
IS = 0  VR  1  I R
When compare with equation (iii) and (iv)
A= D= 1
B= Z
C= 0
 VS   1 Z  VR 
I  =   
 S 0 1   IR 
In case of no load
IR = 0
 VS = V R
i.e. VR(no load)= V S
VR  nl   VR (fl ) VS  VR
Voltage regulation V.R. =  100 =  100
VR (fl ) VR
We know that VS = VR  Z IR
VS = VR  IR  R  j IR  X ...(A)
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
When load is connected

IS Z IR
G VS VR + +
Load
VS VR p.f. cos
– –
(i) (ii)
At lagging power factor cos, receiving end current IR lags VR by angle .
Phasor diagram VS = VR  IR R  j IR X
Step-(i) : Draw VR along X-axis i.e. reference phase
VR
Step-(ii) : IR lags VR by angle.
VR

IR
Step (iii) : Add IR R with VR
VR

IR IRR
Step (iv) : Add j IR X L with IR R
jIRX jIRX
VR

+90º
IR IRR 90º
IRX
VS
jIRX
IRRcos

 VR 
90º
90º–
IR RIR
IRXsin
VScos
As per diagram VS cos = VR  IR R cos   IR Xsin 

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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Due to transient stability criterion the value of ‘’ is small, so that cos   1
 VS = VR  IR  R cos   Xsin  
 VS  VR = IR  R cos   Xsin  
VS  VR IR

VR
= V  R cos   X sin  
R
i.e. at lagging p.f. cos 
IR
Voltage regulation =  R cos   X sin  
VR
At leading power factor cos , i.e. IR leads the voltage VR by an angle .

Phasor Diagram:
Step (i) : Draw VR along X-axis
VR
Step (ii) : IR leads VR by an angle .
IR

VR
Step (iii) : Add RIR with VR
IR IRR
VR
Step (iv) : Add j IRX with RIR
jIRX
90° RIR
VR

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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Step (v) : Final phasor diagram
VS jIRXL
IR 90º
IR R

 VR 
IRRcos
VScos
IRXsin
As per diagram VS cos = VR  IR R cos   IR X L cos 
Due to transient stability criterion the value of  is small. So that cos  = 1.
 VS = VR  IR  R cos   Xsin  
 VS  VR = IR  R cos   Xsin  
VS  VR IR
 =  R cos   X sin  
VR VR
IR
 Voltage Regulation =  R cos   X sin  
VR
For maximum voltage regulation

(It is worst regulation)
dVR
=0
d
At lagging power factor cos
IR d
  R cos   X sin  = 0
VR d
 R sin   X cos  = 0
 X cos  = R sin 
X
 tan  =
R
R X  Where Z  R 2  X 2 
 cos  = ; sin  
Z Z  
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
IR IR  R X
(V.R.)max =  R cos   X sin  =  R X 
VR VR  Z Z
IR  R 2  X 2 
=  
VR  Z 
Z IR
 (V.R.)max =
VR
X
At lagging power factor tan  =
R
IR
At leading power factor cos V.R. =  R cos   X sin 
VR
For zero voltage regulation
IR
 R cos   X sin  =0
VR
R
 tan  =
X
In case of unity power factor
i.e. cos  = 1
i.e. sin  = 0
IR R
Voltage regulation =
VR
Voltage regulation and power factor curve
cos
1
tan = X
R
tan = R
Lead p.f. X
lag p.f.

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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
1.2.5 Medium Line Model

Nominal -model:
IS I Z I IR
+ I2 I1 +
+ +
VS Y VS VR Y VR
Sending Receiving 2 2
end end – – –
–
According to the diagram

Y
I1 = Z and I  I R  I1
Z
VS = VR  IZ
 Y 
 VS = VR  Z  IR  VR 
 2 
 YZ 
 VS =  1   VR  ZIR
 2 
Y
I2 = VS and IS  I  I 2
2
Y
IS = I  VS
2
 Y  Y
 IS =  I R  VR   VS
 Z  2
 Y   Y YZ  
 IS =  I R  VR    1   VR  Z IR 
 2  2  2  
 YZ   YZ 
 IS = Y 1   VR  1  IR
 4   2 
YZ
A = D  1
2
B =Z
 YZ 
C = Y 1 
 4 
Similarly in case of T-model
YZ
A = D  1
2
 YZ 
B = Z 1 
 4 
C =Y
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Example 1 : A 3- 100 kV long line has constants per km per conductors as follows: Resistance = 0.5 , Inductance
= 2 mH and capacitance to neutral is 0.015 F. Calculate the voltage required at generating end in order that a load
of 10 MVA at 0.8 power factor (lag) may be supplied at 120 kV.
Solution :
Length = 100 km (given) ; f = 50 Hz
Total resistance R = 0.5 × 100 = 50 
Total inductance L = 2 × 10–3 × 100 = 0.2 H
Total capacitance C = 0.015 × 10–6 × 100 = 1.5F
Total series impedance
Z = R  jL  50  j  2 50  0.2 ( = 2f )
 Z = 50  j62.83
Z = 80.29 51.5º
Y = jC = j  2  50  1.5  10 = j4.71  10 

6 4
YZ
A = D  1
2
4.71  104 90º 80.2951.5º
= 1 = 0.985 0.68º
2
B = Z  80.2951.5º
 YZ 
C = Y 1  = 4.71  10 4 90º
 4 
 4.71  104 90º  80.29 51.5º 

1  
 4 
= 4.68  104 90.32º
Voltage at receiving end VR  L L  = 120 kV
120
Per phase voltage VR  ph  =  69.3kV
3
 VR = 39.30º 103 V
IR
VS VR
Load S = 10 MVA
p.f. cos  = 0.8 lagging  = 36.9º
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Load S = 3  V ph R  I ph R
10  106
 IR = = 48.1 A
3  69.3  103
As IR lags VR by  = 36.9°
I R = 48.1  36.9º A
Voltage at sending end VS = AVR  B IR
 VS = 0.9850.68º 69.3  103 0º 80.2951.5º 48.1  36.9º
 VS = 72 1.4º kV
VS ph  = 72 kV
 VS L L  = 3  VS ph  = 3  72
= 124.7 kV
To determine:
(i) Sending end power
(ii) Transmission efficiency
(iii) Voltage regulation
IS = C VR  D IR IS
IS = 4.68  10 4 90.32  69.3  103 0º

5.3º VS
0.9850.7  48.1  36.9º 6.7º
1.4º
IS = 38.2546.7º VR
VS = AVR  B IR
IS leads VS by 5.3º
 s = 5.3º
 Sending end power factor = cos
= cos 5.3º
= 0.99 (leading)
3
(i) Sending end power P s = 3  Vs ph   Is ph   cos s = 3  72  10  38.23  0.99
= 8.175 mW
(ii) Receiving end power = SR cos  = 10 × 0.8 = 8 MW
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
PR 8
(iii) Transmission efficiency  = P  8.17  97.9%
S
(iv) At no load IR = 0
Voltage V S = AVR
VS 
 VR =
A 
72 1.4º
or VR  NL  = = 73.46 0.72º
0.9850.68º
VR  VR
V.R. =
NL FL
 100 = 73.46  69.3  100
VR FL 69.3
= 6%
1.2.6 Long Line: (Distributed Parameter Model)
Series impedance per unit length z = r  jL
Shunt admittance per unit length y = g  j C
Sending Receiving IS zdx

I + dI B I IR
end I + dI I end
+ A + dV – + +
+ IS + + IR + dI
VS
VS V+dV V VR ydx V VS
– – – – – – –
x=0 C x=0
x=l x=l
dx x dx x
Let at a distance ‘x’ from receiving end
voltage = V and current = I
Voltage between point A and B = dV
dV =  I  dI  z d x
dV = z Idx  z dI  dx ...(i)
As z dI dx << z I dx
dV = z I dx ...(ii)
dI = Vy dx
dI
 = Vy ...(A)
dx
dI
= zI
dx
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Differentiating w.r.t. x
d  dV   dI 
   = z 
dx  dx   dx 
Now from equation (A)
d2V
 = yzV
dx 2
d2V
  yzV = 0
dx 2
Let yz =  (Constant)
d2V 2
  V =0
dx 2
After solving the equation V = C1e x  C 2e x ...(B)

Where C1, C2 are constants.
1 dV
Now, I = 
z dx
1 d
 I =  Ce e x  C2e x 
z dx
1
 I =   C1e x  C2 e x 
z
 yz y 1
Let =  
z z z Z0
y 1
 = Z
z 0
1 x x
 I = Z C1e  C2 e 
0
At receiving end x =0
V = VR and I  I R
 V R = C1  C 2 ...(iii)
1
I R = Z  C1  C2  ...(iv)
0
From equation (iii) and (iv) C1  C 2 = V R
C1  C 2 = Z0 IR
1
C1 =  VR  Z0 IR 
2
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
1
And C2 =  VR  Z0 IR 
2
Put the value of C1 and C2 in equation (B)
x x
V = C1e  C 2e
1 x 1 x
 V = 2  VR  Z0 I R  e  2  VR  Z0 I R  e
 V = V1  V2
1
V1 =  VR  Z0 IR  ex
2
1
and V2 =  VR  Z0 IR  e x
2
1 R V 
x 1 R V 
x
As I = 2  IR  Z  e  2  IR  Z  e
 0   0 
I = I1  I2
Propagation constant  = yz
 =   j
z
Z0 =  R 0  jX0
y
Where Z0 = characteristic impedance

Or Surge impedance of line
z zT  l ZT
Z0 =  
y yT  l YT
i.e. characteristic impedance doesn’t depend on length of the line.
 VR  Z0 I R  x  VR  Z0 I R  x jx
 V1 = 
2 e =  2 e e
   
Where     j and  = Attenuation constant
and  = Phase constant
VR  Z0 I R x
V1 = e
2
and V1 =  x
If x  increases
 V1  increases
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Graphical Analysis : Direction of propagation of wave
|V1|
x=l x=0
Sending Receiving
end end
Forward travelling wave i.e. from sending to receiving
If it is considered like a wave. Waves which magnitude and phase changes at each and every point. When
wave propagates i.e. wave is moving in a medium, there is a loss of energy. Due to energy loss there is decrement in
magnitude. Here magnitude end so the direction of propagation is from sending end to receiving end. (Here voltage
is in sinusoidal form).
Wave Length : ()  The distance corresponding to a phase change of 2 or 360º, i.e.
After how much distance of travel, wave will be in same phase
 360º 60º 6º 0.6º 0º

Example 2
 
10 km
100 km
1000 km
=6000 km
Where  = 0.06º/km
Solution : i.e. per km change in phase is 0.06º.
 For 2 or 360º change the total distance covered is 6000 km.
i.e.  = 6000 km
i.e.  ×  = 2 (where -rad/km)
Wavelength
2
  =

Similarly for backward travelling wave:
 VR  Z0 I R  x
V2 = 
2 e
 
 VR  Z0 I R  x  jx
V2 = 
2 e  e
 
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
VR  Z0 I R
V2 =  e x Direction of Propagation
2
If x  increases |V2|
 V2  decreases
and V2 = x

VS = Sending end voltage x=l x=0
VR = Receiving end voltage
Z0 = Characteristic impedance of line VS VR
Z0
ZL = Load impedance
IR
if Z0 = ZL then
ZL
ZL = surge impedance loading (SIL)
and V R = Z L I R  Z0 I R
 e x  e x   e x  ex 
V and I can also be written as V
V = R   Z I
0 R  
 2   2 
VR  e x  e x   e x  e x 
and I =  
 RI 
Z0  2   2 
i.e. V = VR cosh x  Z0 IR sinh x
VR
I = Z sinh x  IR cosh x
0
At sending end x = l
 VS = VR cosh l  Z0 I R sinh l
VR
and IS = V sinh l  I r cosh l
0
Now compare with ABCD parameter

A = D  cosh l
B = Z0 sinh l
1
C = Z sinh l
0
 =   j  yz
Where, y = g  jC and z = r  jL

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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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MODELLING OF TRANSMISSION LINE

Cao, Cbo, Cco  Capacitance between line and ground

Total capacitance between phase ‘a’ and ground

1.2 DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER MODEL

L  Length of the line

Total series impedance: Z =  R  j L   l

If “fl” (f × l) is very small say fl < 4000 Hz km

Where Z is the total series impedance

Series impedance Z =  R  j2  f L    l

i.e. series impedance will increases.

# 40-Kailashpuri, Near Khandaka Hospital # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya,

These two are the medium line models.

Series impedance Z =  R  jL  l

Total series impedance

Transmission Parameter VS = AVR  BI R ...(iii)

IS = CVR  DIR ...(iv)

When load is connected

Step (iii) : Add IR R with VR

Step (iv) : Add j IR X L with IR R

As per diagram VS cos = VR  IR R cos   IR Xsin 

i.e. at lagging p.f. cos 

At leading power factor cos , i.e. IR leads the voltage VR by an angle .

Step (iii) : Add RIR with VR

Step (iv) : Add j IRX with RIR

# 40-Kailashpuri, Near Khandaka Hospital # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya,

Step (v) : Final phasor diagram

As per diagram VS cos = VR  IR R cos   IR X L cos 

Due to transient stability criterion the value of  is small. So that cos  = 1.

For maximum voltage regulation

At lagging power factor cos

For zero voltage regulation

Voltage regulation and power factor curve

# 40-Kailashpuri, Near Khandaka Hospital # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya,

1.2.5 Medium Line Model

According to the diagram

Y = jC = j  2  50  1.5  10 = j4.71  10 

 4.71  104 90º  80.29 51.5º 

Voltage at receiving end VR  L L  = 120 kV

Voltage at sending end VS = AVR  B IR

 VS = 0.9850.68º 69.3  103 0º 80.2951.5º 48.1  36.9º

IS = 4.68  10 4 90.32  69.3  103 0º

Shunt admittance per unit length y = g  j C

Sending Receiving IS zdx

After solving the equation V = C1e x  C 2e x ...(B)

From equation (iii) and (iv) C1  C 2 = V R

Where Z0 = characteristic impedance

Graphical Analysis : Direction of propagation of wave

 360º 60º 6º 0.6º 0º

Similarly for backward travelling wave:

and V2 = x

i.e. V = VR cosh x  Z0 IR sinh x

Now compare with ABCD parameter

Where, y = g  jC and z = r  jL

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