Physics Lab Manual PDF

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB MANUAL Dept of BH&S
EXPERIMENT-1
DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM
AIM: To determine the dispersive power of a material of prism using Spectrometer
APPARATUS: Spectrometer, Prism, Mercury Vapor Lamp etc.
FORMULA: The dispersive power of the prism is given by
b   g
w
 av  1
b   g
Where, av 
2
 A  DB 
sin  
b   2 
 A
sin  
2
 A  Dg 
sin  
G   2 
 A
sin  
 2
A = angle of the prism
Dg = angle of minimum deviation for green colour
Db = angle of minimum deviation for blue colour
THEORY:
A spectrometer is used to measure the necessary angles. The spectrometer consists of

three units: (1) collimator, (2) telescope, and (3) prism table. The prism table, its base and
telescope can be independently moved around their common vertical axis. A circular angular
scale enables one to read angular displacements (together with two verniers located
diametrically opposite to each other).
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SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, PUTTUR Prepared by P G LOGAN
In the experiment, we need to produce a parallel beam of rays to be incident on the

prism. This is done with the help of a collimator. The collimator has an adjustable rectangular
slit at one end and a convex lens at the other end. When the illuminated slit is located at the
focus of the lens (See Fig. 1), a parallel beam of rays emerges from the collimator. We can
test this point, with the help of a telescope adjusted to receive parallel rays. We first prepare
the telescope towards this purpose as follows:
Setting the eyepiece:
Focus the eyepiece of the telescope on its cross wires (for viewing the cross wires
against a white background such as a wall) such that a distinct image of the crosswire is seen
by you. In this context, remember that the human eye has an average “least distance of
distinct vision” of about 25 cm. When you have completed the above eyepiece adjustment,
you have apparently got the image of the crosswire located at a distance comfortable for your
eyes. Henceforth do not disturb the eyepiece.
Setting the Telescope:

Focus the telescope onto a distant (infinity!) object. Focusing is done by changing the
separation between the objective and the eyepiece of the telescope. Test for the absence of a
parallax between the image of the distant object and the vertical crosswire. Parallax effect
(i.e. separation of two things when you move your head across horizontally) exits, if the
cross-wire and the image of the distant object are not at the same distance from your eyes.
Now the telescope is adjusted for receiving parallel rays. Henceforth do not disturb the
telescope focusing adjustment.
Setting the Collimator:

Use the telescope for viewing the illuminated slit through the collimator and adjust the
collimator (changing the separation between its lens and slit) till the image of the slit is
brought to the plane of cross wires as judged by the absence of parallax between the image of
the slit and cross wires.
2
Optical leveling of the Prism:

The prism table would have been nearly leveled before uses have started the
experiment. However, for your experiment, you need to do a bit of leveling using reflected
rays. For this purpose, place the table with one apex at the center and facing the collimator,
with the ground (non-transparent) face perpendicular to the collimator axis and away from
collimator. Slightly adjust the prism so that the beam of light from the collimator falls on the
two reflecting faces symmetrically (Fig. 2) when you have achieved this lock the prism table
in this position. Turn the telescope to one side so as to receive the reflected image of the slit
centrally into the field of view. This may be achieved by using one of the leveling screws.
The image must be central whichever face is used as the reflecting face. Similarly, repeat this
procedure for the other side.
Finding angle of minimum deviation (Dm)
Unlock the prism table for the measurement of the angle of minimum deviation ( D m).
Locate the image of the slit after refraction through the prism as shown in Fig. 3. Keeping the
image always in the field of view, rotate the prism table till the position where the deviation
of the image of the slit is smallest.
At this position, the image will go backward, even when you keep rotating the prism
table in the same direction. Lock both the telescope and the prism table and to use the fine
adjustment screw for finer settings. Note the angular position of the prism.
In this position the prism is set for minimum deviation. Without disturbing the prism
table, remove the prism and turn the telescope (now unlock it) towards the direct rays from
the collimator. Note the scale reading of this position. The angle of the minimum angular
deviation, viz, Dm is the difference between the readings for these last two settings.
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OBSERVATION TABLES:
For angle of the prism 2A=1200
A=600
For angle of minimum deviation:

Colour Vernier A Vernier B Avg D
of the
spectrum
Direct Minimum Dm = Direct Minimum D m = (R-D) m
Reading Deviation(D) (R-D) Reading(R) Deviation(
(R) D)
Dispersive power ( w ):- Angular rotation for a given wavelength is called dispersive power
of the material of a prism
 A  DB   A  Dg 
sin   sin  
Readings:-  b   2  , G   2 
 A  A
sin   sin  
2  2
b   g b   g
 w Where av 
 av  1 2
PRECAUTION:
1. Take the readings without any parallax errors
2. The focus should be at the edge of green and blue rays
RESULT: - The dispersive power of a material of prism using spectrometer is
w=
4
EXPERIMENT-2
NEWTON’S RINGS
AIM: To observe Newton rings formed by the interface of produced by a thin air film and to
determine the radius of curvature of a Plano-convex lens.
APPARATUS: Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, Plano-convex lens, plane glass
plate, magnifying lens.
FORMULA: The radius of curvature of a convex lens is given by
R= (D2 m-p –D2m ) / 4pλ
Where,
D = diameter of the fringe in m
λ = wavelength of a given monochromatic light
m & p = order of the fringe
THEORY:
The phenomenon of Newton’s rings is an illustration of the interference of light waves
reflected from the opposite surfaces of a thin film of variable thickness. The two interfering
beams, derived from a monochromatic source satisfy the coherence condition for interference.
Ring shaped fringes are produced by the air film existing between a convex surface of a long
focus Plano-convex lens and a plane of glass plate.
When a Plano-convex lens (L) of long focal length is placed on a plane glass plate (G) ,
a thin film of air I enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and upper surface of the
glass plate.(see fig 1). The thickness of the air film is very small at the point of contact and
gradually increases from the center outwards. The fringes produced are concentric circles.
With monochromatic light, bright and dark circular fringes are produced in the air film. When
viewed with the white light, the fringes are coloured.
A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate B at an angle of 450. The plate B
reflects a part of incident light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and plate G. The
reflected beam (see fig 1) from the air film is viewed with a microscope. Interference takes
place and dark and bright circular fringes are produced. This is due to the interference
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between the light reflected at the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the plate
G.
For the normal incidence the optical path difference Between\ the two waves is nearly
2µt, where µ is the refractive index of the film and t is the thickness of the air film. Here an
extra phase difference π occurs for the ray which got reflected from upper surface of the plate
G because the incident beam in this reflection goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium.
Thus the conditions for constructive and destructive interference are (using µ = 1 for air)
2t=n for minima; n = 0, 1, 2, 3… … … … (1)

1
and 2t   n    for maxima; ; m = 0,1,2,3… … …(2)
 2
Then the air film enclosed between the spherical surfaces

Of R and a plane surface glass plate, gives circular rings
Such that (see fig 2)
rn2 = (2R-t) t
Where rn is the radius of the nth order dark ring. Fig.2
th
(Note: The dark ring is the n dark ring excluding the central dark spot).
Now R is the order of 100 cm and t is at most 1 cm. Therefore R>>t. Hence (neglecting the t2
term), giving
rn2
2t 
R
6
rn2
Putting the value of “2 t” in eq (1) gives 2 
R
With the help of a traveling microscope we can measure the diameter of the mth ring order
Dm
dark ring = Dn Then rn  and hence,
2
Dn2 1
R
n 4
For diameter of the m+ p th ring
R = D2 (m+p) / 4(m+p) λ
Thus,
R= (D2 m-p –D2m ) / 4pλ
So if we know the wave length  , we can calculate R (radius of curvature of the lens).
PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the plate G and lens L thoroughly and put the lens over the plate with the curved
surface below B making angle with G (see fig 1)
2. Switch in the monochromatic light source. This sends a parallel beam of light. This beam
of light gets reflected by plate B falls on lens L.
3. Look down vertically from above the lens and see whether the center is well illuminated.
On looking through the microscope, a spot with rings around it can be seen on properly
focusing the microscope.
4. Once good rings are in focus, rotate the eyepiece such that out of the two perpendicular
cross wires, one has its length parallel to the direction of travel of the microscope. Let
this cross wire also passes through the center of the ring system.
5. Now move the microscope to focus on a ring (say, the 20th order dark ring). On one side
of the center. Set the crosswire tangential to one ring as shown in fig 3. Note down the
microscope reading.
6. Move the microscope to make the crosswire tangential to the next ring nearer to the
center and note the reading. Continue with this purpose till you pass through the center.
Take readings for an equal number of rings on the both sides of the center.
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fig 3(Make fig sure that you correctly read the least count of the vernier in mm units)
OBSERVATION:
1. Least count of vernier of traveling microscope = ___________________m
2. Wave length of light = _______________________ m
Table 1: Measurement of diameter of the ring
S.No Order of Microscope reading Diameter (D2 m-p –D2m )

the ring Left side Right side
(n) MS VS Net(m) MS VS Net(m) D(m) D2
(m2)
1 20
2 18
3 16
4 14
5 12
6 10
7 8
8 6
9 4
10 2
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PRECATUION:
Notice that as you go away from the central dark spot the fringe width decreases. In order to
minimize the errors in measurement of the diameter of the rings the following precautions
should be taken:
(i) The microscope should be parallel to the edge of the glass plate.
(ii) If you place the cross wire tangential to the outer side of a perpendicular ring on
one side of the central spot then the cross wire should be placed tangential to the inner
side of the same ring on the other side of the central spot.(See fig 3)
(iii) The traveling microscope should move only in one direction.
RESULT:
The radius of curvature of a given planoconvex lens is = m
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EXPERIMENT-3
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL (STEWART
GEE’S METHOD)
AIM: To measure the magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil and verify Bio-
Stavart law
APPARATUS: Circular coil, Power supply, Switching keys, Magnetic needle, Sliding
compass box etc.
FORMULA: The earth’s magnetic field intensity is given by
0 nIR 2 1
B( x) 
2 ( R2  x2 ) 3/2
µ = permeability of the free space
n = number of turns
I = current given to the coil in A
R = radius of the coil in m
X = distance between the center and the magnetometer in m
THEORY:
For a circular coil of a turns, carrying a current I, the magnetic field at a distance x
from the coil and along the axis of the coil is given by
0 nIR 2 1
B( x) 
2 ( R2  x2 ) 3/2
Where R is the radius of the coil. In this experiment, the coil is oriented such that plane of the
coil is vertical and parallel to the north-south direction. The axis of the coil is parallel to the
east-west direction. The net field at any point x along the axis, is the vector sum of the fields
due to the coil B(x) and earth’s magnetic field BE (Fig 1)
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B(x)
 tan  
BE
PROCEDURE:
The apparatus consists of a coil mounted perpendicular to the base. A sliding compos box is
mounted on aluminum rails so that the compos is always on the axis of the coil.
1. Orient the apparatus such that the coil is in the north-south plane
2. Adjust the leveling screws to make the base horizontal. Make sure that the compos is
moving freely.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
4. Keep the compos at the center of the coil and adjust so that the pointers indicate 0-0
5. Close the keys K and KR (make sure that you are not shorting the power supply) and
adjust the current with rheostat, RH so that the deflection is between 50 to 60 degrees.
The current will be kept fixed at this value for the rest of the experiment
6. Note down the readings 1and 2 . Reverse the current and note down  3and 4
7. Repeat the experiment at intervals of 1 cm along the axis until the value of the fields
drops to 10% of its value at the center of the coil. Repeat on both sides of the coil.
8. Draw following graphs:
.B(x) as a function of x.
. log( B( x)) as a function of log  R 2  X 2 
Find slope and y-intercept from the graph and results with the expression for B(x).
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OBSERVATIONS:
Parameters and constants
Least count for x measurement=
Least count for  measurement=
No of turns of the coil, n=
Radius of the coil, R= 10 cm
Current in the coil, I= …
Permeability of air, 0  4 10 7 N / A2 ,Earth’s magnetic field, BE  .39 10 4 T
TABLE -I
xcm 1 2 3 4  (average) Tan log(tan ) log( R 2  X 2 ) B( x)  LogB

BE tan  (x)
(T )(10 4 )
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TABLE- II
For other side of the scale…………
xcm 1 2 3 4  (average) Tan log(tan ) log( R 2  X 2 ) B( x)  LogB

BE tan  (x)
(T )(10 4 )
CALCULATION:
From the graph of B(x) vs. log (R2+X2), find the slope and intercept from regression analysis.
Slope should be -1.5 according to Bio-Savart law, and intercept value should match with the
value calculated using  o , n, I, and R
RESULT:
Experimental value of exponent (slope) =
Theoretical value of slope= -1.5
Experimental value of intercept=
Theoretical value of intercept=…..
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EXPERIMENT-4
EVALUATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF A GIVEN FIBER
AIM: The aim of the experiment is to determine the numerical aperture of the optical fibers
available
APPARATUS: 1.numerical aperture kit 2. Laser diode.
FORMULA:
NA = SIN α = D/ (4L2+D2) ½
Where D = diameter of the fringe in m
L = distance between the zig and the screen in m
THOERY:
Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be
collected by the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident
medium and the sine of the maximum ray angle.
NA = ni.sinө max; ni for air is 1, hence NA = sinөmax
For a step-index fiber, as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by N=(Ncore2 –
ncladding2)1/2
For very small differences in refractive indices the equation reduces to
NA = n core (2∆)1/2, where ∆ is the fractional difference in refractive indices. I and

record the manufacture’s NA, ncladding and ncore, and ө.
14
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
The schematic diagram of the numerical aperture measurement system is shown below
and is self explanatory.
Step1: Connect one end of the PMMA FO cable to Po of TNS20EL TX Unit and the other
end to the NA Jig, as shown.
Step2: Plug the AC mains. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA Jig. Turn the
Set Po knob clockwise to set to maximum Po. The light intensity should increase.
Step 3: Hold the white scale-screen, provided in the kit vertically at a distance of 15 mm (L)
from the emitting fiber end and view the red spot on the screen. A dark room will facilitate
good contrast. Position the screen-cum-scale to measure the diameter (W) of the spot. Choose
the largest diameter.
Step: 4 Compute NA from the formula NA = sinөmax = W/(4L2 +W2)1/2. Tabulate the reading
and repeat the experiment for 10mm, 20mm, and 25mm distance.
Step5: In case the fiber is under filled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly
distributed. To ensure even distribution of light in the fiber, first remove twists on the fiber
and then wind 5 turns of the fiber on to the mandrel as shown. Use an adhesive tape to hold
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the windings in position. Now view the spot. The intensity will be more evenly distributed
within the core.
OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. No L (mm) W(mm) NA
RESULT: Numerical aperture of the available optical fibers is Determined =
16
EXPERIMENT-5
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF THE LASER SOURCE
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
AIM: To determine the wavelength of the given laser source.
APPARATUS: Laser source, diffraction grating, optical bench, screen, meter scale.
FORMULA: The wavelength of a laser is given by
λ = Sin θ/Nm A0
θ = angle of diffraction in deg
m = order of the diffraction pattern
n = the number of lines meter on the grating
N = 0.0984 × 106
THEORY :
If the waves have the same sign (are in phase), then the two waves constructively
interfere, the net amplitude is large and the light intensity is strong at that point. If they have
opposite signs, however, they are out of phase and the two waves destructively interfere: the
net amplitude is small and the light intensity is weak. It is these areas of strong and weak
intensity, which make up the interference patterns we will observe in this experiment.
Interference can be seen when light from a single source arrives at a point on a viewing
screen by more than one path. Because the number of oscillations of the electric field
(wavelengths) differs for paths of different lengths, the electromagnetic waves can arrive at
the viewing screen with a phase difference between their electromagnetic fields. If the
Electric fields have the same sign then they add constructively and increase the intensity of
light, if the Electric fields have opposite signs they add destructively and the light intensity
decreases.
17
When laser light shines through two closely spaced parallel slits (Figure 2) each slit
produces a diffraction pattern. When these patterns overlap, they also interfere with each
other. We can predict whether the interference will be constructive (a bright spot) or
destructive (a dark spot) by determining the path difference in traveling from each slit to a
given spot on the screen.
Intensity maxima occur when the light arrives

In phase with an integer number of wavelength
Differences for the two paths: dsin = m
Where m = ±0, ±1, ±2 …and the interference
Will be destructive if the path difference is a
Half-integer number of wavelengths so that the
Waves from each slit arrive out of phase with
Opposite signs for the electric field.
 1
d sin    m    Where m = ±0, ±1, ±2 …
 2
Small Angle Approximation: The formulae given above are derived using the small angle
approximation. For small angles  (given in radians) it is a good approximation to say that 
 sin  tan (for  in radians). For the figures shown above this means that   sin  tan =
y
L
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
18
PROCEDURE:
Arrange laser source diffraction grating and screen linearly at the same height on the
optical bench. Keep the distance (D) between the grating and the screen at a fixed value.
Switch on the laser source so that the laser is the incident normally on the surface of the
grating. The laser is the incident normally on the surface of the grating. The laser is gets
diffraction pattern on the screen. We can observe different diffraction orders of bright spots
on the screen on either side of the central maxima. Now measure the distance x value gives
the distance of that particular order of diffraction pattern from the central maxima. The
wavelength of the given laser beam can be determined using formula,
λ =sinθ/Nm A
Where,
θ = Tan -1(d/D)
Repeat the experiment for different values of D and note the corresponding d values
for different diffraction orders and tabulate the readings.
OBSERVATION:
order Distance Distance between the central Tan-1(d/D) λ=sin /N

between the maxima and nth order fringe(d) m
degree
grating and the 10 -2m
× 10 -2 m
screen(D)
10 -2m
Left Right average
19
PRECAUTION:
Look through the slit (holding it very close to your eye). See if you can see the effects
of diffraction. Set the laser on the table and aim it at the viewing screen. DO NOT LOOK
DIRECTLY INTO THE LASER OR AIM IT AT ANYONE! DO NOT LET
REFLECTIONS BOUNCE AROUND THE ROOM.
RESULT:
The wavelength of given laser is determined as = nm
20
EXPERIMENT -6
SONOMETER – TRANSVERSE LAWS

AIM: To verify the Laws of transverse vibration of stretched string by using son meter.
APPARATUS: Sonometer, tuning fork with different frequencies cork hammer, Weight
hanger with suitable hanging weights, physical balance
FORMULA:
FIRST LAW: nl=constant
When T and m are constant
SECOND LAW: √T/l =constant
When n and m are constant
THIRD LAW: l√m=constant
When n and T are constant
Where “n” is the fundamental frequency
“T” is the tension on the string
“m” is the linear density (or) mass per unit volume length of string
“l” is the length vibrating segment of the string
PROCEDURE:
VERIFICATION OF FIRST LAW:

To verify the first law, the string of the sonometer is kept under a suitable tension. A
tunning fork of known frequency (n) is excited and placed on the surface of the sonometer. A
paper rider is placed on the string between the two bridges. The length of the wire is adjusted.
So that the paper rider flutters vigorously and falls down. In this position the frequency of
vibrating segment of the string is measured, keeping the tension as constant and using the
some wire, the experiment is reapeated with different tuning forks. The first law is verified by
showing the nxl is constant.
21
TABLE-1
Tension= Linear density=
Frequency Resonating length of wire 10-2 m nxl
s.no n(Hz) Trial-1 Trial-2 Mean
VERIFICATION OF SECOND LAW:

To verify the second law a tuning fork is taken and the string is kept under suitable
tension (T). the fork is excited and placed on sonometer. The length (l) of the vibrating
segment of the string is found as said above keeping the frequency of tunning fork as constant
and using the same string, the experiment is repeated with different tensions. The second law
is verified by showing the √T\l is constant.
Frequency= Linear density=
Tension T=Mg Resonating length of wire √T/l
S.NO Load (g-wt)

Trail-1 Trail-2 Mean l cm
M(g)
22
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
THIRD VERIFICATION LAW:
To verify the third law a string is kept under suitable tension. A tuning fork is excited
and placed on the sonometer. The length of (l) of the vibrating segment of the string is
determined as said above. A known length of the wire is taken and its mass is found in a
physical balance from which mass per unit length (m) of the wire determined used the same
tuning fork and the same tension. The experiment is repeated with different metal wire. The
third law is verified by showing that l√m is constant.
Tension= Frequency=
Material of Mass per Resonating length of wire
S.NO The wire Unit l√m

Trial-1 Trial-2 Mean
length
1 Steel
23
2 Copper
3 Brass
PRECAUTIONS:
* The pully should by frictionless
* The tuning fork should be pressed on the sonometer board.
RESULT:
The law of transverse vibration of stretched strings are verified
24
EXPERIMENT 7
B-H CURVE
AIM: TO determine the hysteresis loop and to determine the loss of a ferrite specimen.
APPARATUS: Ferrite specimen in the shape of a to rid a step down transformer with
voltage, Tapping resistors (0.1, 1.0,10,680 ohm), capacitor (4.7f) and CRO.
FORMULA: The energy loss per cycle of the hysteresis is given by
Energy loss =0.5NxSvxSHxarea of the loop/RxL
Where,
N = No. Of turns of the sample=1430 turns
Sv and SH represent vertical and horizontal sensitivity of CRO for that particular setting
At the gains in volts
R = Resistance include in circuit in ohm
L = length of the specimen =0.033m
B-H LOOP:
25
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
The circuit diagram for obtained B-H curve is the shown in the fig. since the induced
voltage in the secondary coil is proportional to the derivative of the magnetic flux wave
proportional flux should be obtained by integrating circuit containing a resistance and
capacitor. When the integrated voltage is applied to the plates of CRO to give deflection
proportional to the flux, then the current in impressed on the horizontal plates to give
deflection proportional to it the result is B-H curve on the screen as shown in the fig.
It is traced on the graph on paper and its area is calculated for measuring horizontal
Sensitivity the output voltage across the input resistance (R=0.1Ω) is directly give the X-
plates as shown in fig and the corresponding length of the line on the CRO is measured. For
the measuring vertical sensitivity the output voltage across the capacitor is given to the Y-
26
plates and the length of the CRO is measured. The experiment is repeated for the different
values of input resistance (R=1 Ω and10 Ω
TABLE:
INPUT SENSITIVITY AREA OF THE HYSTERESIS LOOP

S.NO RESISTANCE HORIZONTAL VERTICAL LOOP
(R) SH (V) SV(V)
RESULT:
The hysteresis loop of given specimen is determined
27
EXPERIMENT-8
DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF A THIN WIRE
(AIR WEDGE METHOD)
AIM: To determine the thickness of the thin wire by forming the interference fringes using
the air wedge set up.
APPARATUS:Traveling microscope, Sodium vapor lamp, Optically plane rectangular glass
plates
Thin wire, Reading lens, Condensing lens with stand, Rubber band, wooden box with glass
plate inclined at 450
FORMULA: Thickness of the thin wire,
t = lλ/2β
Where,
l = Distance between the edge of contact and the wire m
λ = Wavelength of sodium light m
 β = Mean fringe width m
PRINCIPLE:
A wedge shaped air film is formed when a thin wire is introduced between two
optically plane glass plates. When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident
normally on this arrangement, interference occurs between the two rays; one is reflected from
the front surfaces and the other at the back. These two reflected rays produce a pattern of
alternate dark and bright interference fringes.
PROCEDURE:
Two optically plane glass plates are placed one over the other and are tie together by
means of a rubber band at one end. The given thin wire is introduced in between the two glass
plates, so that an air wedge is formed between the plates as shown in fig.14 this set up is
placed on the horizontal bed plate of the traveling microscope.
The sodium vapor lamp is used as a source and is rendered parallel by means of a
condensing lens. The parallel beam of light is incident on a plane glass plate inclined at an
angle of 450 and gets reflected. The reflected light is incident normally on the glass plate in
28
contact. Interference takes place between the light reflected from the top and bottom surfaces
of the glass plate and is viewed through the traveling microscope. Therefore, the number of
equally spaced dark and bright fringes are formed which are parallel to the edge of contact.
For the calculation of the single fringe width the microscope is adjusted so that the
bright or dark fringe near the edge of contact is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire
and this is taken as the nth fringe. The reading from the horizontal scale of the traveling
microscope is noted. The microscope is moved across the fringes using the horizontal
transverse screw and the readings are taken when the vertical cross wire coincides with every
successive 3 fringes. The mean of this gives the fringe width ( ).The cross wire is fixed at the
inner edge of the rubber band and the readings from the microcopies noted. Similarly reading
from the microscope is noted keeping the cross wire at the edge of the material. The
difference between these two values gives the value of ‘l’. Substituting the value and l in the
equation then the thickness of the given thin wire can be determined.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Figure:1
29
Figure:2
TABLE: To determine the fringe with by traveling microscope

Least count =0.001cm
Order of the MSR Reading Width of 10 fringe Mean Width of 1

fringe fringeβ
MSR VSR Total
n+5
n+10
n+15
n+20
n+25
n+30
n+35
Meanβ= ------- x 10-2m
30
CALCULATION:
Wavelength of the monochromatic light _ = 5893 Å

Distance between the edge of contact and the wire l = m
Fringe width _ = m
Thickness of the wire,t =
RESULT:
Thickness of the given thin wire t = ____________ x 10-2m
31
EXPERIMENT-9
MELDE’S EXPERIMENT
AIM: To determine the frequency of AC mains by Meld’s experiment.

APPARATUS: Electrically maintained tuning fork, A stand with clamp and pulley, A light
weight pan, A weight box, Analytical Balance, A battery with eliminator and connecting
wires etc.
FORMULA :
For Longitudinal mode
n= P √T
L m
For Transverse mode
THEORY:
STANDING WAVES IN STRINGS AND NORMAL MODES OF VIBRATION:
When a string under tension is set into vibrations, transverse harmonic waves propagate
along its length. When the length of string is fixed, reflected waves will also exist. The
incident and reflected waves will superimpose to produce transverse stationary waves in the
string. The string will vibrate in such a way that the clamped points of the string are nodes
and the point of plucking is the antinodes.
Figure A. The Envelope of a standing waves
32
A string can be set into vibrations by means of an electrically maintained tuning fork,
thereby producing stationary waves due to reflection of waves at the pulley. The loops are
formed from the end of the pulley where it touches the pulley to the position where it is fixed
to the prong of tuning fork.
(i) For the transverse arrangement, the frequency is given by

where ‘L’ is the length of thread in fundamental modes of vibrations, ‘ T ’ is the tension
applied to the thread and ‘m’ is the mass per unit length of thread. If ‘p’ loops are formed in
the length ‘L’ of the thread.
(ii) For the longitudinal arrangement, when ‘p’ loops are formed, the frequency is given by
n= P √T
L m
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the weight of pan P and arrange the apparatus as shown in figure.
2. Place a load of 4 To 5 gm in the pan attached to the end of the string
3. Passing over the pulley. Excite the tuning fork by switching on the power supply.
4. Adjust the position of the pulley so that the string is set into resonant
5. Vibrations and well defined loops are obtained. If necessary, adjust
6. The tensions by adding weights in the pan slowly and gradually. For finer adjustment,
add milligram weight so that nodes are reduced to points.
7. Measure the length of say 4 loops formed in the middle part of the string. If ‘L’ is the
distance in which 4 loops are formed, then distance between two consecutive nodes is
L/4.
8. Note down the weight placed in the pan and calculate the tension T.
33
9. Tension, T= (wt. in the pan + wt. of pan) g

10. Repeat the experiment twine by changing the weight in the pan in steps of one gram
and altering the position of the pulley each time to get well defined loops.
11. Measure one meter length of the thread and find its mass to find the value of m, the
mass Produced per unit length.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
For longitudinal arrangement
Mass of the pan, w =……… gm

Mass per meter of thread, m =……… gm/cm
34
TABLE:1
sno Weight No. of Length of Length of Tension (T) Frequency

(n)
(W) gms loops thread (L) each loop (W+w) gms
Hzs
(p)cms cms (L/P) cms
Mean frequency= ---------------- Hzs
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
For transverse arrangement
Mass of the pan, w =……… gm

Mass per meter of thread, m =……… gm/cm
35
TABLE:2
Sno Weight No. of Length of Length of Tension (T) Frequency

(n)
(W) gms loops thread (L) each loop (W+w) gms
Hzs
(p)cms cms (L/P) cms
Mean frequency= ---------------- Hzs
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
2. Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram
weights.
3. Frictions in the pulley should be least possible.
RESULT:
The frequency of the electric vibrator
1.In Transverse mode -------------cycles per second.
2.In longitudinal mode-------------- cycles per second.
36
EXPERIMENT-10
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY BY FOUR PROBE METHOD
AIM: To study of the temperature dependence of resistivity of a semi conductor (Four probe
Method).
APPARATUS: Four probe apparatus (spring loaded four probes, germanium crystal in the
form of a chip, oven for variation of temperature (to about 1500C), thermometer, constant
current power supply , oven power supply, high impedance voltmeter, milli-ammeter to
measure, respectively, voltage and current through 4-point probes).
THEORY:
Resistivity of semiconductor:
The resistivity of germanium is measured with the help of four probes (Fig. I). The
outer probes are used for passing a current through the germanium sample. The electric
current carried through the two outer probes sets up an electric field in the sample. The
electric current carried through the two outer probes, sets up an electric field in the sample, In
Fig.II, the electric field lines are drawn solid and the equipotential lines are drawn broken.
The two inner probes measure the potential difference between point B and C using a high
impedance voltmeter.
For bulk samples where the sample thickness, w>>s, the probe spacing, the resistivity
is calculated using the relation:
ρ0= (V/I) 2πs ------------ (1)
Where
V= floating potential difference between the inner probes, unit: volt
I =current through the outer pair of probes, unit: ampere
S=spacing between point probes, unit: meter
ρ0 =resistivity, unit: ohm meter
Fig III shows the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are
adequately far from the die may be considered to be identical to a slice. For this case of a slice
of thickness w and with a non conducting bottom surface the resistivity is computed by means
of the divisor G7(w/s) as:
37
ρ= ρ0/( G7(w/s))=(V/I)( 2πs/( G7(w/s))

The values and graph for G7(w/s) are given in the lab manual. For (w/s)≤0.5, we may use the
following value (obtained for the case of infinitely thin slice):
Equation
The temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor:
The total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor sample is the sum of the
conductivities of the valence and conduction band carriers, which are holes and electrons,
respectively.
σ =e(neµe+nhµh) -----------(4)
Where
n e , µe are the electron’s concentration and mobility, and
nh , µh are the hole’s concentration and mobility,
µe , µh are the electron and hole mobilities.
In the intrinsic region the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes, n e=nh=
ni , so the conductivity becomes
σ = ni e (µe+µh) ----------- (5)
The detailed calculations reveal that the electron density (number/volume) depends on
temperature as follows:
ni = NT3/2exp(-Eg / 2kT) ---------(6)
where N is some constant. The temperature dependence of the mobility in the intrinsic semi-
conduction region is of the form:
μ α T-3/2 ----------- (7)
Therefore
(µe+µh)T3/2≈constant
Use of this fact gives
σ= constant × exp(-Eg / 2kT) -------------- (8)
The resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity. Therefore, for intrinsic semiconductor, it is (from
Eq.(8))
ρ= A exp (Eg / 2kT) ---------- (9)
38
where A is some constant. The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on

decreasing the temperature taking logarithm, we get
log10ρ=C+ (1/2.3026) ( Eg / 2kT) ---------(10)
where C=log10A is another constant. For convenience Eq. (10) is rewritten as
log10ρ= C+ (1/2.3026)(Eg/2k)×103/T ------------ (11)
Thus a graph between log of resistivity, log10ρ , and reciprocal of the temperature , 103/T
Band gap energy:
The slope of the straight line graph between log of resistivity, log 10ρ, and reciprocal of
the temperature, 103/T,
Slope=(AC)/(BC)=(1/(2.3026×103))( Eg/2k).
Therefore,
Eg=2.3026×103×2k×( Slope).
We use k=8.617×10-5eVK-1 to get Eg in eV unit.
Figures:
Figure:1 figure:2
39
PROCEDURE:
1. The settings of 4-point probes on the semiconductor chip is a delicate process. So first
understand well the working of the apparatus. The semiconductor chip on probe set is costly.
2. Note the values of probe spacing(s) and the thickness (w) of the semiconductor chip. Note
the type of semiconductor (germanium or something else).
3. Make the circuit as shown in fig. I & III. Put the sample in the oven (normally already
placed by lab instructor) at room temperature.
4. Carefully, with the help of screw and delicate up/down movements, touch (Kelvin
connection) the probes to the semiconductor chip.
5. Pass a mille ampere range current (say 2 mA) in the sample using constant current power
supply)
6. The reading of the current through the sample is measured using millimeters provided for
this purpose. The voltage is measured by the high impedance mille voltmeter connected to the
inner probes. The readings can be taken alternately on digital meter provided for this purpose.
7. Note temperature of sample (oven) using thermometer inserted in the oven for this purpose.
8. The oven temperature is increased a little, and its temperature noted after reaching steady
state. Again the constant current reading advised to be kept the same) and the corresponding
voltage readings are taken.
9. Repeat the procedure for different temperatures. Note the data in the observation table.
40
10. For each temperature, calculate the resistivity by using the relation
ρ= ρ0/( G7(w/s))=(V/I)( 2πs/( G7(w/s))
11. Compute log10ρ and 10 3/T and write it in the observation table.
12. Plot a graph between log10ρ and 103/T. it is a straight line. Find its slope.
13. Calculate the band gap using formula.
Eg=2.3026×103×2k×( Slope).
Use k=8.617×10 -5eVK-1 to get Eg eVK-1 unit. Note that up to four-significant digits,
k=1.3806×10 -23JK-1, and 1eV=1.602×10-19J.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Semiconductor chip material= Germanium (verify from your lab manual)

2. Spacing (distance) between the probes, s= --------------mm = -----------m
3. Thickness of the sample,w= ----------mm = ---------------m.
Table 1: voltage across the inner probes for a constant current at different samples
temperatures
(a) Constant current passed through the sample = -----------mA
Voltage
across inner 10 3/T(K-1) Resistivity
Temperature log10ρ
S.No probes ρ(Ωm)
T(K) (calculated) (calculated)
(calculated)
V (mV)
41
CALCULATIONS:
1. For the given sample w/s =-------
2. The correction factor G7 (w/s) =-----------
3. Calculation of 103/T (K-1), ρ(Ωm) and log10ρ
(i) Temperature T=-----------K. Therefore
103/T =----------- (K-1)
(ii) Resistivity is
ρ= (V/I)( 2πs/( G7(w/s)) = -------------- Ωm
log10ρ=---------.
4. Slope of the graph between 103/T (K-1) and log10ρ is
Slope = AC/BC= =----------
5. Energy band gap

Eg=2.3026×103×2k×( Slope)
= 2.3026×103×2×8.617×10 -5× (Slope) = --------------eV
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.
2. All the four probes should be collinear.
3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the semiconductor chip is
Brittle.
4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high impedance milli
Voltmeter.
Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer of the prob and
Chipset.
RESULT:
1. The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor (germanium) chip is as
shown in the graph. The resistivity increases exponentially with the increase in 1/T. That
is as at low temperatures resistivity is more and at high temperatures the resistivity is less.
2. The energy band gap for the given semiconductor (germanium) is = -----------eV.
42
EXPERIMENT-11
DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT (LASER)
AIM: To determine slit width of single slit by using He-Ne Laser.
APPARATUS: He-Ne laser, Single Slit, Screen, Scale, tape etc.
THEORY:
intensity, which makeup the interference patterns we will observe in this experiment.
decreases.
Diffraction at single slit can be observed when light travels through a hole (in the lab
it is usually a vertical slit) whose width, a, is small. Light from different points across the
width of the slit will take paths of different lengths to arrive at a viewing screen (Figure 1).
When the light interferes destructively, intensity minima appear on the screen. Figure 1
shows such a diffraction pattern, where the intensity of light is shown as a graph placed along
the screen. For a rectangular slit it can be shown that the minima in the intensity pattern fit the
formula
asinθ = mλ
43
Where m is an integer (±1, ±2, ±3…..), a is the width of the slit, l is the wavelength of the
light and θ is the angle to the position on the screen. The mth spot on the screen is called the
mth order minimum. Diffraction patterns for other shapes of holes are more complex but also
result from the same principles of interference.
PROCEDURE:
Diffraction at single slit
The diffraction plate has slits etched on it of different widths and separations. For this
part use the area where there is only a single slit. For two sizes of slits, examine the patterns
formed by single slits. Set up the slit in front of the laser. Record the distance from the slit to
the screen, L. For each of the slits, measure and record a value for y on the viewing screen
corresponding to the center of a dark region. Record as many distances, y, for different values
of m as you can. Use the largest two or three values for m which you are able to observe to
find a value for a. The He-Ne laser has a wavelength of 633 nm.
Table 1: Single slit
L = …….
 λ= ………..
44
TABLE
PRECAUTION:
Look through the slit (holding it very close to your eye). See if you can see the
effects of diffraction. Set the laser on the table and aim it at the viewing screen. DO NOT
LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE LASER OR AIM IT AT ANYONE! DO NOT LET
Pull a hair from your head. Mount it vertically in front of the laser using a piece of tape. Place
the hair in front of the laser and observe the diffraction around the hair. Use the formula
above to estimate the thickness of the hair, a. (The hair is not a slit but light diffracts around
its edges in a similar fashion.) Repeat with observations of your lab partners' hair
RESULT:
The single slit width is____________________
45
EXPERIMENT-12
DIFFRACTION AT A DOUBLE SLIT (LASER)
AIM: To determine slit width of double slit by using He-Ne Laser.
APPARATUS: He-Ne laser, double Slit, Screen, Scale, tape etc.
THEORY:
intensity, which makeup the interference patterns we will observe in this experiment.
decreases.
Two-slit Diffraction: When laser light shines through two closely spaced parallel slits
(Figure1) each slit produces a diffraction pattern. When these patterns overlap, they also
interfere with each other. We can predict whether the interference will be constructive (a
bright spot) or destructive (a dark spot) by determining the path difference in traveling from
each slit to a given spot on the screen. Intensity maxima occur when the light arrives in phase
with an integer number of wavelength differences for the two paths:
dsinθ=mλ
46
Where m = ±0, ±1, ±2 … and the interference Will be destructive if the path difference is a
Half- integer number of wavelengths so that the Waves from each slit arrive out of phase with
Opposite signs for the electric field.
dsinθ= [m+1/2]λ Where m = ±0, ±1, ±2 …
PROCEDURE:
Using the two-slit templates, observe the patterns projected on the viewing screen.
Observe how the pattern changes with changing slit width and/or spacing.
For each set of slits, determine the spacing between the slits by measuring the distances
between minima on the screen. (The smaller spacing’s give are from the two slits patterns
interfering, if they get too small to measure accurately, just make your best estimate.) You
will need to record distances on the screen y and the distance from the slits to the screen, L.
Observations:
Table 1: Single slit

L = …….
= ………..
TABLE
47
PRECAUTION:
Look through the slit (holding it very close to your eye). See if you can see the
effects of diffraction. Set the laser on the table and aim it at the viewing screen. DO NOT
LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE LASER OR AIM IT AT ANYONE! DO NOT LET
Pull a hair from your head. Mount it vertically in front of the laser using a piece of tape. Place
the hair in front of the laser and observe the diffraction around the hair. Use the formula
above to estimate the thickness of the hair, a. (The hair is not a slit but light diffracts around
its edges in a similar fashion.) Repeat with observations of your lab partners' hair.
RESULT:
The double slit width is____________________
48
EXPERIMENT-13
ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
AIM: To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor diode
APPARATUS: Germanium diode, thermometer, copper vessel, regulated dc power supply,
micro ammeter, heater& Bakelite lid.
PROCEDURE: Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Pour some oil in the copper
vessel.fix the diode to the Bakelite lid such that it is reversed biased.bakelite lid is fixed to the
copper vessel, a hole is provided on the lid through which the thermometer is inserted into the
vessel. with the help of heater, heat the copper vessel till temperature reaches up to 80 0c.note
the current reading at 800c apply suitable voltage say 1.5v(which is kept constant) & note the
corresponding with every 5 0c fall of temperature, till the temperature reaches the room
temperature
A graph is plotted between 1/T ( K) on x-axis and log10R on y-axis is a straight line.
Slope is measured by taking the values of two points where each one of them intersects on the
straight line as shown in the fig.
The energy gap-slope x Boltzmann’s constant/log10e.
The energy gap Eg=1.9833 x slope x10-4ev
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
49
TABLE:
Current
S.NO Temparature 1/T x10-3 K-1
(µA) Log10Is(µA)
t 0c T=t+273K
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
50
MODEL GRAPH:
RESULT:
The energy gap of semiconductor diode is Eg_____________________.
51
EXPERIMENT-14
THERMISTOR-CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To determine the temperature coefficient of resistance of the given theThermistor.
APPARATUS: Thermistor, thermometer, electrical heater, galvanometer, connecting wires,
post office box and battery.
FORMULA: Post office box works on the principle of wheat stone bridge.
P/Q=R/S
PROCEDURE:
The connecting is made as shown in the circuit diagram the thermistor is placed in the beaker
containing Water. a thermistor and stirrer is introduced into the beaker. The room temperature
t1oc is noted.Here we determine the resistance of thermistor at different temperature by making
use of the principle of Wheatstone bridge. This is said to be balanced when the current (ig)
through the galvanometer is zero. The Condition for the balance of the Wheatstone bridge is
P/Q=R/Rt
We keep P=Q for convenience and we adjust R to get null deflection in the galvanometer.
Now the value of the thermistor (Rt).Thus the resistance of the thermistor is found at different
temperatures and the readings are tabulated as follows.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
52
TABLE:
S.NO TEMPARATURE RESISTANCE Log 10RT Ω T=t+2731/Tx10 -3
To c OF THERMISTOR K
RT Ω
1 95
2 90
3 85
4 80
5 75
6 70
7 65
8 60
9 55
10 50
11 45
12 40
13 35
A graph is drawn by taking 1/T on x-axis and logRt on y-axis we have
R=R0eβ/t
logeR=logeR0+loge eβ/t
logeR= logeR0+β/t
53
The above equation is in the form of
y= mx+c
m= β
2.3026xlog10R= β/t+ 2.3026xlog10R
log10R= β/2.3026 x t+log10R
Slope= β/2.3026
β=2.3026 x slope
from graph,
slope= ∆ (log10Rt)/∆1/t
β=2.3026 x ∆ (log10Rt)/∆1/t
after finding β,we have
α= - β/t2 Ω/k
Where T= 273+t0
Energy gap Eg =2kβ joule
MODEL GRAPH:
54
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before starting the experiment the connections must be checked.
2. The current should not be passed for long intervals
RESULT:
1. Temperature coefficient of resistance of the given thermistor is __________
2. The sensitivity of the thermistor is found to be ______________________
3. The energy gap of the thermistor is Eg =___________________________
55
EXPERIMENT-15
DIFFRACTION GRATING – NORMAL INCIDENCE METHOD

AIM: To determine the wave length of a given source of light by using the diffraction
grating in the normal incidence method.
APPARATUS: Spectrometer, diffraction grating, mercury vapour lamp, spirit level.
FORMULA: The wavelength of the light is given by the relation

λ=2sin (θ/2)/nN A0
where ,
λ = wave length of spectral line
θ = diffraction angle
n = number of order of the spectrum
N = grating constant
PROCEDURE:
Normal incidence:
The slit of the Spectrometer is illuminated with mercury vapour lamp. The telescope is
placed in the line with the axis of collimeter and the direct image of the slit is observed. The
slit is narrowed and the vertical axes wires are made to coincide with the center of the image
of the slit. The reading of one of the venire is noted. The prism table is clamped firmly and
the telescope is turned through exactly 90 0 and fixed in position. The grating is held with the
ruling vertical and minted in its holder on the prism table such that the plane of the grating
passes through the center of the table and the ruled surface towards the collimeter.the prism
table is released and related until the image of the slit of the grating. The prism table is fixed
after adjusting point of intersection of the cross-wire is on the image of the slit. Then the
venire is related and the ruled side of the grating faces the collimeter.the telescope is brought
back to the direct reading position. now the light from the collimeter strikes the grating
normally.
56
Measurement:
The telescope is rotated so as to catch the first order diffracted spectral image on the
one side say on the left with mercury light”VIBGYOR”spectrum can be seen. The point of
cross-wire is set on the red line of the spectrum and its reading is noted. Then the
corresponding to all the colours of the spectrum are noted.then the telescope is turned
to the other side is right side and similarly. The readings corresponding to any one line
gives the angle of diffraction for that line the first order spectrum.
The experiment is repeated for the record order spectrum the number of line per
cm of the grating is noted and the wavelength λ of the spectral line is found by the
relation
λ=2sin (θ/2)/nN A0
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
57
TABLE:
S.NO Spectral Telescope Angle of Mean(deg) λ=sin(θ)

line reading(degrees) diffraction(deg)
θ=θ1+θ2 nN
0
Left Right V1~ V1 V2~ V2 A
2
side side
V1 V2 V1 V2
1 Red
2 Yellow
3 Green
4 Blue
5 Violet
Precautions:
1. Always the grating should be held by the edges of the surface should not be
touched.
2. Light from the collimeter should be uniformly incident on the control surface of the
grating.
3. Reading of the verniers are noted without any parallel error.
4. Optical adjustments should be made carefully.
The wavelength of the used is experimentally found for all colour.
Colours of line standard of values
58
RESULT:
The wavelength of light used is experimentally found all colours
Colours spectral line Standard value A0 Experimental value A0
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
violet
59
EXPERIMENT-16
HALL EFFECT
AIM: To determine the hall-coefficient and charge carrier density of the given semi conductor
material by hall-setup.
APPARATUS: Hall Effect demonstration kit, Hall probe, Electro magnet (1500gauss in
10mm gap), Al spacer, Indium arsenide (In As), semiconductor etc.
HALL EFFECT: When conventional current flow through a semi conductor from A to B.
The motion of carriers (electrons and holes drift with velocity V d) is shown in fig. the
direction of magnetic induction B is out of the paper and towards you the force acting on
charged particle is given by
F=q [VxB]
For both the carriers, the force is towards left. So the carriers move to the left as the charge
carriers accumulate a potential difference develops such that the carriers are under zero force.
These carriers prevent other carriers from joining them. Therefore particles are more in the
left regions than in the right. As a result of these carriers the situation is equivalent to batteries
like for n-type and for p-type materials. This voltage probe voltage across D,E is called Hall
voltage and is given by
Vh= (RhBJIn x 10-8)/ t Volts
Where
Rh= (1/ne) is called hall-co-efficient in cm3/coulomb
t = thickness of the sample in cm
BJ = magnetic field in gauss in z-direction
In =probe current in MA
10-8= conversion factor
60
In practical, the y- direction contacts are not exactly opposite and the resistance of the
material b/w these misaligned contacts develop Ri drop voltage. A part from this voltage,
ethinghausen effect etc., will also contribute be the y-direction. This has to be null field
before any meaningful are made.
EXPERIMENT:
Calibration of electro magnet:
1.Connect the gauss meter probe and correctly again it perpendicular to magnetic field and at
the center of the pole pieces. Set pole pieces spacing to 10mm.
2.Keep the Nob in calibration position and set the probe current given on the gauss meter
probe
3.Set different magnetic currents and read magnetic field in kilo gauss in 2k and 20k ranges
4.Plot magnetic field as a function of magnetic current, this is the calibration curve.
5.Repeat the measurement for 15mm to 20mm pole piece spacing and obtain similar
calibration curves.
6.Remove the gauss meter keep it safe.
DIAGRAM:
61
TABLE:1
Magnetic field
Magnetic current
(kilo gauss) Average in (gauss)
Increasing decreasing
62
Determination of Rh by using the variation of probe voltages. A function of probe

current for find BJ
(i) Connect electromagnet terminals to magnet terminals.

(ii) Connect all probe to the socket and align the probe perpendicular to the magnetic field
and at the center of the gap.
(iii) Keep magnet current and probe current in minimum position (extreme anticlock wise
position)
(iv) Plug in the instrument to 230v DC main supply.
(v) Gently rotate the probe and select the position of maximum probe voltage. (Do not
disturb the position till all the measurements are completed).
(vi) Adjust zero control to read probe voltage when magnet current is zero (disconnect
magnet current wire).
(vii) For different values of probe current note probe voltage. Plot the graphs for V n ,Vs
probe current.
The slope is given by,
( RhBJx 10 -8)/ t
From the known values of BJ and t determine Rh
(Viii) Repeat the experiment for different magnet currents in the full range i.e., 0 to
2000mA.
take the average of Rh is obtained from the above plots and determine the value of
carrier
concentration.
63
TABLE:2
Magnetic current 200mA 300mA 400mA
Pc mA Pr mV Pc mA Pr mV Pc mA Pr mV Pc mA Pr mV
PRECAUTIONS:
1) Align the probe exactly perpendicular to the applied magnetic field.
2) Keep the separations of pieces of electro magnet constant only by using Al spaces.
RESULT:
1) Hall coefficient of the semiconductor material is Rh = --------------- cm3/ coulomb
2) The charge carrier density of the given semi conductor material (In As) is found to be h =
---------------cm3
64

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB MANUAL Dept of BH&S

FORMULA: The dispersive power of the prism is given by

A = angle of the prism

Dg = angle of minimum deviation for green colour

Db = angle of minimum deviation for blue colour

A spectrometer is used to measure the necessary angles. The spectrometer consists of

In the experiment, we need to produce a parallel beam of rays to be incident on the

Setting the eyepiece:

Setting the Telescope:

Setting the Collimator:

Optical leveling of the Prism:

For angle of the prism 2A=1200

For angle of minimum deviation:

2. The focus should be at the edge of green and blue rays

RESULT: - The dispersive power of a material of prism using spectrometer is

2t=n for minima; n = 0, 1, 2, 3… … … … (1)

Then the air film enclosed between the spherical surfaces

1. Least count of vernier of traveling microscope = ___________________m

2. Wave length of light = _______________________ m

Table 1: Measurement of diameter of the ring

S.No Order of Microscope reading Diameter (D2 m-p –D2m )

The radius of curvature of a given planoconvex lens is = m

FORMULA: The earth’s magnetic field intensity is given by

µ = permeability of the free space

I = current given to the coil in A

R = radius of the coil in m

X = distance between the center and the magnetometer in m

. log( B( x)) as a function of log  R 2  X 2 

Parameters and constants

Least count for x measurement=

Least count for  measurement=

No of turns of the coil, n=

Radius of the coil, R= 10 cm

Current in the coil, I= …

Permeability of air, 0  4 10 7 N / A2 ,Earth’s magnetic field, BE  .39 10 4 T

xcm 1 2 3 4  (average) Tan log(tan ) log( R 2  X 2 ) B( x)  LogB

For other side of the scale…………

xcm 1 2 3 4  (average) Tan log(tan ) log( R 2  X 2 ) B( x)  LogB

Theoretical value of slope= -1.5

Experimental value of intercept=

Theoretical value of intercept=…..

APPARATUS: 1.numerical aperture kit 2. Laser diode.

Where D = diameter of the fringe in m

L = distance between the zig and the screen in m

NA = ni.sinө max; ni for air is 1, hence NA = sinөmax

For very small differences in refractive indices the equation reduces to

NA = n core (2∆)1/2, where ∆ is the fractional difference in refractive indices. I and

Sl. No L (mm) W(mm) NA

RESULT: Numerical aperture of the available optical fibers is Determined =

FORMULA: The wavelength of a laser is given by

θ = angle of diffraction in deg

m = order of the diffraction pattern

n = the number of lines meter on the grating

Intensity maxima occur when the light arrives

order Distance Distance between the central Tan-1(d/D) λ=sin /N

The wavelength of given laser is determined as = nm

SONOMETER – TRANSVERSE LAWS

FIRST LAW: nl=constant

When T and m are constant