Chapter

3 Models of the
Earth
Chapter Outline
ne
● Finding Locations on
1
Earth
Latitude
Longitude
Great Circles
Finding Direction

● Mapping Earth’s
2
Surface
How Scientists Make Maps
Map Projections
Reading a Map

● Types of Maps
3
Topographic Maps
Geologic Maps
Soil Maps
Other Types of Maps

Why It Matters
U i pastt and
Using d presentt ttechnologies,
h l scientists can
create extremely accurate models of Earth’s surface.
These models, commonly called maps, help people
navigate and find locations. Scientists use maps to
study changes in Earth’s four “spheres.”

54 Chapter 3
Inquiry Lab 30 min

Using a Compa
Compass
Working as a team, choose an object in
your classroom. Use a directional
compass to determine and record
directions that another team could follow
to arrive at the object you chose. Use
cardinal directions (north, south, east, and
west) and ordinal directions (northeast,
northwest, southeast, and southwest). For
example, you could write directions like
these: “Stand with your back to the
classroom door. Turn east,
and walk five steps. Then
walk three steps northeast.”
Trade directions with other
teams.
Questions to Get You
Started
1. In what direction does
a compass needle always
point?
2. How do you use the letters
and numbers on a compass
housing to adjust the
compass?

55
 These reading tools will help you learn the material in this chapter.

Science Terms Frequency

Everyday Words Used in Science All Always, Sometimes, or Never? Many
the key terms in this textbook are words statements include a word that tells you
that scientists use. Many words that are how often they are true. Examples include
used in science are also used in everyday words such as always, often, sometimes, and
speech. You should pay attention to the never. Words such as all, some, many, and
definitions of these words so that you can most tell you about frequency in number.
use them correctly in scientific contexts. Your Turn As you read this chapter, make
Your Turn As you read Chapter 3, make a a list of statements that contain frequency
table like the one below for the terms relief words. For each statement in your list,
and projection (from the key term map underline the word or phrase that tells how
projection). Add other everyday words that frequently the statement is true. Here is an
are used by scientists as you find them in example: Air and sea routes often travel
the chapter. along great circles.

Term Scientific context Everyday meaning

relief the difference a lessening or easing
between the of a burden or
highest and lowest anxiety, pain, or
elevations in a stress
given area

FoldNotes
Layered Book FoldNotes are a fun way to
help you learn and remember ideas that you
encounter as you read. You can use the four
flaps of the layered book to divide the ideas
into four categories.
Your Turn As you read Section 1, make a Latitude
layered book, as described in Appendix A. Longitude
Label the tabs of the layered book with Great Circles
on
“Latitude,” “Longitude,” “Great Circles,” Finding Directi
and “Finding Direction.” Write notes on the
appropriate layer as you read the section.

For more information on how to use these and other tools, see Appendix A.

56 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 SECTION

1 Finding Locations on Earth

Key
ey
y Ideas
deas Key
ey
y Terms
e s Why
y Itt Matters
atte s
❯ Distinguish between latitude and longitude. parallel Latitude and longitude
❯ Explain how latitude and longitude can be used latitude form a frame of reference
to locate places on Earth’s surface. that is based on Earth’s
meridian axis of rotation, making it
❯ Explain how a magnetic compass can be used to longitude possible to identify and
find directions on Earth’s surface. locate any point on Earth.

T he points at which Earth’s axis of rotation intersects Earth’s sur-

face are used as reference points for defining direction. These refer-
ence points are the geographic North and South Poles. Halfway
between the poles, a circle called the equator divides Earth into the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres. A reference grid of addi-
tional circles is used to locate places on Earth’s surface.

Latitude
One set of circles describes positions north and south of the
equator. These circles are called parallels because they run east
and west around the world, parallel to the equator. The angular
distance north or south of the equator is called latitude. parallel any circle that runs
east and west around Earth and
that is parallel to the equator; a
Degrees of Latitude line of latitude
Latitude is measured in degrees, and the equator is designated as latitude the angular distance
0 ° latitude. Because the distance from the equator to either of the north or south from the
poles is one-fourth of a circle, and a circle has 360 °, the equator; expressed in degrees
latitude of both the North Pole and the South Pole is North Pole
one-quarter of 360 °, or 90 °, as shown in Figure 1. In 90°N
60°N
actual distance, 1 ° of latitude equals 1/360 of Earth’s 45°N
circumference, or about 111 km. Parallels north of the 30°N
equator are labeled N; those south of the equator are
15°N
labeled S.
Equator
0°

Minutes and Seconds 15°S

Each degree of latitude consists of 60 equal parts, 30°S

called minutes. One minute (symbol: ') of latitude 45°S Equator
equals 1.85 km. In turn, each minute is divided into 60 60°S
90°S
equal parts, called seconds (symbol: "). So, the latitude South Pole
of the center of Washington, D.C., could be expressed •
as 38°53'23"N. North
Pole

Figure 1 Parallels are circles that

describe positions north and south
of the equator. Each parallel forms a
complete circle around the globe.

Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth 57

 Longitude
The latitude of a particular place indicates only its position
north or south of the equator. To determine the specific location of
a place, you also need to know how far east or west that place is
90°W
60°W
45°W
30°W

15°W

15°E

30°E
45°E
60°E
90°E
0°
along its circle of latitude. East-west locations are established by
using meridians. As Figure 2 shows, a meridian is a semicircle
(half of a circle) that runs from pole to pole.
By international agreement, one meridian was selected to be 0 °.
This meridian, called the prime meridian, passes through Greenwich,
Figure 2 Meridians are England. Longitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees,
semicircles reaching around east or west of the prime meridian.
Earth from pole to pole.
Degrees of Longitude
Because a circle is 360 °, the meridian opposite the prime merid-
ian, halfway around the world, is labeled 180 °. All locations east of
the prime meridian have longitudes between 0 ° and 180 °E. All
locations west of the prime meridian have longitudes between 0 °
and 180 °W. Washington, D.C., which lies west of the prime merid-
meridian any semicircle that
runs north and south around ian, has a longitude of 77 °W. Like latitude, longitude can be
Earth from the geographic expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds. So, a more precise
North Pole to the geographic location for Washington, D.C., is 38 °53'23"N, 77 °00'33"W.
South Pole; a line of longitude
longitude the angular distance Distance Between Meridians
east or west from the prime
meridian; expressed in degrees The distance covered by a degree of longitude depends on
where the degree is measured. At the equator, or 0 ° latitude, a
degree of longitude equals approximately 111 km. However, all
Academic Vocabulary
meridians meet at the poles. Because meridians meet, the distance
location (loh KAY shuhn) place or
position measured by a degree of longitude decreases as you move from
the equator toward the poles. At a latitude of 60 °N, for example, 1 °
of longitude equals about 55 km. At 80 °N, 1 ° of longitude equals
only about 20 km.
Figure 3 A great-circle route
from Chicago to Rome is much
shorter than a route following a Great Circles
parallel is. A great circle is often used in navigation, especially by long-
Meridian Parallel distance aircraft. A great circle is any circle that divides the globe
into halves, or marks the circumference of the globe. Any circle
formed by two meridians of longitude that are directly across
the globe from each other is a great circle. The equator is the
only line of latitude that is a great circle. Great circles can run in
any direction around the globe. Just as a straight line is the short-
est distance between two points on a flat surface or plane, the
Great Parallel route along a great circle is the shortest distance between two
circle route
route
points on a sphere, as shown in Figure 3. As a result, air and sea
routes often travel along great circles.
Why is the equator the only parallel that
is a great circle? (See Appendix G for answers to Reading Checks.)

58 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 Axis of rotation
Geographic
North Pole Geomagnetic
north pole

Equator

Finding Direction Geomagnetic Geographic

One way to find direction on Earth is to use a south pole South Pole
magnetic compass. A magnetic compass can indicate Figure 4 Earth’s magnetic
direction because Earth has magnetic properties as if a powerful poles are at an angle to Earth’s
bar-shaped magnet were buried at Earth’s center at an angle to axis of rotation.
Earth’s axis of rotation, as shown in Figure 4.
The areas on Earth’s surface where the poles of the imaginary
magnet would be are called the geomagnetic poles. The geomagnetic
poles and the geographic poles are different and are located in
different places. The north end of a compass needle points in the
direction of the geomagnetic north pole.

Why It Matters

Geocaching
Finding direction is not only for when you’re lost.
In geocaching, people hide a cache of “treasure”
and post the coordinates (latitude and longitude)
online. Other people then use GPS (Global
People can trade items
Positioning System) receivers to find the cache.
that they find and
write an entry in
the logbook.

People hide a cache of The cache’s coordinates ONLINE RESEARCH CH

items, including a are posted on a Research how a GPS receiver
logbook, in a safe place. geocaching Web site. uses satellite signals to pinpoint
its location.

59
 Ž
Ž Ž Magnetic Declination
Ž Ž
Ž
The angle between the direction of the geographic pole
Ž
Ž Ž and the direction in which the compass needle points is
Ž
Ž Ž called magnetic declination. In the Northern Hemisphere,
Ž
Ž Ž
Ž
magnetic declination is measured in degrees east or west
Ž Ž
Ž
Ž
Ž of the geographic North Pole. A compass needle will align
Ž
Ž
Ž
Ž Ž
Ž with both the geographic North Pole and the geomagnetic
Ž
Ž
Ž
Ž
Ž Ž Ž Ž Ž
Ž north pole for all locations along the line of 0 ° magnetic
Ž Ž Ž Ž
declination, which is shown as the red line in Figure 5.
Figure 5 This map shows the Magnetic declination has been determined for points
pattern of magnetic declinations all over Earth. However, because Earth’s magnetic field is
over North America. The lines constantly changing, the magnetic declinations of locations around
connect points that have the the globe also change constantly. Figure 5 shows recent magnetic
same magnetic declination. declinations for most of the United States. By using magnetic dec-
lination, a person can use a compass to determine geographic north
for any place on Earth. Current declination at any location can be
obtained from the Internet. Locating geographic north is important
www.scilinks.org in navigation and in mapmaking.
Topic: Global Positioning
System
Code: HQX0680
The Global Positioning System
Another way people can find their location on Earth is by using
the global positioning system, or GPS. GPS is a satellite navigation
system that is based on a global network of satellites that transmit
radio signals to Earth’s surface. The first GPS satellite, known as
NAVSTAR, was launched in 1978.
Everyday Words Used in A GPS receiver held by a person on the ground receives signals
Science from at least three satellites, which it uses to calculate the latitude,
Use a dictionary to help you longitude, and altitude of the receiver on Earth. Personal GPS
compare the scientific and receivers are accurate to within 10 to 15 m of their position, but
everyday meanings of the
high-tech receivers designed for military or commercial use can be
term declination.
accurate to within several centimeters of their location.

Section 1 Review
Key Ideas 6. Making Comparisons How do parallels differ
1. Describe the difference between lines of latitude from latitude?
and lines of longitude. 7. Identifying Patterns Explain why the distance
2. Explain how latitude and longitude are used to between parallels is constant but the distance
find specific locations on Earth. between meridians decreases as the meridians
approach the poles.
3. Summarize why great-circle routes are com-
monly used in navigation. Concept Mapping
4. Explain how a magnetic compass can be used to 8. Use the following terms to create a concept map:
find directions on Earth. equator, second, parallel, degree, Earth, minute,
longitude, meridian, prime meridian, and latitude.
Critical Thinking
5. Applying Concepts How might GPS technology
be beneficial when used in airplanes or on ships?

60 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 SECTION

2 Mapping Earth’s Surface

Key
ey
y Ideas
deas Key
ey
y Terms
e s Why
y Itt Matters
atte s
❯ Explain two ways that scientists get data to make remote sensing Maps are models of
maps. map projection Earth’s surface that can
❯ Describe the characteristics and uses of three be made or chosen to
legend display characteristics for
types of map projections.
scale a specific purpose, such
❯ Summarize how to use keys, legends, and scales as plotting the best route
to read maps. isogram
for your next road trip.

A globe is a familiar model of Earth. Because a globe is spherical

like Earth, a globe can accurately represent the locations, relative
areas, and relative shapes of Earth’s surface features. A globe is
especially useful for studying large surface features, such as conti-
nents and oceans. But most globes are too small to show details of
Earth’s surface, such as streams and highways. For that reason, a
great variety of maps have been developed for studying and dis-
playing detailed information about Earth.

How Scientists Make Maps

The science of making maps, called cartography, is a subfield of
Earth science and geography. Scientists who make maps are called
cartographers.
Cartographers use data from a variety of sources to create
maps. They may collect data by conducting a field survey, shown remote sensing the process of
in Figure 1. During a field survey, cartographers walk or drive gathering and analyzing
information about an object
through an area to be mapped and make measurements of that without physically being in
area. The information they collect is then plotted on a map. Because touch with the object
surveyors cannot take measurements at every site in an area, they
often use their measurements to make estimated measurements
for sites between surveyed points.
By using remote sensing, cartographers can
collect information about a site without being at
that site. In remote sensing, equipment on satel-
lites or airplanes obtains images of Earth’s surface.
Maps are often made by combining information
from images gathered remotely with information
from field surveys.

Figure 1 Cartographers in the field use

technology to enhance the precision of
their measurements. Electronic devices can
be used to measure the distance between
an observer and a distant point with a high
degree of accuracy.

Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface 61

 Map Projections
Quick Lab 20 min A map is a flat representation of Earth’s curved surface.
However, transferring a curved surface to a flat map results in a
Making distorted image of the curved surface. An area shown on a map
Projections may be distorted in size, shape, distance, or direction. The larger
the area being shown is, the greater the distortion tends to be. A
Procedure
map of the entire Earth would show the greatest distortion. A map
1 Use a fine-tip marker to
draw a variety of shapes on
of a small area, such as a city, would show only slight distortion.
a small glass ivy bowl or Over the years, cartographers have developed several ways to
clear plastic hemisphere. transfer the curved surface of Earth onto flat maps. A flat map that
2 Shine a flashlight through represents the three-dimensional curved surface of a globe is called
the bottom of the bowl. a map projection. No projection is an entirely accurate representa-
3 Shape a piece of white tion of Earth’s surface. However, each kind of projection has cer-
paper into a cylinder tain advantages and disadvantages that must be considered when
around the bowl. choosing a map.
4 Trace the shapes projected
from the bowl onto the Cylindrical Projections
paper.
Imagine Earth as a transparent sphere that has a light inside. If
5 Using a cone of paper,
you wrapped a cylinder of paper around this lighted globe and
repeat steps 3 and 4.
traced the outlines of continents, oceans, parallels, and meridians,
Analysis a cylindrical projection, shown in Figure 2, would result. Meridians
1. What type of projection did on a cylindrical projection appear as straight, parallel lines that
you create in steps 3 and 4? have an equal amount of space between them. On a globe, how-
in step 5? ever, the meridians come together at the poles. A cylindrical pro-
2. Compare the sizes of the jection is accurate near the equator but distorts distances and sizes
shapes on the bowl with near the poles.
those on your papers. What Though distorted, cylindrical projections have some advan-
areas did each projection
tages. One advantage is that parallels and meridians form a grid,
distort?
which makes locating positions easier. Also, the shapes of small
areas are usually well preserved. When a cylindrical projection is
used to map small areas, distortion is minimal.
map projection a flat map that
represents a spherical surface Why do meridians and parallels appear as a
grid when shown on a cylindrical projection?

Figure 2 A light at the

center of a transparent
globe would project lines
on a cylinder of paper
(left) that would produce
a cylindrical projection
(right).

62 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 Figure 3 When a sheet of paper
is placed so that it touches a
lighted globe at only one point
(left), the lines projected on the
paper form an azimuthal
projection (right).

Azimuthal Projections
A projection made by placing a sheet of paper against a trans-
parent, lighted globe such that the paper touches the globe at only
one point is called an azimuthal (az uh MYOOTH uhl) projection, as Layered Book
shown in Figure 3. On an azimuthal projection, little distortion Make a layered book FoldNote.
occurs at the point of contact, which is commonly one of the poles. Label the tabs with the three
However, an azimuthal projection shows unequal spacing between types of map projections. Write
parallels that causes a distortion in both direction and distance. This notes on the appropriate tab to
list the advan-
distortion increases as distance from the point of contact increases.
tages and
Despite distortion, an azimuthal projection is a great help to disadvantages
navigators in plotting routes used in air travel. As you know, a of each type
great circle is the shortest distance between any two points on the of map
globe. When projected onto an azimuthal projection, a great circle projection.
appears as a straight line. Therefore, by drawing a straight line
between any two points on an azimuthal projection, navigators
can readily find a great-circle route.
Academic Vocabulary
contact (KON takt) state of touching;
Conic Projections coming together of objects or surfaces
A projection made by placing a paper cone over a lighted globe
so that the axis of the cone aligns with the axis of the globe is known
as a conic projection. The cone touches the globe along one parallel Figure 4 A light at the center
of latitude. As shown in Figure 4, areas near the parallel where the of a transparent globe would
cone and globe are in contact are distorted the least. project lines on a paper cone
A series of conic projections may be used to increase accuracy (left) that would produce a
conic projection (right).
by mapping a number of
neighboring areas. Each cone
touches the globe at a slightly
different latitude. Fitting the
adjoining areas together then
produces a continuous map.
Maps made in this way are
called polyconic projections. The
relative size and shape of small
areas on the map are nearly the
same as those on the globe.

Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface 63

 Reading a Map
Maps provide information through the use of symbols. To read
a map, you must understand the symbols on the map and be able
to find directions and calculate distances.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Cartography Direction on a Map
Code: HQX0229
To correctly interpret a map, you must first determine how the
compass directions are displayed on the map. Maps are commonly
drawn with north at the top, east at the right, west at the left, and
south at the bottom. Parallels run from side to side, and meridians
run from top to bottom. Direction should always be determined in
relation to the parallels and meridians.
On maps published by the United States Geological Survey
(USGS), such as the one shown in Figure 5, north is located at the
top of the map and is marked by a parallel. The southern bound-
ary, at the bottom of a map, is also marked by a parallel. At least
two additional parallels are usually drawn in or indicated by cross
hairs at 2.5' intervals. Meridians of longitude indicate the eastern
and western boundaries of USGS maps. Additional meridians may
also be shown. All parallels and meridians shown on these maps
are labeled in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Many maps also include a compass rose, as shown in Figure 5.
A compass rose is a symbol that indicates the cardinal directions.
The cardinal directions are north, east, south, and west. Some maps
Figure 5 Maps may show replace the compass rose with a single arrow that points to geo-
locations by marking parallels and graphic north. This arrow is generally labeled and may not always
meridians. Direction is commonly point to the top of the map.
shown with a compass rose
(inset).

64 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 Figure 6 The map legend
explains the symbols used on
the map.

Symbols
Maps often have symbols for features such as cities and rivers.
The symbols are explained in the map legend, a list of the symbols legend a list of map symbols
and their meanings, such as the one shown in Figure 6. Some and their meanings
symbols resemble the features that they represent. Others, such as scale the relationship between
the distance shown on a map
those for towns and urban areas, are more abstract. and the actual distance

Map Scales
To be accurate, a map must be drawn to scale. The scale of a
map indicates the relationship between distance shown on the map
and actual distance. A map scale can be expressed as a graphic
scale, a fractional scale, or a verbal scale.
A graphic scale is a printed line that has markings on it that are
similar to those on a ruler. The line represents a unit of measure,
such as the kilometer or the mile. Each part of the scale represents
a specific distance on Earth. To find the actual distance between Deter
Determining
eterrminin
two points on Earth, you first measure the distance between the Distance You notice that
points as shown on the map. Then, you compare that measure- the scale on a map of the
United States says, “One
ment with the map scale.
centimeter equals 120
A second way of expressing scale is by using a ratio, or a kilometers.” By measuring the
fractional scale. For example, a fractional scale such as 1:25,000 indi- straight-line distance between
cates that 1 unit of distance on the map represents 25,000 of the Brooklyn, New York, and
same unit on Earth. A fractional scale remains the same with any Miami, Florida, you determine
system of measurement. In other words, the scale 1:100 could be that the cities are about
14.5 cm apart on the map.
read as 1 in. equals 100 in. or as 1 cm equals 100 cm.
What is the approximate
A verbal scale expresses scale in sentence form. An example of a distance in kilometers between
verbal scale is “One centimeter is equal to one kilometer.” In this the two cities?
scale, 1 cm on the map represents 1 km on Earth.
Name three ways to express scale on a map.

Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface 65

 Isograms
A line on a map that represents a
constant or equal value of a given
quantity is an isogram. The prefix
iso- is Greek for “equal.” The second
part of the word, -gram, means
“drawing.” This part of the word can
be changed to describe the measure-
ment being graphed. For example,
when a line connects points of equal
temperature, the line is called an
isotherm because iso- means “equal”
and therm means “heat.” All loca-
tions along an isogram share the
value that is being measured.
Isograms can be used to plot
many types of data. Meteorologists
use these lines to show changes in
Figure 7 Areas connected by atmospheric pressure on weather
the isobars on the map share maps. Isograms used for this purpose on a weather map are called
equal atmospheric pressure. isobars, as shown in Figure 7. All points along an isobar share the
same pressure value. Because one location cannot have two air
pressures, isobars never cross one another.
isogram a line on a map that
Scientists can use isograms on a map to plot data that represent
represents a constant or equal almost any type of measurement. Isograms are commonly used
value of a given quantity to show areas that have similar measurements of precipitation,
temperature, gravity, magnetism, density, elevation, or chemical
composition.

Section 2 Review
Key Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Identify two methods that scientists use to get 8. Applying Concepts If a cartographer is making
the data needed to make maps. a map for three countries that do not use a
2. Describe three types of map projections in terms
common unit of measurement, what type of scale
of their different characteristics and uses. should the cartographer use on the map? Explain
your answer.
3. Explain why all maps are in some way inaccurate
representations. 9. Making Inferences Why would a conic projec-
tion produce a better map for exploring polar
4. Summarize how to use legends and scales to regions than a cylindrical projection would?
read maps.
Concept Mapping
5. Describe what isograms show.
10. Use the following terms to create a concept
6. Explain why maps are more useful than globes map: cartography, map projection, cylindrical
are for studying small areas on the surface of projection, azimuthal projection, conic projection,
Earth. map, legend, scale, and symbol.
7. Summarize how to find directions on a map.

66 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 SECTION

3 Types of Maps
Key
ey
y Ideas
deass Key
ey
y Terms
e s Why
y Itt Matters
atte s
❯ Explain how elevation and topography are topography Different types of maps
shown on a map. elevation enable scientists to
❯ Describe three types of information shown in display detailed three-
contour line dimensional information
geologic maps.
relief about the surface and
❯ Identify two uses of soil maps. below-surface features of
Earth.

E arth scientists use a wide variety of maps that show many dis-
tinct characteristics of an area. Some of these characteristics include
types of rocks, differences in air pressure, and varying depths of
groundwater in a region. Scientists also use maps that show loca-
tions, elevations, and surface features of Earth.

Topographic Maps
One of the most widely used maps is called a topographic map.
Topographic maps show the surface features, or topography, of Earth.
Most topographic maps show both natural features, such as rivers
and hills, and constructed features, such as buildings and roads.
Topographic maps are made by using both aerial photographs and
survey points collected in the field. A topographic map shows the topography the size and shape
elevation, or height above sea level, of the land. Elevation is measured of the land surface features of a
region, including its relief
from mean sea level, the point midway between the highest and lowest
elevation the height of an
tide levels of the ocean. The elevation at mean sea level is 0. object above sea level

Advantages of Topographic Maps

An aerial view of an island is shown in Figure 1. Although
the drawing shows the shape of the island, it does not indicate
the island’s size or elevation. A typical map projection would
show the island’s size and shape but would not show the island’s
topography. A topographic map provides more detailed infor-
mation about the surface of the island than either the drawing ✕
or a projection map does. The advantage of a topographic map 715

is that it shows the island’s size, shape, and elevation. 70

0
600
500

300
Figure 1 A drawing gives little 400
200
100
information about the elevation
of the island (left). In the
topographic map (right),
contour lines have been drawn
to show elevation. An ⫻ marks 1 km

the highest point on this map.

Section 3 Types of Maps 67
 Elevation on Topographic Maps
On topographic maps, contour lines are used
to show elevation. Each contour line is an iso-
gram that connects points that have the same
elevation. Because points at a given elevation are
connected, the shape of the contour lines reflects
the shape of the land.
The difference in elevation between one con-
tour line and the next is called the contour
interval. A cartographer chooses a contour inter-
Figure 2 On a topographic val suited to the scale of the map and the relief of
map, the contour interval for the land. Relief is the difference in elevation
this mountain would be very between the highest and lowest points of the area being mapped.
large because of the mountain’s On maps of areas where the relief is high, such as the area shown in
steep slope. Figure 2, the contour interval may be as large as 50 or 100 m. Where
the relief is low, the interval may be only 1 or 2 m.
To make reading the map easier, a cartographer makes every
contour line a line that fifth contour line bolder than the four lines on each side of it. These
connects points of equal
elevation on a map bold lines, called index contours, are labeled by elevation. A point
relief the difference between between two contour lines has an elevation between the elevations
the highest and lowest of the two lines. For example, if a point is halfway between the 50
elevations in a given area and 100 m contour lines, its elevation is about 75 m. Exact eleva-
tions are marked by an × and are labeled.

Quick Lab Topographic Maps

Figure 2 On a topographic 20 min
map, the contour interval for
Procedure
this mountain would be very
1 Make
large a model
because mountain
of the that is 6 to 8 cm high
mountain’s
outslope.
steep of modeling clay. Work on a flat surface,
and smooth out the mountain’s shape. Make
one side of the mountain slightly steeper than
the other side.
2 Run a paper clip down one side of the model to
form a valley that is several millimeters wide.
3 Place the model in the center of a large water-
proof container that is at least 8 cm deep. 7 When you have finished, carefully drain the
4 Use tape to hold a ruler upright in the con- water and remove the model from the
tainer. One end of the ruler should rest on the container.
bottom of the container. Make sure that the
container is level. Analysis
5 Using the ruler as a guide, add water to the 1. What is the contour interval of your model?
container to a depth of 1 cm. Use a sharp pencil 2. Observe your model from directly above. Try to
to inscribe the clay by tracing around the model duplicate the size and spacing of the contour lines
along the waterline. on a sheet of paper to create a topographic map.
6 Raise the water level 1 cm at a time until you 3. Compare the contour lines on a steep slope with
reach the top of the model. Each time you add those on a gentle slope. How do they differ?
water to the container, inscribe another contour 4. How is a valley represented on your topographic
line in the clay along the waterline. map?

68 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 Figure 3 The features of the
area’s coastal valley are repre-
Landforms on Topographic Maps sented by contour lines on the
As shown in Figure 3, the spacing and the direction of contour topographic map of the area.
lines indicate the shapes of the landforms represented on a topo-
graphic map. Contour lines spaced widely apart indicate that the
change in elevation is gradual and that the land is relatively level.
Closely spaced contour lines indicate that the change in elevation Keyword: HQXMODF3
is rapid and that the slope is steep.
A contour line that bends to form a V shape indicates a valley.
The bend in the V points toward the higher end of the valley. If a
stream or river flows through the valley, the V in the contour line
will point upstream, the direction from which the water flows. A
river always flows from higher to lower elevation. The width of the
V formed by the contour line shows the width of the valley.
Contour lines that form closed loops indicate a hilltop or a
depression. Generally, a depression is indicated by depression
contours, which are closed-loop contour lines that have short,
straight lines perpendicular to the inside of the loop. These short
lines point toward the center of the depression.
www.scilinks.org
Why do V-shaped contour lines along a river Topic: Topographic Maps
Code: HQX1536
point upstream?

Topographic Map Symbols

Symbols are used to show certain features on topographic
maps. Symbol color indicates the type of feature. For example, con-
structed features, such as buildings, boundaries, roads, and rail-
roads, are generally shown in black. Major highways are shown in
red. Bodies of water are shown in blue, and forested areas are
shown in green. Contour lines are brown or black. Often, areas
whose map information has been updated based on aerial photog-
raphy but not verified by field exploration are shown in purple. A
key to common topographic map symbols is provided for your
reference in Appendix E.

Section 3 Types of Maps 69

Figure 4 Each color on this
geologic map represents a
distinct type of rock and shows Geologic Maps
where in this region that type of Geologic maps, such as the one shown in Figure 4, are designed
rock occurs. to show the distribution of geologic features. In particular, geo-
logic maps show the types of rocks found in a given area and the
locations of faults, folds, and other structures.
Geologic maps are created on top of another map, called a base
map. The base map provides surface features, such as topography
or roads, to help identify the location of the geologic units. The
base map is commonly printed in light colors or as gray lines so
that the geologic information on the map is easy to read and
understand.

Layered Book Rock Units on Geologic Maps

Make a layered book FoldNote,
and label the tabs
A volume of rock of a given age range and rock type is a
“Topographic Maps,” geologic unit. On geologic maps, geologic units are distinguished
“Geologic Maps,” “Soil Maps,” by color. Units of similar ages are generally assigned colors in the
and “Other Maps.” Write same color family, such as different shades of blue. In addition to
notes on assigning a color, geologists assign a set of letters to each rock unit.
the appropri- This set of letters is commonly one capital letter followed by one or
ate layer as
you read
more lowercase letters. The capital letter symbolizes the age of the
Section 3. rock, usually by geologic period. The lowercase letters represent
the name of the unit or the type of rock.

Other Structures on Geologic Maps

Other markings on geologic maps are contact lines. A contact
line indicates places at which two geologic units meet, called
contacts. The two main types of contacts are faults and depositional
contacts. Depositional contacts show where one rock layer formed
above another. Faults are cracks where rocks have moved past
each other. Also on geologic maps are strike and dip symbols for
rock beds. Strike indicates the direction in which the beds run, and
dip indicates the angle at which the beds tilt.

70 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

Soil Maps
Another type of map that is commonly used by Earth scientists
is called a soil map. Scientists construct soil maps to classify, map,
and describe soils. Soil maps are based on soil surveys that record
information about the properties of soils in a given area. Soil sur-
veys can be performed for a variety of areas, but they are most
commonly performed for a county.
The government agency that is in charge of overseeing and
compiling soil data is the Natural Resources Conservation Service
(NRCS). The NRCS is part of the United States Department of Academic Vocabulary
Agriculture (USDA). The NRCS has been mapping the distribution distribution (DIS tri BYOO shuhn)
of soils in the United States for more than a century. relative arrangement of objects or
organisms in time or space
Why do scientists create soil maps?

Soil Surveys
A soil survey consists of three main parts: text, maps, and tables.
The text of soil surveys includes general information about the geol-
ogy, topography, and climate of the area being mapped. The tables
describe the types and volumes of soils in the area. Soil surveys
generally include two types of soil maps. The first type is a very Figure 5 Scientists gather
data to make a soil map by
general map that shows the approximate location of different types taking soil samples. Soil maps
of soil within the area, such as the one shown in Figure 5. The sec- help scientists determine the
ond type shows detailed information about soils in the area. potential abilities and limitations
of the land to support develop-
Uses of Soil Maps ment and agriculture.
Soil maps are valuable tools for agriculture
and land management. Knowing the properties
of the soil in an area helps farmers, agricultural
engineers, and government agencies identify
ways to conserve and use soil and to plan sites
for future development.

71
 Other Types of Maps
Earth scientists also use maps to show the
location and flow of both water and air. These
maps are commonly constructed by plotting
data from various points around a region and
then using isograms to connect the points whose
data are identical.
Maps are useful to every branch of Earth sci-
ence. For example, meteorologists use maps
such as the one shown in Figure 6 to record and
predict weather events. Maps may be used to
plot the amount of precipitation that falls in a
given area. Maps are also used to show the loca-
tions of areas of high and low air pressure and
Figure 6 This map was the weather fronts that move across Earth’s sur-
created by using satellite data.
face. These maps are updated constantly and are used by meteo-
The map shows the global
distribution of lightning based rologists to communicate to the public important information on
on the average number of daily weather conditions and emergency situations.
strikes per square kilometer. The The location and direction of the flow of groundwater can be
highest frequency of strikes is recorded on maps. Data from these maps can be used to deter-
shown in black, and the lowest mine where and when water shortages may occur. Scientists use
frequency is shown in white.
map information to identify potential locations for power plants,
waste disposal sites, and new communities.
Other types of Earth scientists use maps to study changes in
Earth’s surface over time. Such changes include changes in topog-
raphy, changes in amounts of available resources, and changes in
factors that affect climate. Maps generated by satellites are particu-
larly useful for studying changes in Earth’s surface.

Section 3 Review
Key Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Explain how elevation is shown on a topo- 8. Applying Ideas How can you use lines on a
graphic map. topographic map to identify the direction of
2. Define contour interval.
river flow?
9. Making Inferences In what ways might topo-
3. Summarize how you can use information on a
topographic map to compare the steepness of graphic maps be more useful than simple map
slopes on the map. projections to someone who wants to hike in an
area that he or she has never hiked in before?
4. Describe how geologic units of similar ages are
shown on a geologic map. 10. Identifying Patterns What type of map
would be the most useful to a scientist studying
5. Identify the three main parts of a soil survey. earthquake patterns: a geologic map or a
6. Identify two primary uses for soil maps. topographic map?
7. Identify three types of maps other than topo- Concept Mapping
graphic maps, geologic maps, and soil maps. 11. Use the following terms to create a concept
map: topographic map, elevation, mean sea level,
contour interval, contour line, and index contour.

72 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

Why It Matters

Is There Anywhere
That Isn’t Mapped?
Lost in the city? Consult a map. Lost in the
woods? Check your handy GPS receiver.
With our ever-improving models of Earth,
it is getting harder to “get lost”—harder,
but not impossible. While much of Earth’s
surface is mapped, a detailed view of many
features on and below its surface remains
incomplete. Parts of rain forests around the
world remain uncharted, and there are
many kilometers of caves and sinkholes
(cenotes) that no human has ever entered.

The Darien Gap borders

Inventor and explorer Bill Stone used Panama and Columbia. It
a robotic submarine, DEPTHX, to is a dense, 26,000 km2,
survey Mexico’s unexplored El area containing forest and
Zacatón cenote in 2007. The same swamp—and the only
technology may one day be used to part of the Pan-American
map the moons of the outer planets. Highway that is not fully
mapped.

Mammoth Cave in
Kentucky has more than
600 km of surveyed
passages and perhaps
twice as many that are still
unmapped. CRITICAL THINKING
What are three locations on or
under Earth that you think have
yet to be mapped?
ONLINE RESEARCH
Research these three locations to
find out whether or not they
have been mapped.

73
 Making Models Lab 90 min

Contour Maps: Island

What You’ll Do
❯ Build a scale model based Construction
on a map. A map is a drawing that shows a simplified version of some detail of
❯ Identify contour intervals Earth’s surface. There are many types of maps. Each type has its own
and landscape features special features and purpose. One of the most useful types of maps is
based on a map. the topographic map, or contour map. This type of map shows eleva-
tion and other important features of the landscape. Scientists make a
What You’ll Need contour map by using data obtained from a careful survey and photo-
basin, flat (or large pan), graphic study of the area that the map represents.
8 cm deep
clay, modeling (4 lb)
dowel, thick wooden Procedure
(or rolling pin)
knife, plastic 1 Study the topograp
topographic map in the Reference Tables section of the
paper, white Appendix. Record the contour interval used on the island contour map.
pencil Then, count the number of contour lines that appear on the map.
ruler, metric
2 Use the dowel to press out as many flat pieces of clay as there were
scissors contour lines counted in step 1. Each piece of clay should be 1 cm
topographic map from thick and large enough to cover the island shown on the map.
Reference Tables section
of the Appendix 3 On a blank sheet of paper, trace the island contour map. Cut out
water the island from your copy of the contour map along the outermost
contour line.
Safety
4 Place this cutout on top of one of the pieces of clay. Trace the edge
of the cutout in the clay. Cut the piece of clay to match the shape
of the island.

Step 2

74
5 Cut the paper tracing along the next contour line, making sure
not to damage the outer ring of paper as you cut.
6 Using the new paper shape and a new layer of clay, repeat
step 4.
7 Place the paper ring from the first cut on the first clay shape
that you cut out so that the outer edges of the paper ring line
up with the edges of the clay. Stack the second layer of clay on
the first layer so that the second layer fits inside the paper
contour ring. This gives you the same contour spacing as shown Step 5
on the map. Remove the paper ring.
8 Continue steps 4–7 for each of the contour layers.
9 Use leftover clay to smooth the terraced edges into a more natural
profile.
0 Make a mark inside a pan approximately 1 cm down from the
rim. Put the clay model of the island into the pan, and add
water to a depth of 1 cm.
q Compare the shoreline of the model with the lines on the
contour map. Continue to add water at 1 cm intervals until the
water reaches the mark on the pan.

Analysis
1. Making Infere
1 Inferences What is the contour interval of your map? Step 6
2. Understanding Relationships How could you tell the steepest
slope from the gentlest slope by observing the spacing of the
contour lines?
3. Analyzing Data What is the elevation above sea level for the
highest point of your model?
4. Applying Ideas How do you know if your model contains any
areas that are below sea level? If there are any such areas, where are
they and what are their elevations?
5. Evaluating Models What landscape feature is located at point C
on your model, as indicated on the original map? What is the
elevation of point B on your model?

Extension
Making Predictions From observations of your model, what
conclusions can you make about where people might live on this
island? Explain your answer.

Chapter 3 Making Models Lab 75

Topographic Map of the
Desolation Watershed

Scale: 1:24,000
0 1,000 ft 2,000 ft

Contour interval = 40 ft
Contour line
Index contour
River
Improved road
Unimproved road
Trail
Benchmark ✕

Map Skills Activity

This map, produced by the United States Geological area around Bruin Creek? How are you able to
Survey (USGS), shows the topography of the area determine this information by looking at the map?
around the Desolation watershed located in eastern 4. Inferring Relationships What is the elevation
Oregon. Note that the USGS uses English and metric of the contour line that circles the point 4550T,
units when measuring distance. Use the map to located on the northwest of the map?
answer the questions below.
5. Identifying Trends Desolation Creek, Park
1. Using a Key What is the distance between Creek, and Bruin Creek enter the map from
the location on the northwest corner of the map different geographic directions. Use the infor-
labeled “4681T” and the location on the eastern mation on the map to determine what these
side of the map labeled “5212T”? creeks have in common in terms of their direc-
2. Analyzing Data In what direction does Park tion of flow.
Creek flow? How are you able to determine this 6. Analyzing Relationships What is the total
information by looking at the map? change in elevation between two index
3. Making Comparisons Which area has the contours?
steeper slopes: the area around Park Creek or the

76 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

Chapter
3 Summary
Keyword: HQXMODS

Key Ideas Key Terms

Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth

❯ Lines of latitude are parallels that run east and west around parallel, p. 57
Earth. Lines of longitude are meridians that run north and latitude, p. 57
south from pole to pole. meridian, p. 58
❯ Lines of latitude and longitude form a system of intersecting longitude, p. 58
lines (a grid system). The points at which lines intersect may
be used to identify places on Earth’s surface.
❯ The needle of a compass points to the geomagnetic north
pole. Once north is located, south, east, and west may be
determined.

Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface

❯ Two ways that scientists get data to make maps are by using remote sensing, p. 61
field surveys and by using images of Earth’s surface obtained map projection, p. 62
by remote sensing. legend, p. 65
❯ For cylindrical projections, distances and sizes are accurate scale, p. 65
near the equator but distorted at the poles. Azimuthal isogram, p. 66
projections are commonly used to map the poles, where
distortion is minimal; distortion increases, however, farther
from the poles. Conic projections are useful for mapping
mid-latitude regions.
❯ The keys and legends of maps list map symbols and their
meanings. Map scales show the relationship between
distance shown on a map and actual distance.

Section 3 Types of Maps

❯ Contour lines are used to show elevation and topography on topography, p. 67
a map. elevation, p. 67
❯ Geologic maps show the types and locations of rocks, faults, contour line, p. 68
folds, and other geologic features. relief, p. 68
❯ Soil maps are used to classify, map, and describe soils.

Chapter 3 Summary 77
 Chapter
3 Review
1. Layered Book You have made a layered book 13. The shortest distance between any two points
for concepts within a section. Now make a on the globe is along
layered book with the names of the three a. the equator.
sections themselves and b. a line of latitude.
summarize the key ideas in the c. the prime meridian.
chapter. d. a great circle.
14. If 1 cm on a map equals 1 km on Earth, the
USING KEY TERMS fractional scale would be written as
a. 1:1. c. 1:100,000.
Use each of the following terms in a separate b. 1:100. d. 1:1,000,000.
sentence.
15. On a topographic map, elevation is shown by
2. cartography means of
3. map projection a. great circles.
4. contour lines b. contour lines.
c. verbal scale.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings d. fractional scale.
of the terms differ. 16. What type of map is commonly used to locate
5. parallel and latitude faults and folds in beds of rock?
6. meridian and longitude a. geologic map
7. legend and scale b. topographic map
c. soil map
8. topography and relief d. isogram map
9. index contour and contour interval 17. The contour interval is a measurement of
a. the change in elevation between two
UNDERSTANDING KEY IDEAS adjacent contour lines.
b. the distance between mean sea level and
10. The distance in degrees east or west of the any given contour line.
prime meridian is c. the length of a contour line.
a. latitude. d. the time needed to travel between any two
b. longitude. contour lines.
c. declination.
d. projection.
SHORT ANSWER
11. The distance covered by a degree of longitude
a. is 1/180 of Earth’s circumference. 18. How much distance on Earth’s surface does
b. is always equal to 11 km. one second of latitude equal?
c. increases as you approach the poles. 19. What is the difference between latitude and
d. decreases as you approach the poles. longitude?
12. The needle of a magnetic compass points 20. What are the three main types of map
toward the projections? How do they differ?
a. geomagnetic pole.
b. geographic pole. 21. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of
c. parallels. the three main types of map projections.
d. meridians. 22. How do legends and scales help people
interpret maps?
23. How do contour lines on a map illustrate
topography?

78 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

 CRITICAL THINKING WRITING SKILLS
24. Applying Ideas What is wrong with the 33. Writing from Research Research the
following location: 135°N, 185°E? navigation instrument known as the sextant.
25. Identifying Trends As you move from point Make a diagram explaining how the sextant
A to point B in the Northern Hemisphere, the can be used to determine latitude.
length of a degree of longitude progressively 34. Writing from Research Use the Internet
decreases. In which direction are you moving? and library resources to research global
26. Understanding Relationships Imagine that positioning systems. Write a short essay
you are at a location where the magnetic describing the different ways that GPS devices
declination is 0°. Describe your position relative are currently being used in everyday situations.
to magnetic north and true north. Then, make a prediction about how the
technology might be used in the future.
27. Making Inferences You examine a
topographic map on which the contour
interval is 100 m. In general, what type of INTERPRETING GRAPHICS
terrain is probably shown on the map?
The map below shows contour lines of ground-
28. Applying Ideas A topographic map shows water. The lines show elevation of the water table
two hiking trails. Along trail A, the contour lines in meters above sea level. Use the map to answer
are widely spaced. Along trail B, the contour the questions that follow.
lines are almost touching. Which path would
probably be easier and safer to follow? Why?
Sandstone 20
Shale
CONCEPT MAPPING River
Groundwater
29. Use the following terms to create a concept contour
map: latitude, longitude, relief, map projection,
cylindrical projection, elevation, map, azimuthal 30
projection, contour line, conic projection,
topography, legend, and scale.

MATH SKILLS
30. Making Calculations A topographic map
40

has a contour interval of 30 m. By how many

meters would your elevation change if you
crossed seven contour lines?
31. Applying Quantities A map has a fractional
scale of 1:24,000. How many kilometers would
3 cm on the map represent?
35. What is the contour interval for this map?
32. Making Calculations A city to which you
are traveling is located along the same 36. What is the highest measured level of the
meridian as your current position but is 11° of water table?
latitude to the north of your current position. 37. Groundwater flows from highest to lowest
About how far away is the city? elevation. In which direction is the ground-
water flowing?

Chapter 3 Review 79
 Chapter
3 Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts Reading Skills
Directions (1–5): For each question, write on a Directions (8–10): Read the passage below. Then,
separate sheet of paper the letter of the correct answer the questions.
answer.
1. How can you determine whether the contours Map Projections
on a topographic map show a gradual slope? Earth is a sphere, and thus its surface is curved.
A. Look for V-shaped contour lines. When a curved surface is transferred to a flat map,
B. Look for widely spaced contour lines. distortions in size, shape, distance, and direction
C. Look for short, straight lines inside the loop. occur. To limit these distortions, cartographers
D. Look for tightly spaced, circular contour have developed many ways of transferring a
lines. three-dimensional curved surface to a flat map.
On cylindrical projections, meridians and
2. What is the difference in elevation between two
parallels appear as straight lines. These lines
successive index contours on a map with a
cross each other at 90 ° angles and form a grid.
contour interval of 5 m?
On azimuthal projections, there is little distortion
F. 5 m
at one contact point on the map, which is often
G. 10 m
one of the poles. But distortion in direction and
H. 20 m
distance increases as distance from the point of
I. 25 m
contact increases. On conic projections, the map
3. What part of a road map would you use in is accurate along one parallel of latitude. Areas
order to measure the distance from your near this parallel are distorted the least.
current location to your destination? However, none of these maps is an entirely
A. latitude lines accurate representation of Earth’s surface.
B. map scale
C. longitude lines 8. Which of the following appears as a straight
D. map legend line on an azimuthal projection, where the
point of contact is the North Pole?
4. For what reason do meteorologists use isobars F. great circles
on a weather map? G. parallels
F. to show differences in atmospheric air H. the equator
pressure I. coastlines
G. to connect points of equal temperature
H. to plot local precipitation data 9. Which of the following statements about
I. to show elevation above or below sea level cylindrical projections is true?
A. Because latitude and longitude form a grid,
5. What is the angular distance, measured in plotting great circles can be done by using
degrees, east or west of the prime meridian? a straight-edged ruler.
A. latitude B. Because latitude and longitude form a grid,
B. longitude finding specific locations is easy on a
C. isogram cylindrical-projection map.
D. relief C. Maps made by cylindrical projection often
Directions (6–7): For each question, write a short show the greatest distortion where the
response. projection touched the globe.
D. Cylindrical projections often show polar
6. What is the longitude of the prime meridian?
regions as being much smaller than they
7. What is the latitude of the North Pole? actually are.
10. Why does each map described display some
sort of distortion?

80 Chapter 3 Models of the Earth

Interpreting Graphics
Directions (11–14): For each question below, record the correct answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
Use the topographic map below to answer questions 11 and 12.

Topographic Map of the Orr River

D 120 N
100 80
80
100 C
120
B
Or

A
rR

iv
er

60

40

20

11. What location on the map has the steepest gradient?

F. location A H. location C
G. location B I. location D
12. In which direction is the river in the topographic map flowing? What
information on the map helped you determine your answer?
The diagram below shows Earth’s system of latitude and longitude lines. Lines
are shown in 30° increments. Use this diagram to answer questions 13 and 14.

Latitude and Longitude

A

E F

C D

G H

13. Which point is located at 30°N, 60°E?

A. point E C. point G Choose an answer to a
question based on both
B. point F D. point H
what you already know as
14. The distance between two lines of parallel that are 1° apart is about well as any information
111 km. What is the approximate distance between points G and E? presented in the question.

Chapter 3 Standardized Test Prep 81