sustainability

Article
Strength Time–Varying and Freeze–Thaw Durability
of Sustainable Pervious Concrete Pavement Material
Containing Waste Fly Ash
Hanbing Liu 1 , Guobao Luo 1 , Longhui Wang 2 and Yafeng Gong 1, *
1 College of Transportation, Jilin University, Changchun 130025, China; [email protected] (H.L.);
[email protected] (G.L.)
2 China Construction Eighth Engineering Division Corp Ltd, Shanghai 200135, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0431-8509-5446




Received: 27 November 2018; Accepted: 24 December 2018; Published: 31 December 2018


Abstract: Pervious concretes, as sustainable pavement materials, have great advantages in addressing
a number of environmental issues. Fly ash, as the industrial by-product waste, is the most commonly
used as cement substitute in concrete. The objective of this paper is to study the effects of waste fly
ash on properties of pervious concrete. Fly ash was used to replace cement with equivalent volume
method at different levels (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%). The control pervious concrete and fly ash modified
pervious concrete were prepared in the laboratory. The porosity, permeability, compressive strength,
flexural strength, and freeze–thaw resistance of all mixtures were tested. The results indicated that
the addition of fly ash decreased the early-age (28 d) compressive strength and flexural strength,
but the long-term (150 d) compressive strength and flexural strength of fly ash modified pervious
concrete were higher than that of the early-age. The adverse effect of fly ash on freeze–thaw resistance
of pervious concrete was observed when the fly ash was added. The porosity and permeability of all
pervious concrete mixtures changed little with the content of fly ash due to the use of equal volume
replacement method. Although fly ash is not positive to the properties of pervious concrete, it is still
feasible to apply fly ash as a substitute for cement in pervious concrete.

Keywords: pervious concrete; fly ash; time-varying strength; freeze–thaw resistance; permeability

1. Introduction
Pervious pavement plays an important role in urban rainwater management system. At the
same time, it is of great significance to the future development of the urbanization [1]. In urban
construction, large area of the city's original soil surface has been coated with cement, concrete,
and other impervious surfaces [2]. The public places such as sidewalks, open-air parking lots and
square, were also covered by stone or cement brick. Impervious surface has a significant adverse
impact on urban ecology and climate environment while improving traffic and road conditions and
beautifying the environment [3–5]. In general, summer is a season of heavy rains in China. The serious
water accumulation has been occurred in many cities, which caused many disasters, such as traffic
jams, power outages, and flooded houses [6–8]. The main reason for this is that the urban road surface
is impervious [9]. The pervious pavement is an effective method to balance the urban ecosystem.
The rainwater can penetrate into the ground from the pervious pavement and cause the groundwater
level to rise rapidly [10]. The pervious pavement is the connecting passage between the underground
and the ground, so that the ground is warm in winter and cool in summer, which can increase the
comfort of urban living [11]. In addition, due to the large number of pores and large specific surface
area of pervious pavement, it has strong adsorption capacity for dust, which can reduce dust pollution.

Sustainability 2019, 11, 176; doi:10.3390/su11010176 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 2 of 13

However, in order to prevent voids from being clogged, regular cleaning is needed. On the other
hand, the noise caused by vehicles can be well absorbed by the pores of pervious pavement [12,13].
Some developed countries began to investigate and develop pervious pavement materials in the
1970s and applied them to sidewalks, bicycle lanes, public square, open-air parking lots, park roads,
shoulder and central divider [14]. It has increased the permeable space of the city and has achieved
good results in regulating the urban climate and maintaining the ecological balance. After the 1990s,
paving the pavement with pervious materials instead of traditional materials has become a common
experience in urban construction in developed countries [15]. For example, Germany, which is known
for its environmental protection technology, proposes to transform 90% of the roads in the country
into pervious pavements by 2010. It can be seen that the pervious pavement is of great significance to
the future development of the city.
Cement is the most basic raw material for engineering construction. At present, there is no
material at home and abroad that can replace its status. Despite the rapid development of the cement
industry, many problems have arisen, such as serious waste of resources, huge energy consumption,
and serious pollution to the environment [16]. In addition, the carbon dioxide produced by the
cement production causes global warming [17]. On the other hand, the dust emission in cement
production is high, which will pollute the air, produce haze, and cause environmental pollution [18].
Reducing the amount of cement and finding possible cement substitutes is an important way to achieve
sustainable development.
Fly ash is a kind of industrial by-product waste. It is the fine ash obtained from the coal
combustion [19]. In China, the annual output of fly ash has reached 30 million tons. With the
development of the power industry, the amount of fly ash discharged from coal-fired power plants
has increased year by year. If the large amount of fly ash is not treated reasonably, it will generate
dust and pollute the atmosphere; if it is discharged into the water system, it will cause river blockage,
and the toxic chemicals will cause harm to human and other creatures [20]. Therefore, how to dispose
and utilize fly ash has become a widely concerned issue. In China, as early as the 1950s, fly ash began
to be used as a concrete and mortar admixture and pavement base material in construction and road
engineering, especially in hydropower construction and dam projects [21]. In the 1960s, the utilization
of fly ash began to shift to wall materials and the comprehensive utilization of fly ash was booming in
the 1980s. Fly ash has also been used in other countries with different degrees. The UK has developed
a high-quality commercial fly ash for reinforced concrete. Poland focused on the use of fly ash in
building materials. The comprehensive utilization of fly ash in France started earlier, especially in
the application of cement and concrete [21,22]. Australia attached great importance to the quality
control system of fly ash concrete industry, and had a company specializing in high quality fly ash
products [23]. Therefore, the utilization of fly ash and its application in roads and building materials
cannot only realize waste utilization, but also reduce the amount of cement, which has high economic
and environmental protection value.
The application of fly ash in cement concrete has many advantages, such as reducing cement
consumption; improving the workability of concrete mixture; reducing creep, hydration heat,
and thermal expansion of concrete; and improving the impermeability of concrete [24]. The effects of
fly ash on cement concrete have been reported by many researchers. Wu et al. [25] investigated the
effect of fly ash on the fresh and aged mechanical properties and durability of coral aggregate concrete,
the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, chloride penetration, and micro-hardness of the
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) were measured, compared with the control group, the addition of fly
ash improved the cohesiveness and water retention. On the other hand, fly ash had a negative effect
on early-age strength, but significantly enhanced the long-term strength. Zhu et al. [26] conducted
experiments on fly ash modified engineered cementitious composites (ECC), the ductility and
compressive strength properties were tested. The results showed that the addition of fly ash
reduced the compressive strength about 40%, but it is positive in improving the ductility of ECC.
Uthaman et al. [27] conducted experiments and investigated the strength and durability of fly ash
Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 3 of 13

concrete. The results indicated the early-age strength and durability of fly ash concrete were
insufficient, but the long-term strength and durability were improved. The freeze–thaw resistance of
high-performance concrete (HPC) modified by fly ash was investigated by Ma et al. [28], the result
indicated the fly ash improved the freeze–thaw durability of HPC. In summary, fly ash has positive
effect on the long-term mechanical property and durability of concrete, but it is negative for
early-age strength.
However, the application of fly ash in pervious concrete is not as extensive as in ordinary
concrete and the related researches are few. Muthaiyan and Thirumalai [29] studied the strength
properties of pervious concrete modified by fly ash. The fly ash was used to replace cement at 10%
and 20% levels, and the results showed that 28 d compressive strength and flexural strength of fly
ash modified pervious concrete were significantly reduced, especially the mixture with 20% fly ash.
Aoki et al. [30] investigated the compressive strength and permeability of pervious concrete modified
by fly ash and the cement replacement levels were 20% and 50%. The compressive strengths of 20%
and 50% fly ash modified pervious concrete decreased 12.7% and 43.7%, respectively. The permeability
of pervious concrete was not affected by the addition of fly ash. Zaetang et al. [31] studied the fly ash
modified pervious cement concrete. The cement was replaced by fly ash at different levels (85, 90,
95, and 100%), the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength at the age of seven days were
tested. The results indicated that the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of fly ash
modified pervious concrete decreased with the increasing fly ash content. When the fly ash content was
100%, the maximum compressive strength and splitting tensile strength were 5.9 MPa and 0.74 MPa,
respectively. Peng et al. [32] investigated the compressive strength of fly ash modified pervious
concrete at the age of 28 and 60 days with fly ash content of 30%. The obvious decrease in compressive
strength at 28 d was observed compared to the control mixture. Compressive strength at 60d was
comparable to the control group. The adverse effects of fly ash on the strength of pervious concrete
were also reported by other researchers [33,34].
At present, the application of fly ash in ordinary concrete has been extensively studied. However,
studies on the effects of fly ash on the properties of pervious concrete are relatively few, and the existing
studies were mainly focused on the early-age (generally 28 d) properties of fly ash modified pervious
concrete. The long-term (60d, 90d, etc.) performance of fly ash modified pervious concrete has rarely
been reported. Additionally, the freeze–thaw durability of fly ash modified pervious concrete was
not studied extensively. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out research to investigate the strength
properties at different ages and freeze–thaw durability of fly ash modified pervious concrete. Based on
the previous researches conducted by our group [35,36], in order to evaluate the strength time–varying
and freeze–thaw durability of fly ash modified pervious concrete, pervious concrete modified by fly
ash was prepared with equivalent volume method, the porosity, permeability, strength at different ages
and freeze–thaw durability of fly ash modified pervious concrete with different fly ash incorporation
levels were studied. The conclusions obtained in this paper are helpful to understand the strength
development with age and freeze-thaw durability of fly ash modified pervious concrete, and will
provide reference for the research and application of fly ash in pervious concrete.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The raw materials used in the study were coarse aggregate, cement, fly ash, water,
and superplasticizer. The type, size, and physical properties of coarse aggregate are shown in Table 1.
Portland cement (P.O 42.5) was obtained from Jilin Yatai Cement Co., Ltd. (Jilin, China), and its physical
properties are shown in Table 2. Fly ash of class C, with the density of 1988 kg/m3 , was purchased
from Changchun FAW Co., Ltd. (Jilin, China). The chemical compositions of Portland cement and
fly ash are shown in Table 3. The polycarboxylic acid superplasticizer produced by Shanxi Qinfen
Building Material Co., Ltd. (Shanxi, China), was used to improve the workability of pervious concrete.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 4 of 13

Table 1. Properties of coarse aggregate.

Physical Property Index

Type natural granite coarse aggregate
Size (mm) 4.75–9.5
Apparent density (kg/m3 ) 2786
Bulk density (kg/m3 ) 1534
Bulk porosity (%) 44.9
Crushing value (%) 9.7
Needle-like particle content (%) 7.1
Water absorption (%) 1.63

Table 2. Physical properties of Portland cement.

Setting Time (min) Compressive Strength (MPa) Flexural Strength (MPa)

Density Specific Surface
(g/cm3 ) Area (m2 /kg) Initial Final
3d 28 d 3d 28 d
Setting Setting
2.96 342 182 251 21.8 47.6 4.7 7.5

Table 3. Chemical composition of Portland cement and fly ash.

Chemical Composition (%)

Materials
SiO2 Al2 O3 CaO MgO Fe2 O3 SO3
Cement 22.6 5.6 62.7 1.7 4.3 2.5
Fly ash 51.3 22.8 10.7 2.8 6.9 1.9

2.2. Mix Design

The mix of pervious concrete was designed with the volume method in accordance with the
Chinese national standard CJJ/T 135–2009 [37]. Fly ash modified previous concrete was prepared in
the experiment. In addition, pervious concrete without fly ash was prepared as the control pervious
concrete. Fly ash was incorporated at different levels to partially replace the cement with equivalent
volume method. The replacement levels were 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%, respectively. In our previous
work [35], the effects of porosity, water to binder ratio and coarse aggregate size on the strength
properties, permeability and freeze–thaw resistance of pervious concrete have been studied with
orthogonal experiment and the mix ratio of pervious concrete has been optimized. The optimum
mix ratio was coarse aggregate size of 4.75–9.5 mm, porosity of 15%, and water to binder ratio of
0.30, and this mix ratio was used in this study. In order to improve workability of pervious concrete,
superplasticizer was used and the dosage was 0.8% of the cementitious material mass. The mix
proportions are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Mix proportions of fly ash modified pervious concrete (in kg/m3 ).

Mix ID Coarse Aggregate Cement Fly Ash Water Superplasticizer

Control 1503.3 479.9 0 144.0 3.84
FA-3 1503.3 462.0 14.3 142.9 3.81
FA-6 1503.3 444.3 28.4 141.8 3.78
FA-9 1503.3 426.9 42.2 140.7 3.75
FA-12 1503.3 409.8 55.9 139.7 3.73

2.3. Specimen Preparation

According to the experiments, 100 × 100 × 400 mm prismatic specimen and 100 × 100 × 100 mm
cubic specimen were prepared. In the control group, three prismatic specimens for 28 d–flexural strength,
three cubic specimens for porosity, permeability and 28 d–compressive strength, and twelve cubic
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specimens for freeze–thaw cycles were needed. In the fly ash modified group, in addition to the same
the same
the same as
specimen specimen
specimen as the
the control
as the control
group, group,three
additional
control group, additional three
prismatic
additional prismaticfor
specimens
three prismatic specimens for 150
150 d–flexural
specimens for 150 d–flexural
strength and
d–flexural
strength
three and
cubic
strength and three cubic
specimens
three cubic specimens
for specimens for 150
150 d–compressive
150 d–compressive
for d–compressive strength
strength of eachstrength of each
group were
of each group A
prepared.
group were prepared.
totalprepared.
were A
of 87 cubic
A
total of
specimens87 cubic
and 27 specimens
prismatic and 27 prismatic
specimens were specimens
prepared in were
the lab prepared
for the in the
experiments.lab for
The the
total of 87 cubic specimens and 27 prismatic specimens were prepared in the lab for the experiments. experiments.
specimen curing
The specimen
specimen
conditions
The curing conditions
of different
curing conditions of different
tests are shown
of different
in Figuretests are shown
1. are
tests shown in in Figure
Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. The specimen
specimen curing
curing conditions
conditions of
of different
different tests.
tests.
Figure 1. The
The specimen curing conditions of different tests.

2.4. Testing
2.4.
2.4. Testing Methods
Testing Methods
Methods
The effective
The
The effectiveporosities
effective porosities(proportion
porosities (proportion
(proportion of
of of open
open pore
pore
open and
andand
pore semi–open
semi–open pore)
pore)pore)
semi–open of
of all of all mixtures
mixtures
all mixtures were
were tested
were
tested
with with
testedmass mass
withmethod. method. The effective
The effective
mass method. porosity
porosity
The effective was characterized
was characterized
porosity by the average
by thebyaverage
was characterized of
of three
the average three specimens
specimens
of three and
specimens
and determined by the following equation,
and determined by the following equation,
determined by the following equation,
mm m −0 m
(11 −m1 1 m0 ) 0100% (1)
1
PPP= ((1  ) × 100%
)  100% (1) (1)
V Vρ
V
where m
where
where m000 is
m is the
is themass
the massof
mass ofthe
of thespecimen
the specimensubmerged
specimen submergedinin
submerged inwater
water
water (g);
(g); m1m
(g); mis
1 is
thethe saturated
saturated surface–dry
surface–dry
1 is the saturated surface–dry mass
mass
mass of
of
thethe specimen
specimen (g);(g); ρ
is is
the the water
water density
density (g/cm
(g/cm ),
3 ), 3andand V V
is is
the the volume
volume
of the specimen (g); ρ is the water density (g/cm3), and V is the volume of the specimen (cm3).
ρ of of
thethe specimen
specimen (cm(cm
3 ).3).

The permeability
The
The permeabilitycoefficient
permeability coefficient
coefficient was
waswas measured
measured according
measured according to the
the national
to the national
according to national [37]
standard standard [37] with
with homemade
standard [37] with
homemade
homemade instrument. The description of the permeability instrument is shown in Figure 2. The test
instrument. instrument.
The description The ofdescription
the of
permeabilitythe permeability
instrument is instrument
shown in is shown
Figure 2. in
The Figure
test 2. The
procedures test
of
procedures
permeability of permeability
procedures ofcoefficient
permeability coefficient
are described
coefficient are
inare described
Figure 3. In each
described in Figure 3.
group,3.the
in Figure In each group,
In permeability
each group, the the permeability
waspermeability was
characterizedwas by
characterized
the average by the
permeability average permeability
coefficients of three coefficients
specimens. The of three
characterized by the average permeability coefficients of three specimens. The permeability
permeability specimens.
coefficient The
can permeability
be calculated
coefficient
by the following
coefficient can be
can be calculated
equation,
calculated by
the by the following
specific
the following
parameters equation, the specific
can be found
equation, the specific parameters
in reference [36]. can
parameters can be
be found
found in
in
reference [36].
reference [36].
QL
k = QL (2)
AHt
k  QL (2)
k 
AHt
(2)
AHt

Figure 2.
Figure
Figure 2. Homemade
2. measure instrument.
permeability measure
Homemade permeability measure instrument.
instrument.
 2018, 11,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 36 of
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Figure 3. Test procedures of permeability coefficient.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Test
Test procedures of permeability coefficient.
Compressive strength and flexural strength tests were conducted in accordance with the Chinese
national standardstrength
Compressive and flexural[38].
GB/T 50081-2002 The tests
strength were conducted
compressive strength in test
accordance Chinese
with the Chinese
was conducted with a
national standard
hydraulic pressure GB/TGB/T 50081-2002
testing50081-2002
machine. The [38].
[38].sidesThe compressive
Theofcompressive strength
the specimenstrengthwere used test was
testaswas conducted
conducted
the bearing withfor
with
surface a
hydraulic
hydraulic pressure
pressure
the compressive testing
testing
strength machine.
machine.
test. The
The loading Thesides
sides
rate ofof
for the the specimen
specimen
compressive werewere
strength used
used as
as5the
was the
kN/s bearing
bearing
and the surface
surface
load for
was
for
the the compressive
compressive strength
strength test. test.
The The
loading loading
rate rate
for for compressive
compressive strength strength
applied until the specimen broke. The flexural strength was conducted with a closed-loop, servo- was 5 was
kN/s 5
and kN/s
the and
load the
was
load wasuntil
applied
controlled applied
the until
hydraulic the specimen
specimen
testing broke.
system.The broke. The strength
flexural
Three–point flexural
bendingstrength
was was
conducted
test was conducted
adopted with with a closed-loop,
a closed-loop,
to determine servo-
the flexural
servo-controlled
controlled
strength. The hydraulic
hydraulic
loading point testing
testing system.
is system.
located in theThree–point
Three–point bending
midspan of bending wastest
testspecimen,
the was
andadopted
adopted to to determine
thedetermine
distance the
the flexural
between the
flexural
strength. strength. The
The loadingispoint
two support–points loading
300 mm. point
is located is located
in the midspan
The loading in the midspan
of the specimen,
rate for flexural of the
strength was specimen,
and 0.05 and
the distance the
kN/s. In between distance
the
each group,
between
two the two support–points
threesupport–points
specimens is 300
were mm.and
tested is the
The 300
loadingmm.rate
average Thecompressive
forloading
flexural rate for flexural
strength
strength wasand strength
0.05 kN/s. was
flexural In 0.05group,
each
strength kN/s.
were
In eachspecimens
three group,
calculated three
werespecimens
to characterize tested were
and the
the strength tested and thecompressive
average
properties. average
The compressive
compressive strength strength
andand
strength and
flexural flexural
flexuralstrength strength
strength were
can
were calculated
calculated to characterize
to characterize
be calculated by followingthe the strength
strength the
equations, properties.
properties.
specific The The compressive
compressive
parameters can be strength
strength
found in and and flexural strength
flexural strength can
[36].
cancalculated
be be calculated by following
by following equations,
equations, the specific
the specific parameters
parameters can can be found
be found in [36].
in [36].
F
fc =FF (3)
fc = A
fc = (3)
AA
33FL
FL
f f f=f = 3 FL 2 (4)
f =22bh
f
bh2 (4)
The 2 bh 2
The fast
fast freezing
freezing method
method was was adopted
adopted to to conduct
conduct freeze–thaw
freeze–thaw cycles
cycles testtest based
based onon the
the Chinese
Chinese
national
national standard
The fast freezing
standard GB/Tmethod
GB/T 50082-2009 [39].
was adopted
50082-2009 [39]. TheThe test
to conduct procedures
freeze–thaw
test procedures can be
cancycles described as: (a)
test basedas:on(a)
be described theplace
Chinese
place the
the
prepared
national specimen
preparedstandard
specimenGB/T into
into the specimen
50082-2009
the specimen[39].box and
and inject
box The water
water into
test procedures
inject the
the box,
into can the
the water
be described
box, should
water as: be
be 55 mm
(a) place
should mmthe
above
above the
prepared top
top surface
thespecimensurface of the
into
of the specimen;
specimen;
specimen box (b) set
(b) set
and the
the temperature
inject water into
temperature and
the
and number
box, the
number ofwater
of the freeze-thaw
the freeze-thaw cycles;
should be cycles;
5 mm
(c) conduct
above the top
(c) conduct freeze-thaw test;
surface oftest;
freeze-thaw (d) measure
the specimen;
(d) measure the
(b)the compressive
setcompressive
the temperature strength of
andof
strength the
number specimens after
of the freeze-thaw
the specimens the specified
cycles;
after the specified
number
(c) conduct
number of freeze-thaw
of freeze-thaw cycles.
cycles.
test; Thelevel
(d)The levelof
measure offreeze–thaw
the freeze–thawcycles
compressive cycles
strength was
was ofsetset
the to
25,25,
50,50,
tospecimens 75,75, and
after
and the100
100 cycles.
specified
cycles. In
In each
number freeze–thaw
of freeze-thaw
each freeze–thaw cycles
cyclescycles.level,
level,The three
level
three cubic specimens
of freeze–thaw
cubic specimens cycles were used.
was set
were used. The
Theto 25,compressive strength
50, 75, andstrength
compressive 100 cycles.after
afterIn
freeze–thaw
each freeze–thaw
freeze–thaw cycles was
was measured
cyclescycles level, three
measured and the
the compressive
andcubic specimens were
compressive strength
used.loss
strength The
loss was
was chosen
chosen as
compressive as the evaluation
strength
the after
evaluation
index
index for
for freeze–thaw
freeze–thaw cycles wasresistance.
freeze–thaw measured The
resistance. The
and detailed explanation
the compressive
detailed explanation for choosing
strength
for loss wascompressive
choosing chosen as the
compressive strength loss
evaluation
strength loss
can
indexbe
can beforfound elsewhere
freeze–thaw
found [36].
elsewhereresistance. The compressive strength
The detailedstrength
[36]. The compressive after
explanation freeze–thaw
for choosingcycles
after freeze–thaw cycles was
compressive characterized
strength loss
was characterized by
by
the
the average
can be foundstrength
average elsewhere
strength of three
of [36].
threeThespecimens.
compressive
specimens. Compressive strength
strength after
Compressive loss at
freeze–thaw
strength loss at the corresponding
cycles
the level
level was
was characterized
corresponding by
was
calculated
the average based on
strength the
of compressive
three strength
specimens. of specimens
Compressive under
strength
calculated based on the compressive strength of specimens under 0 freeze–thaw cycle. The 0 freeze–thaw
loss at the cycle. The
corresponding termination
level was
condition
calculated
termination ofbased
freeze–thaw
on the
condition cycles was that
compressive
of freeze–thaw the was
strength
cycles specimens
of theunderwent
thatspecimens under
specimens 100 0cycles or 100
the cycles
freeze–thaw
underwent compressive
cycle.or The
the
strength
termination
compressiveloss condition
exceeded
strength loss25%. The specimens
of freeze–thaw
exceeded cycles
25%. Theof fly
was ash modified
that
specimens the flypervious
of specimens concrete
underwent
ash modified after
10075concrete
pervious freeze–thaw
cycles orafter
the
cycles are shown
compressive
75 freeze–thaw in Figure
strength
cycles loss 4.
exceeded
are shown 25%. The
in Figure 4. specimens of fly ash modified pervious concrete after
75 freeze–thaw cycles are shown in Figure 4.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Figure 4. Fly ash modified specimens after 75 freeze–thaw cycles: (a) 3% fly ash modified specimen;
Figure
(b) 6% 4.fly
6%fly Fly
ash ash modified
modified
ash specimens
specimen;
modified (c) 9%
specimen; after
(c) fly 75fly
9%ash freeze–thaw
modified cycles:
specimen;
ash modified (a)
(d) 3%
12%fly
specimen; flyash
(d) ashmodified
12% fly ashspecimen;
modified specimen;
modified
(b)
(e) 6% fly (e)
control
specimen; ashcontrol
modified
specimen. specimen; (c) 9% fly ash modified specimen; (d) 12% fly ash modified
specimen.
specimen; (e) control specimen.
 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

3. Results and Discussion

The summary
Sustainability of
the compressive strength, flexural strength, porosity, and permeability results
2019, 11, 176 7 of 13
with the standard deviations are tabulated in Table 5, the freeze–thaw cycles results are shown in
Table 6.
3. Results and Discussion
Table 5. Strength,
The summary permeability,strength,
of the compressive and porosity results
flexural for fly ash
strength, modified
porosity, andpervious concrete
permeability results with
the standard deviationsPermeability
are tabulated in Table 5, the freeze–thaw cycles results are shown in Table 6.150 d FS
Porosity (%) 28 d CS 1 (MPa) 28 d FS 2 (MPa) 150 d CS (MPa)
Mix ID Coefficient (mm/s) (MPa)
Table 5.3 Strength, permeability, and porosity results for fly ash modified pervious concrete.
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Control 14.0 0.4 3.91 0.12
Permeability 22.2 28 d CS
0.501 4.84
28 d FS 2 0.09 150 d–CS – 150 d FS– –
Porosity (%)
FA-3 14.1
Mix ID 0.2 3.94 Coefficient
0.15 (mm/s)20.0 (MPa) 0.57 (MPa) 0.10
4.39 (MPa)
21.5 0.59 (MPa)4.77 0.09
FA-6 13.7 0.4
Mean SD3.79
3 Mean 0.13 SD 18.9Mean 0.43 SD 4.01
Mean SD0.14 Mean 20.2SD 0.62
Mean 4.33SD 0.08
FA-9 14.5
Control 0.3
14.0 0.43.97 3.91 0.11 0.12 16.3 22.2 0.61
0.50 3.73
4.84 0.10
0.09 – 18.5 – 0.51
– 4.12
– 0.11
FA-12 13.8
FA-3 0.3
14.1 0.23.87 3.94 0.13 0.15 14.7 20.0 0.54 0.57 3.54 0.100.12 21.5 17.40.59 0.32
4.39 4.77 3.78
0.09 0.10
FA-6 13.7 0.4 3.79
1 Compressive 0.13 2 Flexural
strength; 18.9 strength;
0.43 4.01 0.14 deviations.
3 Standard 20.2 0.62 4.33 0.08
FA-9 14.5 0.3 3.97 0.11 16.3 0.61 3.73 0.10 18.5 0.51 4.12 0.11
FA-12 13.8 0.3 3.87 0.13 14.7 0.54 3.54 0.12 17.4 0.32 3.78 0.10
Table 16. Freeze–thaw cycle results
2 of fly ash modified
3 pervious concrete.
Compressive strength; Flexural strength; Standard deviations.
Compressive Strength and Its Loss After Freeze–Thaw Cycles
Table
25 Cycles 6. Freeze–thaw cycle results of fly ash modified
50 Cycles 75pervious
Cycles concrete. 100 Cycles
Mix ID
Compressive Loss Compressive
Compressive Loss
Strength and Compressive
Its Loss After Freeze–Thaw Cycles Loss Compressive Loss
MixStrength
ID (MPa)25 Cycles(%) Strength 50 (MPa)
Cycles (%) Strength (MPa)
75 Cycles (%) Strength
100 Cycles (MPa) (%)
Control Compressive
21.2 4.5 Compressive
18.1 Compressive Compressive
Loss (%) Loss18.5
(%) 16.7 Loss (%) 24.8 14.2
Loss (%) 36.0
Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa)
FA-3 18.8 6.0 16.4 18.0 14.8 26.0 – –
Control 21.2 4.5 18.1 18.5 16.7 24.8 14.2 36.0
FA-6 FA-3 17.5 18.8 7.46.0 15.2
16.4 19.6
18.0 14.8 13.9 26.0 26.5 – – – –
FA-9 FA-6 15.1 17.5 7.47.4 15.2
12.8 19.6
21.5 13.9 11.5 26.5 29.4 – – – –
FA-9 15.1 7.4 12.8 21.5 11.5 29.4 – –
FA-12 FA-12 13.5 13.5 8.28.2 10.7
10.7 27.2
27.2 – – – – – – – –

3.1. Porosity
3.1. Porosity and
and Permeability
Permeability
The effective
The effective porosities
porosities ofof fly
fly ash
ash modified
modified pervious
pervious concrete
concrete are
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5.5. As
As can
can be
be
seen, the
seen, the incorporation
incorporation levels
levels of
of fly
fly ash
ash had
had little
little effect
effect on
on the
the effective
effective porosity
porosity ofof fly
fly ash
ash modified
modified
pervious concrete. This is because the cement was partially replaced by fly
pervious concrete. This is because the cement was partially replaced by fly ash with equivalent ash with equivalent
volume method,
volume method, thus
thus the
the addition
addition ofof fly
fly ash
ash did
did not
not cause
cause the
the pore
pore volume
volume changes
changes of of the
the specimen.
specimen.
In addition,
In addition, the
the effective
effective porosities
porositiesmeasured
measuredofofall allmixtures
mixtureswere
wereless
lessthan the
than thedesigned
designed porosity of
porosity
15%. The pore in previous concrete is composed of open pore, semi-open pore,
of 15%. The pore in previous concrete is composed of open pore, semi-open pore, and closed pore, and closed pore, the
effective
the porosity
effective only
porosity included
only included open
open and semi-open
and semi-openpore,pore,sosothe
theeffective
effectiveporosity
porosity was generally
was generally
lower than the total porosity.
lower than the total porosity.

18 4.8
Effective porosity
17 Permeability 4.4
16
Permeability (mm/s)

4.0
Effective porosity (%)

15
3.6
14
3.2
13
2.8
12

11 2.4

10 2.0
-3 0 3 6 9 12 15
Fly ash content (%) .
Figure 5. The effective porosity and permeability of fly ash modified pervious concrete versus fly
Figure 5. The effective porosity and permeability of fly ash modified pervious concrete versus fly ash
ash content.
content.
The permeability coefficients of fly ash modified pervious concrete are also shown in Figure 5.
From Figure 5, it can be concluded that the permeability coefficients were not affected by the dosage of
 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13

The permeability coefficients of fly ash modified pervious concrete are also shown in Figure 5.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 8 of 13
From Figure 5, it can be concluded that the permeability coefficients were not affected by the dosage
of fly ash. The permeability coefficients of all groups were about 3.8 mm/s, which is met the standard
requirement
fly of 0.5 mm/scoefficients
ash. The permeability for pervious
ofconcrete
all groupsin were
the national standard
about 3.8 mm/s, [37].
which Just as reported
is met in the
the standard
literature [35],
requirement of the
0.5 porosity
mm/s for was the most
pervious important
concrete andnational
in the direct factor that determined
standard [37]. Just as the permeability
reported in the
coefficient of pervious concrete, when the porosity did not change, the permeability would
literature [35], the porosity was the most important and direct factor that determined the permeability not
change. of pervious concrete, when the porosity did not change, the permeability would not change.
coefficient

3.2.
3.2.Compressive
CompressiveStrength
Strength
The
The compressive
compressive strengthstrength of ofthe
theflyflyashash modified
modified pervious
pervious concrete
concrete is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 6.
6. It can
Itbecan
seenbethat
seen thethat
addition of fly ash
the addition ofreduced
fly ash both 28 d–both
reduced and 28
150–compressive strengths ofstrengths
d– and 150–compressive the pervious of
concrete.
the pervious With the increasing
concrete. With the amount
increasing of amount
fly ash, the
of fly28ash,
d–compressive strength of
the 28 d–compressive fly ashof
strength modified
fly ash
perviouspervious
modified concreteconcrete
decreased rapidly.rapidly.
decreased When the When addition of fly of
the addition ashflychanged fromfrom
ash changed 0% to 0%12%, the
to 12%,
compressive
the compressive strength
strength decreased
decreased from 22.222.2
from MPa to 14.7
MPa MPa,
to 14.7 the the
MPa, compressive
compressivestrength
strengthreduction was
reduction
7.5 MPa
was withwith
7.5 MPa the loss
the ratio of 33.8%.
loss ratio The adverse
of 33.8%. effect of
The adverse fly ash
effect on ash
of fly the 28
ond–compressive strength
the 28 d–compressive
has beenhas
strength also reported
been by otherby
also reported researchers. The main
other researchers. reason
The mainfor the decrease
reason in compressive
for the decrease strength
in compressive
caused by
strength fly ash
caused by was,
fly ashonwas,
one on hand,
onethehand,fly the
ash fly
was added
ash to partially
was added replacereplace
to partially the cement, which
the cement,
caused
which the decrease
caused the decreasein thein amount
the amount of cement.
of cement. The Thedecrease
decreaseofofcement
cementresulted
resulted in
in the decrease
decreaseof of
cementbinder
cement binderused usedtotocoat
coatthe
theaggregate
aggregateand andreduced
reducedthe thebonding
bondingforceforcebetween
betweenaggregates.
aggregates.On Onthe
the
otherhand,
other hand,due dueto tothe
thewater
waterdemand
demandof offly
flyash,
ash,ififthere
therewas
wasno nosupplemental
supplementalwater, water,thetheaddition
additionof of
flyash
fly ashwould
wouldreducereducethe thewater
waterrequired
requiredfor forcement
cementhydration.
hydration.TheThereduction
reductionin inwater
waterinfluenced
influencedthe the
cementhydration
cement hydrationdegreedegreeand andthetheincomplete
incompletecement cementhydration
hydration[40]
[40]weakened
weakenedthe thebonding
bondingbetween
between
coarseaggregates.
coarse aggregates.All Allthese
thesedecreased
decreasedthe thecompressive
compressivestrength
strengthofoffly
flyash
ashmodified
modifiedpervious
perviousconcrete.
concrete.
Comparedwith
Compared withthethecontrol
controlgroup,
group,the the28 28d–compressive
d–compressiveof offly
flyash
ashmodified
modifiedpervious
perviousconcrete
concretewas was
obviouslylower.
obviously lower.

23
28d 150d
21
Compressive strength (MPa)

19

17

15

13
0 3 6 9 12
Fly ash content （%）

Figure6.6.Compressive
Figure Compressivestrength
strengthof
offly
flyash
ashmodified
modifiedpervious
perviousconcrete
concreteversus
versusfly
flyash
ashcontent.
content.

The
The150150d–compressive
d–compressivestrength
strengthof offly
flyash
ashmodified
modifiedpervious
perviousconcrete
concreteincreased
increasedatatall
alladdition
addition
levels
levelscompared
comparedtotothe the2828d–compressive
d–compressivestrength.
strength.TheThe3%
3%fly
flyash
ashmodified
modifiedgroup
grouphad hadthe
themaximum
maximum
150
150d–compressive
d–compressive strength of 21.5
strength of MPa,
21.5 which
MPa, waswhichcomparable to the control
was comparable to thegroup with compressive
control group with
strength of 22.2 MPa. 12% fly ash modified group had the 150 d–compressive
compressive strength of 22.2 MPa. 12% fly ash modified group had the 150 d–compressive strength of 17.4 MPa.
strength
The increases
of 17.4 MPa. ofThecompressive
increases ofstrength between
compressive 28 d– between
strength and 150 d–compressive strength were 2.7
28 d– and 150 d–compressive MPa
strength
atwere
12%2.7 incorporation level and 1.5 MPa at 3% incorporation level. This was because
MPa at 12% incorporation level and 1.5 MPa at 3% incorporation level. This was because2 the the SiO in
fly
SiO ash
2 inreacted
fly ash with thewith
reacted cementthe hydration productproduct
cement hydration (Ca(OH)(Ca(OH)
2 ) and formed a pozzolanic
2) and formed C–S–HC–S–
a pozzolanic gel,
which improved the bonding between the hardened cement binder and
H gel, which improved the bonding between the hardened cement binder and the aggregate. The the aggregate. The higher
the fly ash
higher the content, the more
fly ash content, theC–S–H gel. Thus,
more C–S–H the compressive
gel. Thus, the compressivestrength increase
strength of high
increase fly ash
of high fly
content
ash content group was was
group higher thanthan
higher thatthat
of low fly fly
of low ashash
content
contentgroup.
group. The
Thereason
reasonforforthe
theincrease
increaseinin
150
150d–compressive
d–compressivestrength
strengthof offly
flyash-modified
ash-modifiedpermeable
permeableconcrete
concretewas wasthat,
that,asasthe
theage
ageincreased,
increased,
the cement was further hydrated and the hydration degree increased gradually, the adhesion property
of the cementitious material increased and the bonding force between aggregates enhanced, thus the
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

the cement was further hydrated and the hydration degree increased gradually, the adhesion
Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 9 of 13
property of the cementitious material increased and the bonding force between aggregates enhanced,
thus the compressive strength was increased. Although the addition of fly ash reduced the
compressivestrength
compressive strengthwasofincreased.
pervious Although
concrete, the
theaddition
28 d–compressive strength
of fly ash reduced of fly ash modified
the compressive strength
pervious
of perviousconcrete
concrete,with 12%
the 28 fly ash content
d–compressive still of
strength reached 14.7 MPa,pervious
fly ash modified which could fully
concrete withmeet
12% thefly
requirements of non-loaded pavements, such as pedestrian path, parking lots, and park roads.
ash content still reached 14.7 MPa, which could fully meet the requirements of non-loaded pavements,
such as pedestrian path, parking lots, and park roads.
3.3. Flexural Strength
3.3. Flexural Strength
Figure 7 shows the flexural strength of fly ash modified pervious concrete versus fly ash content.
Just asFigure 7 shows
the effect theash
of fly flexural
on thestrength of fly strength,
compressive ash modified fly ashpervious
also had concrete
adverse versus
effectfly
onash
the content.
flexural
Just as theofeffect
strength of flyconcrete.
pervious ash on the Thecompressive
addition ofstrength, fly ash also
fly ash reduced hadd–adverse
the 28 and 150effect on the strength
d–flexural flexural
strength
of fly ash of modified
pervious concrete.
perviousThe addition
concrete of fly ash reduced
significantly. The higher the 28thed–fly
andash150content,
d–flexural thestrength
lower the of
fly ash modified
flexural strengthpervious
of fly ash concrete significantly.
modified pervious The higherCompared
concrete. the fly ash tocontent, the lower
the control groupthewithflexural
the
strength
flexural of fly ash of
strength modified
4.84 MPa, pervious
when concrete.
the fly ashCompared
content was to the
12%,control group with
the minimum 28the flexural strength
d–flexural strength
of
of4.84
fly MPa, when the pervious
ash modified fly ash content was 12%,
concrete was the3.54minimum
MPa and28the d–flexural
flexuralstrength
strength of loss
fly ashwas modified
26.9%.
pervious
Althoughconcrete was 3.54
the addition of MPa and
fly ash the flexural
reduced strengthstrength
the flexural loss was of 26.9%. Althoughconcrete,
the pervious the additionthe 28 of fly
d–
ash reduced
flexural the flexural
strength of fly strength
ash modifiedof thepervious
pervious concrete
concrete, still
the 28
metd–flexural strength ofoffly2.5
the requirements ash
MPa modified
in the
pervious concrete still
national standard [37].met
Thethe requirements
reduction of 2.5 MPa
in 28 d–flexural in the was
strength national
also standard
ascribed to [37].
the The
weak reduction
bonding
in 28 d–flexural
between coarse strength
aggregates was also ascribed
caused to the weak
by the reduction bonding
in cement between coarse
consumption aggregates caused
and incomplete cement
by the reduction
hydration in cement
[40]. The consumption
150 d–flexural and incomplete
strength cement hydration
of fly ash modified pervious [40]. The 150
concrete alsod–flexural
increased
strength
compared of fly ash 28
to the modified
d–flexuralpervious concrete
strength at allalso increased compared
incorporation levels, and to the 28 d–flexural
maximum strength
increase wasat
all incorporation
0.39 MPa. The 3%levels, fly ash and the maximum
content group had increase
the 150was 0.39 MPa.
d–flexural The 3%
strength of fly
4.77ash content
MPa, which group
was had
98%
the 150 flexural
of the d–flexural strength
strength of of
the4.77 MPa,group.
control which was The 98% of the flexural
relationship between strength of the control
compressive strength group.
and
The relationship
flexural strength between
of fly ashcompressive strengthconcrete
modified pervious and flexural
can bestrength
found in ofFigure
fly ash8.modified
There was pervious
a good
linear relationship
concrete can be found between
in Figurecompressive
8. There wasstrength
a good and flexural
linear strengthbetween
relationship and the correlation
compressive coefficient
strength
between
and them
flexural was 0.93.
strength and the correlation coefficient between them was 0.93.

5.0
28d 150d

4.5
Flexural strength (MPa)

4.0

3.5

3.0
0 3 6 9 12
Fly ash content （%）

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Flexural strength
strength of
of fly
fly ash
ash modified
modified pervious
pervious concrete
concreteversus
versusfly
flyash
ashcontent.
content.

24
28d 150d
Compressive strength (MPa)

22

20

18

16
y = 5.02 x - 2.01
14 R² = 0.93

12
3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00
Flexural strength (MPa)

Figure 8.8. Relationship between flexural strength and compressive

Figure compressive strength
strength of
of fly
fly ash
ash modified
modified
pervious
perviousconcrete.
concrete.

It can be seen from the above results that the compressive strength and flexural strength of fly
ash modified pervious concrete had a great relationship with the age, and the strength gradually
increased with the increasing age. The early-age strengths were low and the long-term strengths
could achieve desired increase. The strength time-varying was existed for fly ash modified pervious
Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 10 of 13

It can be seen from the above results that the compressive strength and flexural strength of fly
ash modified pervious concrete had a great relationship with the age, and the strength gradually
increased with the increasing age. The early-age strengths were low and the long-term strengths could
achieve desired increase. The strength time-varying was existed for fly ash modified pervious concrete,
which was consistent with what has been reported in fly ash modified ordinary concrete.

3.4. Freeze–Thaw Resistance

Figure 9 shows the relationship between compressive strength and freeze–thaw cycles of fly ash
modified pervious concrete. The compressive strengths of all fly ash modified groups decreased with
the increasing freeze–thaw cycles, which indicated the freeze–thaw resistance of fly ash modified
pervious concrete was reduced. Compressive strength of 12% fly ash modified group rapidly decreased
from 14.7 MPa to 10.7 MPa (27.2% strength loss) under 50 freeze–thaw cycles. The compressive strength
losses of fly ash modified pervious concrete under freeze–thaw cycles are shown in Figure 10. Based
on Figure 10, it can be concluded that the compressive strength losses of fly ash modified pervious
concrete increased with the increase of freeze–thaw cycles. When the freeze–thaw cycles were same,
the compressive strength losses of fly ash modified pervious concrete increased with the increasing
content of fly ash. Compared with the control group, fly ash modified pervious concrete had higher
compressive strength loss, and the higher the fly ash incorporation level, the higher the compressive
strength loss, which indicated that the addition of fly ash was negative to the freeze–thaw resistance of
pervious concrete. The freeze–thaw resistance of fly ash modified pervious concrete with different fly
ash incorporation level was quite different, the compressive strength loss of 12% fly ash modified group
rapidly exceeded 25% just undergoing 50 freeze–thaw cycles, the other three fly ash modified mixtures
only experienced 75 freeze–thaw cycles. Compared to the control group, the addition of fly ash reduced
the freeze–thaw resistance of pervious concrete. Figure 4 shows the fly ash modified pervious concrete
specimens after 75 freeze–thaw cycles. Based on Figure 4, we can see that the specimen appearance
features of control group and fly ash modified groups were obviously different. The specimen shape
of control group under 75 freeze–thaw cycles was basically intact, but for the specimens of fly ash
modified pervious concrete, the mass loss appeared at different degrees, especially the specimens with
12% fly ash content. This is mainly because the addition of fly ash decreased the bonding between the
aggregates,2018,
Sustainability which
10, xresulted
FOR PEERinREVIEW
easy deterioration and decay of freeze–thaw resistance. 2 of 13

25
Control
3% fly ash
6% fly ash
Compressive strength (MPa)

20 9% fly ash
12% fly ash

15

10

5
0 25 50 75 100
Freeze-thaw cycles (times)

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Compressive
Compressive strength
strength of
of fly
fly ash modified pervious concrete under freeze–thaw cycles.

40

35
e strength loss (%)

30

25

20
 C
5
0 25 50 75 100
Freeze-thaw cycles (times)
Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 11 of 13
Figure 9. Compressive strength of fly ash modified pervious concrete under freeze–thaw cycles.

40

35

Compressive strength loss (%)

30

25

20

15 Control
3% fly ash
10
6% fly ash
5 9% fly ash
12% fly ash
0
0 25 50 75 100
Freeze-thaw cycles (times)

Figure 10. Compressive

Figure 10. Compressive strength
strength loss
loss of fly ash modified
modified pervious
pervious concrete
concrete under
under freeze–thaw
freeze–thaw cycles.
cycles.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
Sustainable pavement materials—fly ash modified pervious concrete, were prepared and
Sustainable pavement materials—fly ash modified pervious concrete, were prepared and
investigated in the lab. Porosity, permeability, early-age (28 d) strength, long-term (150 d) strength,
investigated in the lab. Porosity, permeability, early-age (28 d) strength, long-term (150 d) strength,
and freeze–thaw resistance of pervious concrete were tested. The influences of fly ash on pervious
and freeze–thaw resistance of pervious concrete were tested. The influences of fly ash on pervious
concrete properties were analyzed. Based on test results, the following conclusions can be drawn.
concrete properties were analyzed. Based on test results, the following conclusions can be drawn.
•• The
The fly
fly ash
ash modified
modified pervious
pervious concrete
concrete designed
designed with
with equivalent
equivalent volume
volume replacement
replacement of of cement
cement
did not affect the effective porosity, thus the permeability of pervious concrete
did not affect the effective porosity, thus the permeability of pervious concrete hardly changed hardly changed
with
with the
the content
contentof offly
flyash
ashcompared
comparedto tothe
theunmodified
unmodifiedcontrol
controlpervious
perviousconcrete.
concrete.
•• Theearly-age
The early-agecompressive
compressivestrength
strength andand flexural
flexural strength
strength of ash
of fly fly ash modified
modified pervious
pervious concrete
concrete was
was decreased
decreased by theby the addition
addition of fly
of fly ash. Theash. The higher
higher contentcontent of the
of fly ash, fly ash,
lowerthe lower compressive
compressive strength
strength
and andstrength.
flexural flexural strength.
Compared Compared to the early-age
to the early-age compressive compressive
strength and strength andstrength,
flexural flexural
strength,
the the compressive
long-term long-term compressive
strength and strength
flexuraland flexural
strength strength
increased increased
at all at all fly ash
fly ash incorporation
incorporation
levels, levels, which
which indicated indicated
that the age had that
anthe age hadeffect
important an important effect onof
on the strengths theflystrengths of fly
ash modified
ash modified
pervious pervious concrete.
concrete.
•• The addition
The addition ofof fly
fly ash
ash significantly
significantly decreased
decreased the freeze–thaw resistance of pervious concrete.
The compressive
The compressive strength
strength loss
loss of
of fly
fly ash
ash modified
modified pervious
pervious concrete
concrete under
under freeze–thaw
freeze–thaw cyclescycles
was higher than the unmodified control pervious concrete. The freeze–thaw
was higher than the unmodified control pervious concrete. The freeze–thaw resistance of fly ash resistance of fly ash
modified pervious
modified pervious concrete
concretedecreased
decreasedwith withthe
theincreasing
increasingflyflyash
ashcontent.
content.
• Although fly ash was not positive to the properties of pervious concrete, it was still feasible to
apply fly ash as a substitute for cement in pervious concrete.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: H.L.; investigation: G.L., H.L., and Y.G.; Writing (original draft):
G.L. and L.W.; Writing (review and editing): Y.G.
Funding: This research was funded by the Science Technology Development Program of Jilin Province (grant
number 20180201026SF) and the Transportation Science and Technology Program of Jilin Province (grant number
2018-1-9).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to appreciate anonymous reviewers for their constructive suggestions
and comments to improve the quality of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 176 12 of 13

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