Villar, Valeriano Jr. D.

MATERIALS ENGINEERING
BSME-V ASSIGNMENT

TENSILE TEST
1. Explain the different deformation mechanism which are active in different regions
of the tensile stress-strain curve.
 Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)
Robert Hooke From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain
curve is a straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force
causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that
within the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or

σ∝ε  or   σ=kε

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's

Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then

σ=Eε

 Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e
developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is
entirely removed.

 Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region
from P to R is called the plastic range.

 Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding without any increase in load.

 Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile
strength.

 Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the
breaking strength.

 Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded
area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without
creating a permanent distortion.

 Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its
ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.

2. What is the area under the stress-strain curve equivalent to?

-The area under stress-strain curve represents the energy required or stored in
the material before its failure. The energy is called Modulus of toughness or simply
toughness. It is quantitatively measured by impact testing. For tensile materials, the
area till elastic limit in stress-strain curve is called modulus of resilience. For brittle
materials, both are approximately same since yielding is very less in brittle materials.

HARDNESS TEST
3. What does the area under the elastic portion of stress-strain represent.
-the area under stress-strain curve up to the elastic limit depicts of modulus of
resilience (MR) which signifies the ability of materials to store or absorb energy
without permanent deformation.
4. How do the Rockwell and Brinell test actually measures hardness.
 Rockwell Hardness
This method tests the hardness of steel parts by applying loads to parts via either a
tungsten carbide ball or a spheroconical diamond indenter. A part’s testing surface
and seating surface must be properly prepared prior to testing. Inadequate surface
preparation can lead to failed tests or false readings.

Following surface preparation, a light load is applied to the indenter (usually either 3
or 5 kgf) to zero out the testing machine. Then, a heavy load (anywhere from 15 kgf
to 150 kgf, depending on the material and its strength) is applied and held for a
period of time.

The downward distance the indenter traveled from the application of the light load to
the release of the heavy load is recorded and used to calculate hardness.

Rockwell hardness is determined by measuring the distance traveled by an indenter

when a heavy load is applied to a heat treated part.
Variants on the Rockwell hardness test procedure are used depending on the
material and strength of a part. The most common Rockwell variants include:
HRC – Known as “Rockwell C,” a 150 kgf load is applied via a diamond in this
method. It’s most commonly used on steels that are through hardened to increase
strength. Parts commonly tested by this method include nuts and bolts, hand tools,
seat belt buckles, chains, springs, axles, bearings and blades.
HR15N – This method is known as “Rockwell 15N.” A relatively light, 15 kgf load is
applied to case hardened parts treated to achieve a minimum effective case depth
0.007 inches or a total case of 0.012 inches. Other Rockwell variants (HR30N and
HR45N) apply slightly higher loads on parts with incrementally higher minimum
effective or total cases.
HRBW – “Rockwell B” uses the tungsten carbide ball. It’s commonly used for “soft ”
parts like austenitic stainless steels and for annealed parts.

 Brinell Hardness

Relatively high loads are applied to parts via a tungsten carbide ball in this method.
Unlike with Rockwell testing, Brinell tests measure the diameter of the indentation
made by the ball, not the depth. A 10mm ball with an applied load of 3,000 kgf is
most common for Brinell testing.

Brinell tests are ideal for castings and forgings that may have rough surfaces or
exhibit some chemical variation. Because the indentation ball is so much larger than
in other testing methods, hardness values derived from the test provide a more
representative average hardness of the part.

5. Describe the procedure for the Rockwell test, explaining the reason for the pre-
load.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the load by rotating the Knob and fix the suitable indenter.
2. Clean the test-piece and place n the special anvil or work table of the
machine.
3. Turn the capstan wheel to elevate the test specimen into contact with the
indenter point.
4. Further turn the wheel for three rotations forcing the test specimen against
the indenter. This will ensure that the Minor load of 98.07 N has been
applied
5. Set the pointer on the Scale dial at the appropriate position.
6. Push the lever to apply the Major load. A Dash Pot provided in the loading
mechanism to ensure that the load is applied gradually.
7. As soon as the pointer comes to rest pull the handle in the reverse
direction slowly. This releases the Major, but not Minor load. The pointer
will now rotate in the reverse direction.
8. The Rockwell hardness can be read off the scale dial, on the appropriate
scale, after the pointer comes to rest.
 -The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced
by a force/load on an indenter. First, a preliminary test force (commonly referred to as
preload or minor load) is applied to a sample using a diamond or ball indenter. This
preload breaks through the surface to reduce the effects of surface finish. After
holding the preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the baseline depth of
indentation is measured.
After the preload, an additional load, call the major load, is added to reach the
total required test load. This force is held for a predetermined amount of time (dwell
time) to allow for elastic recovery. This major load is then released, returning to the
preliminary load. After holding the preliminary test force for a specified dwell time,
the final depth of indentation is measured. The Rockwell hardness value is derived
from the difference in the baseline and final depth measurements. This distance is
converted to a hardness number. The preliminary test force is removed and the
indenter is removed from the test specimen.

6. What surface condition is necessary for Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers?

Brinell - The test conditions should be reported along with the Brinell hardness
number. A value reported as 60 HB 10/1500/30 means that a Brinell hardness of 60
was obtained using a 10 mm diameter ball with a 1500 kg load applied for 30
seconds.
Rockwell - The Rockwell hardness test method, as defined in ASTM E-18, is the
most commonly used hardness test method. You should obtain a copy of this
standard, read and understand the standard completely before attempting a Rockwell
test.
Vicker - The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a
Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force

7. What are the advantages of Vickers test against Brinell test.

-huge range of materials can be tested.
-structural characteristics can also be seen.
-not sensitive as brinell test

IMPACT TEST
8. What are the main uses of chart test.
-Charpy Impact Test is the most commonly used test which is used for determining
the amount of forces that are absorbed by materials when it reaches the point of
fracture. This amount of energy gives the analysis of the notch hardness of material.
-This impact test shows the relationship of ductile to brittle transition in absorbed
energy at a series of temperatures. Since iron and all other body-centered cubic
metals undergo a transition from ductile behavior at higher temperatures to brittle
behavior at lower temperatures, this test is required today for a number of important
steel products including steel hull plate for ships, nuclear plant pressure vessels,
forgings for electric power plant generator rotors, etc.
9. Explain the relation between fracture toughness of steel and impact energy.
-The strain rate sensitivity of fracture toughness is a consequence of the increase
in yield strength of steels with increasing loading rate. The strain rate sensitivity is
greater for lower strength steels than for high strength steels. The shape of the
Master curve is unaffected by the loading rate.
-The general conclusion is that this correlation is conservative, because if we
estimate fracture toughness from Charpy impact energy measurements, the
estimated toughness is less than the measured value. The data may be somewhat
questionable, however, because the fracture toughness and Charpy impact energy
measurements were taken at different temperatures. The results indicate that for
correlation purposes, the Rolfe- Novak-Barsom relationship is an adequate estimate
of fracture toughness based on Charpy impact energy and yield strength
measurements. Fracture toughness, Impact energy, High strength steel, Correlation,
Yield strength, Pressure vessel.
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