We Are Intechopen, The World'S Leading Publisher of Open Access Books Built by Scientists, For Scientists

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 14

We are IntechOpen,

the world’s leading publisher of


Open Access books
Built by scientists, for scientists

4,800
Open access books available
122,000
International authors and editors
135M
Downloads

Our authors are among the

154
Countries delivered to
TOP 1%
most cited scientists
12.2%
Contributors from top 500 universities

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index


in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)

Interested in publishing with us?


Contact book.department@intechopen.com
Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected.
For more information visit www.intechopen.com
Chapter

Livestock Feeds and Feeding


in Semi-Arid Areas of
Southern Africa
Clarice Princess Mudzengi, Everson Dahwa
and Clayton Simbarashe Kapembeza

Abstract

Livestock production is the major source of rural livelihoods in semi-arid regions


of Southern Africa. However, nutrition is the major limiting factor of livestock
production in these areas characterised by declines in rangeland productivity due to
the increases in drought frequency, deliberate overstocking by farmers, and climate
change and variability. For instance, the grazing resource is strongly influenced
by seasonality of rainfall. Poor-quality cereal crop residues are the main dry sea-
son supplementary feed source, yet the predominant crops such as sorghum and
maize are deficient in protein and other essential nutrients. Additionally, although
conventional supplements, fodder crops and agro by-products are an alternative dry
season supplementary feed source; they are costly and not readily available. They
are also mostly based on staple food crops such as maize, creating competition in
use between humans and livestock. Therefore, indigenous browse species remain a
significant source of abundant and persistent animal feeds. Other innovations with
the potential to improve feed availability include straw ammoniation and silages,
veld reinforcement and rehabilitation, and strategic destocking. However, they are
not readily adopted by farmers. There is thus a need to promote technologies that
improve livestock feeds and feeding for sustainable livelihoods.

Keywords: livestock production, nutrition, sustainable rural livelihoods

1. Introduction

In the semi-arid areas of Southern Africa, livestock production underpins the


socio-economic and political lives of the people. Meat and milk from livestock are
important dietary protein sources. Livestock production also creates employment
opportunities and provides household income. Furthermore, it promotes viability
of small-scale cropping systems through provision of draught power and organic
manure. Cattle, in specific, are socioculturally important as a measure of wealth.
Actually, Zimbabwean small-scale farmers generally own 89% of the national cattle
herd, with the livestock sector contributing 35% of the agricultural gross domes-
tic product [1]. However, constraints to the increasing livestock productivity in
semi-arid areas include water and feed shortages, diseases, and lack of research and
markets. Of these, nutrition is the major factor in extensive livestock production

1
Livestock Health and Farming

systems, contributing more than 75% of the total variable costs of production [2, 3].
Thus, a comprehensive inventory of animal feeds and feeding systems in semi-arid
areas will inform sustainable livestock production.
Rangeland productivity, i.e. the amount of available grazing and browse per
square area per unit time, is a proxy indicator of sustainability of livestock-based
rural livelihoods. In recent years, climate change and variability, among other
factors, has resulted in the declines in the quality and quantity of the rangelands
in semi-arid areas such as the South East Lowveld (SEL) of Zimbabwe [4–7].
Additionally, in these areas, while Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) have
been established mainly to facilitate sustainable livelihoods, global biodiversity con-
servation, regional peace, and sustainable socio-economic development of African
communities through the cooperation at local and international levels [8], they
are also likely to increase interaction between wildlife, livestock, and humans with
adverse consequences. For instance, due to increased human and livestock popula-
tions in surrounding agricultural areas, cattle are likely to encroach more into
wildlife areas in search of feed [9]. Therefore, a deeper comprehension of animal
feeds and feeding will improve livestock production and consequently transform
rural livelihoods.
Innovations in livestock husbandry are the activities and processes associated
with the generation, production, dissemination, adaptation, and use of existing
or new technical, institutional, and organisational knowledge [10, 11]. Although
there are different innovations in livestock feeds and feeding, most of them have
not been adopted by farmers [12]. For instance, [12] showed that discontinuance
of urea treatment of maize stover for livestock supplementation was attributed
to high labour requirements of preparing the stover, lack of monitoring by
extension services, and inaccessibility of urea fertiliser. It is thus important for
the policy to consider such factors as the economic environment, availability
of local material, and social and human capital when promoting livestock
production systems. In this chapter, we explore and explain different livestock
feeds and feeding strategies that are mostly adopted in semi-arid areas. We also
recommend other alternatives that have a potential of adaption for increased
livestock production.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Study site

The study was carried out in the semi-arid South East Lowveld (SEL) of
Zimbabwe. The area is found at an altitude of 300–600 m above mean sea level [11].
It experiences mean maximum and minimum temperatures of 21.8°C in October
and 13.3°C in June, respectively, and mean annual rainfall of 300–600 mm between
November and March and is characterised by high interannual variability (coef-
ficient of variation ≈ 4045%) [13]. The major soil types are basalt-derived vertisols.
Other soil types include eutric fluvisols, leptosols, and chromic luvisols [14]. The
two main land uses in the area are agricultural production in the communal areas
and wildlife conservation in Gonarezhou National Park and Malipati Safari Area,
both of which form part of the Great Limpopo TFCA that contains a wide range of
wildlife species such as Loxodonta africana (the elephant), Giraffa camelopardalis
(giraffe), and Syncerus caffer (African buffalo). A communal land is a land category
characterised by collective or community land ownership [15]. Livestock produc-
tion is the major source of livelihoods in the communal area, while small grains and
maize are also commonly grown.

2
Livestock Feeds and Feeding in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90109

2.2 Data collection

Individual structured questionnaires were administered to 150 respondents


randomly selected, representing approximately 12% of the total households in
the study area. The questionnaire was designed to capture socio-demography and
livestock production characteristics, specifically feed resources and farmer innova-
tions in livestock feeding and management. The questionnaire was pretested before
final administration. We also conducted two focus group discussions (FGD) with
seven key informants each, representative of the pastoral, agro-pastoral, and crop-
livestock production systems in the area. For the woody species, we carried out veld
assessment. Using the point-centred quarter method [16], we established 53 30 m ×
30 m plots at each sampling point along 9 transects randomly established, measuring
between 10 and 15 km each. The plant species were identified with the help of the
locals in addition to using field identification guides [17–19]. Canopy structure, tree
height, growth habit, leaf, bark, and other tree structures were used to differentiate
closely related trees. Trees rooted within the plot, or along plot margins with at least
half of the rooted system inside the plot, were considered [20]. We also recorded
altitude and location of each individual tree using a Global Positioning System (GPS)
Unit. Samples of the species not identified in the field, as well as all the other species,
were collected for verification at the National Herbarium in Harare, Zimbabwe.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Feeds and feeding resources in the SEL

3.1.1 Grazing resource

The veld of the SEL is described as “Aristida-Dactyloctenium-Eragrostis other


species grassveld”. It has a carrying capacity of 0.084–0.14 tropical livestock units
per hectare [6]. The grazing period ranges from November/December to April/
May. The veld remains nutritious and palatable for livestock across seasons. The
herbaceous layer is dominated by Aristida adscensionis L., Dactyloctenium giganteum
B.S. Fisher & Schweick., Eragrostis viscosa [Retz.] Trin., Chloris virgata Sw., and on
deeper soils with more moisture, Urochloa spp., Panicum spp., Cenchrus ciliaris L.,
and Digitaria spp. [21]. On well-managed grazing systems, cattle exhibit annual
live weight gains of 15 kg/ha. However, herbaceous species structure and composi-
tion are strongly influenced by seasonality of rainfall. For instance, the biomass
disappears rapidly in drought years or when the start of the rainy season is delayed
(Figure 1) [6]. Therefore, there is a need for supplementary feeding, especially
during this period of scarcity of the grazing resource.

3.1.2 Crop residues

In the SEL, poor-quality cereal crop residues (less than 4% crude protein)
form the bulk of livestock supplementary feed in the dry season, which normally
extends from May/June to October/November. The predominant crops are sor-
ghum, millet, and maize. However, they are deficient in essential nutrients such
as protein, phosphorus, calcium, and, to some extent, energy [22]. Such supple-
ments have low feed intake resulting from low degradability and low digestibility.
Therefore, they do not provide for optimum microbial growth in the rumen. As
a result, animals raised on these low nutritive feeds exhibit poor condition and
reduced reproductive performance [23]. Crop residues are managed in many ways

3
Livestock Health and Farming

Figure 1.
The grazing resource during dry seasons in the South East Lowveld of Zimbabwe.

Figure 2.
Maize stover forms part of the bulk of cereal stover supplements in the dry season.

for livestock feeding. Cereal stovers are either grazed in situ or stored in stacks for
supplementation during the dry season (Figure 2). During prolonged dry seasons,
the first preference is for maintenance of productive animals such as lactating
cows or the sick. Haulms from leguminous crops such as cowpea and groundnuts
are also used in stall-feeding. Despite being of higher nutritive value than cereal
stovers, they have limited availability as leguminous crops are not commonly
cultivated at large scale. Recently, conservation agriculture has presented conflict
of interest in utilisation of crop residues. Conservation agriculture is a farming
method that utilises crop residues to retain moisture and enrich the soil [24].
Increased adoption of conservation agriculture creates limitations in the availabil-
ity of crop residues for livestock feeding.

3.1.3 Browse trees

Indigenous browse species are an important source of animal feed in livestock-


based rural livelihoods of semi-arid areas (Figure 3) [25, 26]. The natural vegetation

4
Livestock Feeds and Feeding in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90109

of the SEL is predominantly Colophospermum mopane [J.Kirk ex Benth.], J. Léonard


woodlands found in association with Kirkia acuminate Oliv., Dalbergia melanoxylon
Guill. & Perr, Adansonia digitata L., Combretum spp., Acacia spp., and Commiphora
spp. In addition, recently, a shrubby legume called Neorautanenia brachypus
[Harms] C.A.Sm. was discovered as a medicinal feed that helps livestock to survive
drought [6]. Other browse species of the SEL are presented in Table 1. Most indig-
enous browse species remain abundant, evergreen, and relatively high in protein,
metabolisable energy, vitamins, and minerals across seasons [27]. Unlike herba-
ceous species, browse species are less susceptible to climatic fluctuations, with crude
protein (CP) levels of approximately 10% even in the dry season [28]. However,
early and increased dependence on browse by livestock in semi-arid areas of the

Scientific name Vernacular/English name

Acacia albida Shokoshoko/winter thorn

Acacia karroo Muunga/sweet thorn


Acacia tortilis Sesani/umsasane/umbrella thorn

Acacia xanthophloea Kelenga/fever tree

Adansonia digitata Mabuwu/baobab/muwu


Aloe cameronii Mhangani/aloe

Berchemia discolour Munyii/bird plum

Boscia albitrunca Shukutsu/shepherd’s tree


Brachystegia spiciformis Musasa

Cassia abbreviata Murumanyama/long-tail cassia

Cissus quadrangularis Chiololo/chiololoti/muvengahonye


Colophospermum mopane Mopane/xanatsi/turpentine tree

Combretum apiculatum Chikukutsi/red bushwillow

Combretum imberbe Mutsviri/mondo/monzo/leadwood

Dichrostachys cinerea Mupangara/ndenge/sickle bush


Diospyros mespiliformis Musuma/tithoma/jackalberry

Ficus sycomorus Muonde/mikuwa/sycamore fig

Hippocratea crenata Sengeti/valley paddle pod


Hyphaene petersiana Makwangwala/Ilala/real fan palm

Julbernadia globiflora Mutondo

Kigelia africana Pfungu/mumvewa/sausage tree


Lonchocarpus capassa Mupanda/umchitamuzi/rain tree

Mimusops zeyheri Hlatsva/Chechete/red milkwood

Neorautanenia brachypus Zhombwe


Phragmites mauritianus Shanga/reed grass

Salvadora persica Dhungulu pokwe/mustard tree

Sclerocarya birrea Mupfura/marula/mufura


Xanthocercis zambesiaca Muhlaru/Musharo/Nyala berry
Adapted from Mudzengi et al. [36].

Table 1.
List of indigenous browse trees in the SEL.

5
Livestock Health and Farming

SEL during the dry season limits their availability in the rest of the season [29].
Fresh leaves of species such as C. mopane, for instance, are high in tannins and lignin
[30, 31]. Additionally, indigenous browse species normally attract multiple uses at
the livestock-wildlife interface with the more visible, more dominant, and more
frequent browse species having more uses than less apparent plants [32]. They are
used as sources of firewood, timber, fruits, edible roots, bark and leaves, and human
and ethnoveterinary medicines [33–36]. Competitive use increases vulnerability to
overutilisation, unsustainable harvesting, and mismanagement.

3.1.4 Fodder crops

Fodder refers to any plants grown specifically as animal feed. They include a vari-
ety of pasture grasses like Panicum maximum, Cenchrus ciliaris, and Chloris gayana;
pasture legumes such as Vigna unguiculata, Dolichos lablab, and Macroptilium atro-
purpureum; and fodder trees such as Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia angustissima, and
Calliandra calothyrsus. However, most of them do not thrive in semi-arid areas such
as the SEL due to high temperatures and low precipitation. Low adoption of fodder
crop production is also attributed to lack of extension for farmer training, shortage
of labour due to overlapping of the farming calendar with the main crop, high cost
and unavailability of seed, and land scarcity. It is therefore important for farmers to
maximise production of those species adaptable to their climatic conditions.

3.1.5 Conventional supplements, food industry, and agro-industrial by-products

There are different food industry by-products and agricultural wastes that are
alternative dry season livestock feed supplements. These can be of animal and
plant origin or of the fermentation industry. Animal by-products include blood,
bones, meat and bone offals, fat, intestine and rumen contents, whey, tannery
by-products, and poultry manure [1]. By-products of plant origin consist those
of the milling industry (e.g. bran, waste flour), oil industry (e.g. soya bean and
sunflower cakes), sugar industry (molasses), and citrus and horticulture waste. The
fermentation industry produces grain, molasses, and brewer’s waste, among a large
array of other by-products. By-products of plant origin are the commonly used. For
instance, in the SEL, molasses is readily available as the main sugarcane processing
factories in Zimbabwe are located in that area. However, high cost of transportation

Figure 3.
Browse trees provide feed during the dry season when both the grazing resource and cereal stovers become
limiting.

6
Livestock Feeds and Feeding in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90109

makes the product often quite expensive. Additionally, those of plant origin are also
mostly based on staple food crops such as maize and soya bean, creating competi-
tion in use between humans and livestock.

3.2 Recommended innovations in livestock feeds and feeding

3.2.1 Straw ammoniation

Straw ammoniation is the process of addition of urea, liquid ammonia, or


ammonium bicarbonate to poor-quality cereal crop stovers in order to improve their
palatability, nutritive value, and digestibility. Of these three, urea is the most readily
available and easiest to handle ammonia source. Nevertheless, in the SEL, as in most
rural areas, urea treatment still is not a commonly used method improvement of the
feeding value of cereal stovers due to lack of expertise in carrying out the procedure,
as well as unaffordability for most rural resource-poor farmers. Additionally, if not
done properly, urea-treated straw can be toxic to animals and cause air pollution.

3.2.2 Silages

Silage is forage produced from the fermentation process of chopped fresh green
material under anaerobic conditions. These materials include fodder or forage
grasses. Ensiling maize has been shown to improve feed digestibility and reduce
methane gas production by 30% compared to feeding dry maize [37]. However,
despite silages being advantageous in areas of water shortages, as well as reducing
tannins due to the heat produced during the incubation period, silage production is
not common among farmers.

3.2.3 Other strategies

Other potential technologies include intercropping cereals with ley (dual-purpose)


legumes [38]. Ley legumes provide protein-rich fodder, improve the productivity
of cereal crops by increasing the amount of nitrogen available for uptake, as well as
offer a possible lower-cost alternative to nitrogen fertilisers [39, 40]. In addition to cut
and carry systems for feeding fresh plant material, leaf meals can also be produced
by drying harvested leaf material under shed. The commonly grown multipurpose
trees include Leucaena leucocephala, Calliandra calothyrsus, and Gliricidia sepium.
The leaf meal can then be incorporated in home-made livestock rations. Cutting and
drying herbage from forage and multipurpose trees can also increase feed availability.
Multipurpose trees can be grown in alleys as live boundaries, home gardens, and
contour ridges and in woodlots.

3.3 Rangeland management

3.3.1 Principles of rangeland management

There are generally four fundamental principles of rangeland management


which are important in order to improve condition and stability of the veld and
consequently increase feed. They are rest, removal of top hamper, period of stay,
and stocking density. Rest facilitates replenishment of plant growth reserves and also
sets seed after defoliation. Top hamper is dead plant material accumulation which
causes shading out of new shoots as they develop. It represents a nutrient bottleneck
by preventing plant material from recycling back into the soil. It should therefore
be removed. Another principle of rangeland management is control of period of

7
Livestock Health and Farming

utilisation by animals. This is important as too long periods result in overgrazing,


while too short periods cause underutilisation which leads to top hamper and conse-
quently reduced plant vigour. Stocking density refers to the number of animals that is
kept on a given unit of area [41]. This has a direct relationship to the carrying capacity
of the range. For instance, understocking causes selective grazing, which depletes
palatable grass species. On the other hand, overstocking may degrade the range. For
high stocks of reserve biomass, and for farmers with a relatively low degree of risk
aversion, an “opportunistic” strategy is optimal, which matches the stocking rate with
the available forage in every year [42]. On the other hand, the “resting in rainy years”
grazing management strategies are recommended in which a lower stocking rate is
applied in years in which current rainfall exceeds some threshold, and in years with
current rainfall below this threshold, full stocking is optimal [39, 42–44].

3.3.2 Veld reinforcement

Veld reinforcement is the introduction, to the rangeland, of new grass or legume


species in order to improve both the quantity and quality of the natural vegeta-
tion. Legume forages such as Desmodium uncinatum, Macroptilium atropurpureum,
Stylosanthes guianensis, and Cassia rotundifolia can be used, while grass species
including Cynodon nlemfuensis, Paspalum notatum, and Panicum maximum are also
good for veld reinforcement.

3.3.3 Rangeland fertilisation

Rangeland fertilisation is the application of fertilisers such as ammonium


nitrates on the rangelands in order to increase the quality and quantity of forage.
However, this method is not highly recommended as fertilisers are expensive and at
times not readily available.

3.3.4 Control of undesirable plants

Undesirable plants are not readily utilised by animals and may cause rangeland
degradation. They include invasive species (e.g. Dichrostachys cinerea) and poison-
ous species (e.g. Lantana camara and Solanum incanum). They may be removed by
stumping, ring barking, and application of chemicals such as arboricides, using hot
prescribed fires or mechanical means like bulldozers, motorised saws, and brush
cutters.

3.3.5 Range rehabilitation

Range rehabilitation is the restoration of the veld using such methods as gulley
filling and planting grass lines. However, it is more feasible at small scale. Both
communal and private enclosures have also been successfully used to rehabilitate
rangelands [45, 46].

3.3.6 Strategic destocking

In the SEL, deterioration of rangeland productivity during prolonged dry season


characteristic of the area is worsened by deliberate increases in cattle numbers by
farmers who use the high cattle numbers as a hedge against losses during drought
[6]. Therefore, it is recommended that farmers should adopt strategic destocking
programmes that promote fattening of animals during periods of feed abundance
and disposal while they are in good enough body condition to fetch high prices.

8
Livestock Feeds and Feeding in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90109

4. Conclusions

Livestock production in semi-arid areas is hampered by shortages of feed,


especially in the dry season when the grazing resource becomes limiting. During
this time, browse species play an important role as the most abundant and nutri-
tious feed. Although crop residues are also a likely supplementary feed, they are
of poor nutritive value. Potential technologies to improve such feedstuffs include
urea treatment and ensilage. However, they are also not readily adopted by farmers
due to lack of knowledge among other factors. It is therefore important to promote
such innovations with the view to improve livestock production and hence rural
livelihoods.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express great appreciation to Malipati traditional


leadership in the SEL for the permission to conduct questionnaires and focus group
discussions in their area, as well as collect test material.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author details

Clarice Princess Mudzengi1*, Everson Dahwa1 and Clayton Simbarashe Kapembeza2

1 Garry Magadzire School of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, Great Zimbabwe


University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe

2 Department of Research and Specialist Services, Division of Livestock Research,


Grasslands Research Institute, Marondera, Zimbabwe

*Address all correspondence to: clarice.mudzengi@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

9
Livestock Health and Farming

References

[1] Food and Agriculture Organisation Tui S. Effects of climate change and
[FAO]. Livestock Sector Briefs adaptation on the livestock component
(Mozambique, Namibia, Zimbabwe). of mixed farming systems: A modelling
Rome: Livestock Information, Sector study from semi-arid Zimbabwe.
Analysis and Policy Branch (AGAL); Agricultural Systems. 2018;159:282-295
2005
[8] de Garine-Wichatitsky M,
[2] Matope A, Zindove TJ, Dhliwayo M, Caron A, Gomo C, Foggin C, Dutlow K,
Chimonyo M. Mitigating the effects Pfukenyi D, et al. Bovine tuberculosis
of drought on cattle production in in buffaloes, Southern Africa. Emerging
communal rangelands of Zimbabwe. Infectious Diseases. 2010;16(5):884-885
Tropical Animal Health and
Production. 2019:1-10. DOI: 10.1007/ [9] Murwira A, de Garine-
s11250-019-02020-y Wichatitsky M, Zengeya F,
Poshiwa X, Matema S, Caron A, et al.
[3] Connolly L, Kinsella A, Quinlan G, Crossing the edge: Determinants
Moran B. National Farm Survey. of movements. In: Andersson AA,
Athenry, Republic of Ireland: Teagasc; de Garine-Wichatitsky M, DHM
2010 C, Dzingirai V, Giller KE, editors.
Transfrontier Conservation Areas:
[4] Cumming DHM. Wildlife, livestock People living on the edge. London:
and food security in the south east Routledge; 2013. 123-136 pp
lowveld of Zimbabwe. In: Osofsky
SA et al, editors. Conservation and [10] Pretty J. Social capital and
Development Interventions at the connectedness: Issues and implications
Wildlife/Livestock Interface: Implications for agriculture, rural development and
for Wildlife, Livestock and Human natural resource management in ACP
Health, IUCN Occasional Paper No 3. countries. Review Paper for CTA. CTA
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Working Document Number 8032. 2003
United Kingdom; 2005. 41-46 pp
[11] Chema S, Gilbert E, Roseboom J. A
[5] Intergovernmental Panel on critical review of key issues and recent
Climate Change (IPCC). Impacts, experiences in reforming agricultural
Adaptation and Vulnerability, research in Africa. In: Draft Working
Contribution of Working Group II to Paper. The Hague: ISNAR; 2002
the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate [12] Mudzengi CP, Taderera LM,
Change (IPCC). Cambridge, United Tigere A, Kapembeza CS, Moyana S,
Kingdom; 2007 Zimondi M, et al. Adoption of urea
treatment of maize stover technology
[6] Murungweni C, Andersson JA, van for dry season supplementation of
Wijk MT, Gwitira I, Giller KE. Zhombwe cattle in Wedza, Zimbabwe. Livestock
(Neorautanenia brachypus (Harms) Research for Rural Development.
C.A.Sm.)—A recent discovery for 2014;26:160. Available from: http://
mitigating effects of drought on www.lrrd.org/lrrd26/9/mudz26160.htm
livestock in semi-arid areas of Southern
Africa. Ethnobotany Research and [13] Chenje M, Sola L, Paleczny D. The
Applications. 2012;10:199-212 State of Zimbabwe’s Environment.
Harare: Government of the Republic
[7] Descheemaeker K, Zijlstra M, of Zimbabwe Ministry of Mines,
Masikati P, Crespo O, Homann-Kee Environment and Tourism; 1998

10
Livestock Feeds and Feeding in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90109

[14] Nyamudeza P, Hussein J, Available from: http://www.cipav.org.


Matibiri B. The sustainable management co/lrrd/lrrd18/5/ngon18072.htm
of vertisols. In: Syers JK, Penning de
Vries FWT, Nyamudeza P, editors. [23] Dzavo T, Zindove TJ, Dhliwayo M,
Vertisols Management in Zimbabwe. Chimonyo M. Effects of drought on
Wallingford: Cabi International; 2001 cattle production in sub-tropical
environments. Tropical Animal Health
[15] Murwira A. Scale matters: A and Production. 2019;51:669. DOI:
new approach to quantify spatial 10.1007/s11250-018-1741-1
heterogeneity for predicting the
distribution of wildlife [doctoral thesis]. [24] Makwara C. Sustainable and
Wageningen University; 2003 profitable farming through conservation
agriculture in Zimbabwe: Prospects,
[16] Bryant DM, Ducey MJ, Innes JC, opportunities and constraints. Journal
Lee TD, Eckert RT, Zarin DJ. Forest of Sustainable Development in Africa.
community analysis and the point- 2010;12:181-190
centered quarter method. Plant Ecology.
2005;175:193-203 [25] Makhado RA, Mapaure I,
Potgieter MJ, Luus-Powell WJ,
[17] Carruthers V. The Wildlife of Saidi AT. Factors influencing the
Southern Africa: A Field Guide to the adaptation and distribution of
Animals and Plants of the Region. Colophospermum mopane in Southern
Western Cape: Southern Book Africa’s mopane savannas—A review.
Publishers; 1997 Bothalia. 2014;44:9

[18] Plower DCH, Drummond RB. Wild [26] Mlambo V, Smith T, Owen E,


Flowers of Zimbabwe (Revised Edition): Mould FL, Sikosana JLN, Mueller
A Guide to some of the Common Harvey I. Tanniniferous Dichrostachys
Wild Flowers of Zimbabwe. Harare: cinerea fruits do not require
Zimbabwe, Longman Publishers; 1990 detoxification for goat nutrition: In
sacco and in vivo evaluations. Livestock
[19] Drummond RB. A list of trees, Production Science. 2004;90:135-144
shrubs and woody climbers indigenous
or naturalised in Rhodesia. Kirkia. [27] Bamigboye F, Babayemi O,
1975;10(1):267 Adekoya A. Feed resources and seasonal
nutrient composition of predominant
[20] Walker BH. An approach to forages for small ruminant production
the monitoring of changes in the in Iwo local government area of
composition and utilisation of Osun State, Nigeria. Journal of
woodland and Savanna vegetation. Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare.
Southern African Journal of Wildlife 2013;3:15-24
Resources. 1976;6(1):1-32
[28] Abusuwar AO, Ahmed EO. Seasonal
[21] Rattray JM. The grass and grass variability in nutritive value of
associations of Southern Rhodesia. ruminant diets under open grazing
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal. system in the semi-arid rangeland of
1957;54:197-234 Sudan (South Darfur State). Agriculture
and Biology Journal of North America.
[22] Ngongoni NT, Mapiye C, Mwale M, 2010;1:243-249
Mupeta B. Factors affecting milk
production in the smallholder dairy [29] Murungweni C, Van Wijk MT,
sector in Zimbabwe. Livestock Research Andersson JA, Smaling EMA,
for Rural Development. 2006;18. Giller KE. Application of fuzzy

11
Livestock Health and Farming

cognitive mapping in livelihood key browse species in a semi-arid


vulnerability analysis. Ecology and rangeland. Cogent Food and
Society. 2011;16:8 Agriculture. 2017;3:1285854

[30] Madibela OR, Seitshiro O, [37] Na R, Dong H, Tao X, Ma R, Xi J.


Mochankana ME. Deactivation effects Effects of diet composition on in vitro
of polyethylene glycol (PEG) on digestibility and methane emissions
in vitro dry matter digestibility of of cows. Journal of Agro-Environment
Colophospermum mopane [Mophane] Science. 2010;29(8):1576-1581
and Acacia browse trees in Botswana.
Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. [38] Ngongoni NT, Mapiye C,
2006;5:343-347 Mupeta B, Mwale M, Chimonyo M.
Potential of farm-produced crop
[31] Codron D, Lee-Thorp JA, residues as protein sources for small-
Sponheimer M, Codron J. Nutritional medium yielding dairy cows. African
content of savanna plant foods: Journal of Agricultural Research.
Implications for browser/grazer 2007;2:309-317
models of ungulate diversification.
European Journal of Wildlife Research. [39] Mapiye C, Mupangwa JF,
2007;53:100-111 Mugabe PH, Chikumba N, Poshiwa X,
Foti R. A review of forage legume
[32] Lucena RFP, Araújo EL, research for rangeland improvement
Albuquerque UP. Does the local in Zimbabwe. Tropical Grasslands.
availability of woody Caatinga 2006;40:145-149
plants (Northeastern Brazil) explain
their use value? Economic Botany. [40] Giller KE. Nitrogen fixation in the
2007;61:347-361 Tropical Systems. 2nd ed. Wallingford,
UK: CABI; 2001. 150-300 pp
[33] Banso A, Adeyemo O. Evaluation
of antibacterial properties of tannins [41] Longland AC. Pastures and pasture
isolated from Dichrostachys cinerea. management. In: Geor RL, Harris PA,
African Journal of Biotechnology. Coenen M, editors. Equine Applied
2007;6:1785-1787 and Clinical Nutrition. Edinburgh,
New York: Saunders Elsevier; 2013
[34] Gondo T, Frost P, Kozanayi W,
Stack J, Mushongahande M. Linking [42] Quaas MF, Baumgärtner S.
knowledge and practice: Assessing Optimal grazing management rules in
options for sustainable use of mopane semi-arid rangelands with uncertain
worms [Imbasiabelina] in Southern rainfall. Working Paper Series in
Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Economics, No. 193. University of
Development in Africa. 2010;1:281-305 Lüneburg; 2011

[35] Rusinga O, Maposa R. Traditional [43] Muller B, Frank K, Wissel C.


religion and natural resources: A Relevance of rest periods in non-
reflection on the significance of equilibrium rangeland systems: A
indigenous knowledge systems on the modelling analysis. Agricultural
utilisation of natural resources among Systems. 2007;92:295-317
the Ndau people in South Eastern
Zimbabwe. Journal of Ecology and the [44] Quaas MF, Baumgartner S,
Natural Environment. 2010;2:201-206 Becker C, Frank K, Muller B.
Uncertainty and sustainability in the
[36] Mudzengi CP, Murwira A, management of rangelands. Ecological
Zengeya FM, Murungweni C. Screening Economics. 2007;62:213-234

12
Livestock Feeds and Feeding in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90109

[45] Wairore JN, Mureithi SM,


Wasonga OV, Nyberg G. Benefits
derived from rehabilitating a degraded
semi-arid rangeland in private
enclosures in West Pokot County,
Kenya. Land Degradation and
Development. 2016;27(3):532-541. DOI:
10.1002/ldr.2420

[46] Stephen M, Mureithi SM,


Verdoodt A, Njoka JT, Gachene CKK,
van Ranst E. Benefits derived from
rehabilitating a degraded semi-arid
rangeland in communal enclosures,
Kenya. Land Degradation and
Development. 2016;27(8):1853-1862.
DOI: 10.1002/ldr.2341

13

You might also like