WQ1010 Workbook English PDF

i Water Quality 101
Water Quality 101

Potable Water Micro-System Fundamentals
Version 1.1
Water Quality 101:
Potable Water Micro-System Fundamentals

WORK BOOK
Version 1.1
© Copyright by Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada (2011)
Developed by the
Interdepartmental Water Quality Training Board
Catalogue No. A22-542/2011-PDF
ISBN No. 978-1-100-53413-8
AAFC No. 11490M
THE INFORMATION CONTAINED WITHIN THIS WORKBOOK AND ITS ASSOCIATED e-LEARNING WEB SITE IS FOR
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES.
The information presented represents best practices at the time of issue. As practices and standards change
over time, check with your supplier or water quality specialist regarding the currency and accuracy of the
information.
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© Copyright HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN IN RIGHT OF CANADA (2011)
Material may not be reproduced without permission.

This training product was produced by the Interdepartmental Water Quality Training Board.
Participating Departments and Agencies:
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Canada Border Services Agency
Canadian Coast Guard
Canadian Food Inspection Agency
Correctional Service of Canada
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada
Health Canada
Health Canada — First Nations and Inuit Health Branch
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada
National Defence and the Canadian Forces
Parks Canada Agency
Public Works and Government Services Canada
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Transport Canada
1 Water quality overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Regulations and due diligence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Natural sources of water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Contaminants in the water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Multi-barrier approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Treatment processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Targets for Safe Drinking Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Distribution systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.9 Notes on Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Sources of fresh water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Distribution of water on earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 The cycle of water in the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Municipal water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.7 Bottled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.8 Understanding the water source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.9 Notes on Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 What’s in the water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Guidelines for canadian drinking water quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Microbiological contamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
3.3.1 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2 Viruses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.3 Protozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Chemical contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.1 Inorganic chemical contaminants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.2 Organic chemical contaminants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 Other water characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5.1 pH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5.2 Alkalinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5.3 TDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5.4 Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5.5 Hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5.6 Colour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.6 Other contaminants to consider. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.7 Notes on Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 Basic chemistry and calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 pH and alkalinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Concentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.5 Dilution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.6 Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.7 Flow rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.8 Conversion calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.9 Notes on Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5 Treatment technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.2 Clarification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 Filtration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.4 Sand and multi-media filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.5 Granular activated carbon filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.6 Cartridge filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.7 Membrane filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.8 Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.9 Ion exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
5.10 Disinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.11 Types of chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.12 Ultraviolet light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.13 Design of a treatment system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.14 Operation and maintenance of a treatment system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.15 Notes on Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6 Distribution systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.2 Chlorine residual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.3 Drinking water storage tanks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.4 Valves and piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.5 Cross-connection and backflow prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.6 Trucked water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.7 Bottled water and dispensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.8 Notes on Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.0 Knowing your system from source to tap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.2 Vulnerabilities assessment and risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.2.1 Knowing Your Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.2.2 Identifying Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.2.3 Determining Susceptibility to Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.3 Sanitary survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.4 Baseline chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.5 Source protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.6 Using municipally supplied water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.7 Notes on Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8 Monitoring and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.2 When you should sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.3 What to sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8.4 Where to sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.5 How to sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.6 Where to send samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.7 Notes on Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9 Analysis and reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.2 Reading a laboratory report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.3 Test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.4 Accountability and record keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.5 Notes on Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10 Where to get help. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.3 Distribution system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.4 Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.5 Standard operating procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.6 Continuing education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.7 Notes on Chapter 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Appendix A: Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Appendix B: Units, conversions and sample calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Appendix C: Cleaning a bottled water dispenser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Appendix D: Frequently asked questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
FOREWORD
The federal government has or shares responsibility for the safety of drinking water in
federal facilities both in Canada and abroad, Canadian Coast Guard vessels and in First
Nation communities. Its legal obligations to its employees as a provider of drinking
water are described in the Canada Labour Code and its related regulations, which
require federal employers to provide potable water to employees in accordance with
prescribed standards. The Occupational Health and Safety Regulations prescribe a
specific version of the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality as those
standards.
There are many challenges in meeting these responsibilities, especially given that many
federally owned systems are small scale and in remote locations. This is compounded
with the lack of water quality training targeted specifically for these types of systems.
Ensuring that appropriate competencies are supported through adequate training is
not only an essential component of due diligence but it is also one barrier of a multi-
barrier approach to delivering safe drinking water.
Federal departments recognized a need to develop a federal drinking water program
that would incorporate an intake to tap approach to drinking water quality in all areas
of federal jurisdiction. As a result, the Interdepartmental Working Group on Drinking
Water (IWGDW) was formed in 2002. Its main objective was to develop the document
Guidance to providing safe drinking water in areas of federal jurisdiction (Guidance
Document). The document describes consistent approaches to activities including
inspection and monitoring of drinking water systems, and operator training and
certification, and places a particular focus on small and very small drinking water
systems. It provides a road map to assist departments to achieve compliance with the
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
Although there is training available for municipal scale systems, there is much less
training available of consistent quality for micro-systems – which are very small systems
providing drinking water for up to and including 25 people. Departments have
recognized that there is an opportunity to work together to develop and deliver training
associated with implementing the Guidance Document and achieving the regulatory
obligations and due diligence of providing potable water in locations served by micro-
systems. It is recognized that while individual departments may have some unique
training needs, there are substantial training needs that are shared by several
departments.
Consequently, the Interdepartmental Water Quality Training Board (IWQTB) was
formed as a subcommittee and complementary body to the IWGDW. It is composed of
representatives from various federal departments and agencies, all having responsibilities
related to providing safe drinking water to employees and others using their facilities.
The Board works together to develop a common approach to meeting the micro-system
training needs of federal drinking water providers.
As a result, this course - “Water Quality 101: Potable Water Micro-System
Fundamentals” (WQ101) and several stand alone training modules have been
developed. WQ101 is a comprehensive introduction to water quality in general and as
it relates to the provision of potable water for micro-systems. Although this course
might be a very good introduction for an individual who operates a municipal water
treatment system, it is not directed at this level of audience. It is a basic introduction on
water quality, with a focus on micro-systems. The course covers six theme areas: due
diligence and the Canada Labour Code, water quality fundamentals, sampling and
record keeping, data management and reporting, operation and maintenance and
source water protection.
The Water Quality 101: Potable Water Micro-Systems Fundamentals course is
composed of two parts: the e-Learning course and this accompanying work book. The
principal learning tool is the e-Learning course, which is developed in modules so it can
be customized to fit the training requirements of the learner. The e-Learning provides
information about specific subjects, and provides the important key points to learn at
an introductory level. This work book expands on the topics covered in the e-Learning
course, to allow the learner to easily find more information on each topic.
Water Quality 101 1
1 Water Quality Overview
1.1 Introduction
Water treatment systems range in size, based on the number of people they serve.
Various organizations in each jurisdiction provide provincially certified training for the Did You Know:
operation and maintenance of larger systems. This training course could provide basic Health problems
information for these systems, but is intended to provide understanding and guidance related to water
for the operation and maintenance of micro-systems. Micro-systems are defined as pollution are estimated
to cost Canadians
systems that provide water for up to and including 25 people. They can also be $300 million per year.
characterized as a system in a house where commercially available treatment devices
are used to treat water. This work book is targeted to achieve three levels of training:
1 Basic Knowledge and Awareness – an understanding of the basic concepts involved
in the provision of safe drinking water for micro-systems.
2 Demonstrated Understanding – a good understanding of the various subjects
covered in the course as they relate to the provision of safe drinking water in micro-
systems.
3 Tested Competency – demonstrated understanding, as above, and the successful
completion of a set of questions that tests and demonstrates the student’s
comprehension.
The training is modular and is suitable for a range of students, from senior managers to
responsible authorities, water system operators and individuals who are responsible for
monitoring water quality (water quality monitors). The training incorporates the basics
of water quality knowledge along with guidance from the federal document Guidance
for Providing Safe Drinking Water in Areas of Federal Jurisdiction and content from
the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ), published by Health
Canada.
1.2 Regulations and Due Diligence

Simply put, water is necessary for life. Part II of the Canada Labour Code states that the
employer (in this case the Government of Canada) is responsible for providing its
employees with access to potable water for drinking, food preparation, and washing. In
other words, federal departments have a legal obligation to make sure their employees
have access to safe drinking water every day.
The employer must take appropriate steps to ensure the protection of the health and
safety of employees who use water at federal facilities. In some cases, such as facilities
used by the public, ensuring the safety of drinking water supplies is more a matter of
due diligence than a legal obligation. Due diligence means taking every precaution in a
situation to make sure nobody comes to harm.
The Interdepartmental Working Group on Drinking Water has developed a guidance
document to assist departments to meet their obligations under the Canada Labour
Code as well as exercise due diligence when providing potable water. This document,
located on the Health Canada website, is called Guidance for Providing Safe Drinking
Water in Areas of Federal Jurisdiction.
Health Canada also publishes and regularly updates the Guidelines for Canadian
Drinking Water Quality, which establishes Maximum Acceptable Concentrations
2 Water Quality 101
(MACs), Aesthetic Objectives, and Operational Guidelines for various contaminants

and other parameters found in drinking water. These Guidelines are based on currently
available scientific knowledge and developed and approved in collaboration with
provincial and territorial partners.
1.3 Natural Sources of Water

Water – H2O – is a simple compound in its pure form. Water exists naturally in three
Did You Know:
basic states; a solid (ice), a liquid and a vapour (fog, clouds, etc.). Water is continuously
Hardness in water can moving through these various states, from the atmosphere to the ground and below the
cause scaly deposits ground, eventually returning to the atmosphere again. This cycle is called the
in pipes, water
hydrological cycle.
treatment equipment,
water heaters and As water moves through this cycle it encounters a multitude of possible contaminants.
boilers. One sixteenth Since water is one of the most universal solvents, it almost always contains other
of an inch of scale can dissolved and suspended substances. These substances may be naturally-occurring or
reduce efficiency of a
water heater by 15%.
man-made. Some substances are unsafe for human health (e.g. arsenic, nitrate) while
Hardness can also others may pose problems with water treatment (e.g. iron, calcium). Organic matter
increase soap (e.g. Decaying plant material, small suspended soil particles) can cause treatment
consumption by as problems and interfere with disinfection processes. Water from the earth’s surface
much as 50 to 90% by (surface water – lakes, rivers, ponds) and water from below ground (groundwater –
making it harder to
lather.
springs, wells, aquifers) may contain dissolved and suspended particulate matter.
Water naturally contains a wide range of living organisms, many of which are not visible
to the naked eye – they are microscopic. Surface water almost always contains
microbiological contaminants, some of which could be disease-causing or even deadly
(pathogenic). This is also true of groundwater from shallow wells (generally those that
are 30 m or less in depth) which can be under the influence of surface water. Water from
deeper wells may also contain microbiological contaminants such as bacteria and
viruses. The naturally occurring bacteria are normally not harmful, but viruses can be
harmful and aquifers and wells can become contaminated. The best approach is to
assume that untreated water is not safe to drink until tests prove otherwise.
1.4 Contaminants in the Water

There are a variety of substances that can negatively affect water quality. They are
generally grouped by their characteristics: Microorganisms, inorganic and organic
chemicals and radiological compounds.
Microorganisms are a group of living organisms that include protozoa, bacteria and
viruses. They can live in water, soil and in the atmosphere and are found in surface
water bodies, water wells, under the earths crust and even on rocks. While there are
many microorganisms that are not harmful to humans others can make humans sick or
even cause death. The identification of the type and number of microorganisms in
water should be done by an accredited laboratory.
Inorganic chemicals are generally naturally occurring. Chemicals in this category are
the result of non-living natural processes. Most of the earth is considered to be inorganic.
Inorganic compounds are created by the elements that are found on the earth. Some of
these compounds are toxic to human health while others may be considered a nuisance.
Examples of inorganic chemicals (elements) found in water are arsenic, calcium, iron
and sulphate. Even though most inorganic compounds occur naturally, some can be
Water Quality 101 3
man-made. For example, nitrate occurs in both organic and inorganic forms. Two
common inorganic forms, potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate, are commonly
used as fertilizers.
The definition of an organic compound is not exact, but generally refers to compounds
which contain carbon as part of their structure. Organic chemicals can occur naturally
in the environment from certain plants and sugars, but many occur as a result of man
made production processes, such as petroleum products, agricultural pesticides,
plastics and rubber manufacturing. A general rule of thumb is that organic chemicals
are usually produced by man-made processes. Some examples of organic chemicals are
atrazine (a herbicide), benzene (a solvent derived from crude oil) and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC – a plastic).
Radionuclides are found in the environment (including water) as naturally occurring
elements, and also are produced as by-products of nuclear technologies. The most
common naturally occurring radiological compounds include radium, radon and
uranium, but many more exist. Radionuclides commonly found in water include those
associated with radium and lead.
1.5 Multi-Barrier Approach

Without constant monitoring and testing of water quality, it is difficult to ensure that
water is consistently safe and potable. A system that includes more than one barrier to Did You Know:
contaminants will have a higher factor of safety than a system with a single barrier. For The average Canadian
example, a system with a filter and a disinfection process would have two barriers to uses approximately
most microbiological contaminants, whereas a system with a filter alone would only 343 litres of water per
day for domestic
have one barrier. purposes. Most of this
water is used in the
Fig 1.1 The Multi-barrier Approach bathroom.
Barriers include not only physical devices or processes, but also actions to indirectly or
directly affect or monitor the contaminants in water, such as taking actions to protect
the water source, or a regular program of water quality sampling, testing, evaluation
and reporting.
4 Water Quality 101
Full knowledge of the water supply system, from the source to the tap, is a key
component of a multi-barrier approach. This knowledge is gained through a variety of
tools as outlined in the Guidance document. A “vulnerabilities assessment” considers
the water source, identifies any potential hazards from the environment and what affect
those hazards will have on the water. This helps to identify actions that need to be taken
in order to minimize the risks to deterioration in quality of the water source. Another
tool is a “sanitary survey”, which is a comprehensive survey of the water supply system
and the procedures use to operate and monitor the system. This survey identifies
potential problems in the physical components of the water supply system and the
operation, maintenance and monitoring activities. A third tool is a full analysis of the
raw source water, called a “baseline analysis”. This analysis provides an understanding
of the contaminants in the water and the treatment required, as well as information for
monitoring requirements.
Other barriers include source protection (both surface and groundwater sources,
including well development and decommissioning), treatment devices and processes,
sampling and monitoring, regular operation and maintenance procedures, consistent
reporting and ongoing training.
1.6 Treatment Processes

There are many conventional and innovative water treatment processes. Water
treatment systems continue to be improved and complemented with new technologies
and processes. Some examples of water treatment processes include:
Coagulation, a process where an added chemical attracts floating suspended particles
to form larger and denser clumps of suspended material that will be heavy enough to
settle to the bottom faster than the individual smaller particles would have.
Flocculation, a slow mixing process where a coagulant is added to water and mixed to
bind the particles into a flocculent (the “floc”) so it increases in weight and settles by
gravity to the bottom of the flocculation tank.
Filtration, a process which removes suspended particles by passing water through
various types of filter media including sand, gravel, granular carbon, and a variety of
cloth, fibre and ceramic filters. Most filters function by a physical sieving process, but
some also rely on chemical mechanisms. For example, granular activated carbon filters
trap dissolved organic matter in the carbon filter media by a process called adsorption,
but only until the media reaches its adsorption capacity. Some filters also rely on
biological processes (e.g. slow sand filtration and biological activated carbon filters).
Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis filtration are membrane filter processes which are
capable of removing very small particles including minerals that are dissolved in
the water.
Ion exchange systems remove specific chemical constituents from water using a resin
media specifically designed to exchange one chemical compound for a different one.
One of the most common ion exchange processes is a water softener, which exchanges
sodium ions on the resin for calcium and magnesium ions. This ion exchange reduces
water hardness but at the same time increases the sodium content in the treated water.
Disinfection processes rely on either destroying disease-causing microbiological
contaminants at the cellular level (usually by oxidation using compounds such as
chlorine, ozone and in some cases like emergency situations, iodine), or disrupting or
Water Quality 101 5
damaging the cells genetic ability to reproduce (via radiation from an ultraviolet light).
Chlorination is the most common form of disinfection. In order to ensure that treated
water remains safe throughout distribution pipes, it is important that a small amount of
residual chlorine is present after the disinfection process.
While there are other treatment processes, the processes listed above tend to be
amongst the most commonly used in conventional water treatment systems in towns
and cities. All of these processes are suitable for smaller-scale treatment systems or
devices available for micro-systems.
1.7 Targets for Safe Drinking Water

The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ) published by Health
Canada on behalf of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial committee on Drinking Water,
establishes health-based limits, called Maximum Acceptable Concentrations (MACs)
for many of these contaminants. These MACs are based on current, published scientific
research that determines the effect of a particular contaminant on human health and a
level of acceptable exposure. It is important to know the levels of contaminants in
source water in order to know how the water must be treated to remove the contaminants
and make it potable. It is also important to know the MACs for these contaminants so
that their reduced levels can be verified in the treated water. Both surface and
groundwater can contain some or all of the groups of contaminants. Groundwater from
wells deeper than 30 m will likely not contain organic or bacteriological contaminants;
however, a baseline chemical analysis should be carried out to verify that they are not
present. The GCDWQ also establish values for Aesthetic Objectives (AO) and
Operational Guidelines (OG). While these guidelines are not health-based, they are
important factors in domestic water use and treatment system performance.
1.8 Distribution Systems

Once water is treated it is delivered to the point of use by a distribution system. The
distribution system often includes some type of water storage reservoir such as a
pressure tank or a cistern. There may also be a pump to maintain distribution system
pressure and there will be piping and valves. Depending on the system design, there
may be devices incorporated to release air when necessary or other devices to prevent
backflow and siphoning in the system. Note that a micro-system may have little or no
distribution system.
In order to ensure that water remains potable in the distribution system it should have
enough chlorine residual everywhere in the pipeline system to prevent the re-growth of
microbiological contaminants. This is particularly important at the end of the
distribution pipes where water may not be used that often – the chlorine residual helps
protect water quality in these “dead end” parts of the distribution system.
For those micro-systems where treated potable water is delivered into the distribution
system by water haulers (tanks on trucks) rather than local treated water, extra care
needs to be taken to ensure that the water delivered is not contaminated during
transport or delivery to the on-site storage tank.
Bottled water may also be used as a source of drinking water, and demands special care
and attention to ensure that the water remains potable up until its use.
6 Water Quality 101
1.9 Notes on Chapter 1

Water Quality 101 7
2 Sources of Fresh Water
2.1 Introduction
Water is mobile - it moves through the atmosphere, over and through the land, and it
Did You Know:
moves within ocean currents. This movement of water between air, land and sea is
called the hydrologic cycle. An understanding of this cycle will help to gauge the safety Canada is fortunate. It
and treatment requirements needed for raw water taken from any one of these sources. has only 0.5% of the
world’s population, but
its landmass contains
Fig. 2.1 The Hydrological Cycle approximately 7% of
the world’s renewable
water supply.
2.2 Distribution of Water On Earth

Of all the Earth’s water, only 3% is fresh water, with the other 97% being salt water. Of
the Earth’s total fresh water supply, approximately 69% is frozen as ice-caps and glaciers,
30% is groundwater and only about 0.3% is surface water. Of that 0.3% surface water,
2% is found in rivers, 11% in swamps, and 87% in lakes. The North American Great
Lakes basin is the world’s largest freshwater lake system.
Fig. 2.2 The Distribution of Water on Earth

8 Water Quality 101
In Canada, approximately 60% of the fresh water drains to the north, yet 85% of the
population lives in the south, within several hundred kilometres of the Canada-United
States border. While Canada is fortunate to have fairly dependable supplies and good
quality water, its overall availability cannot be taken for granted. Some regions are
experiencing water availability issues and frequently have water use restrictions in
place. Fresh water must be carefully managed in a sustainable way so that the water
supplies above or below ground are not depleted and the quality of the source water is
not affected.
2.3 The Cycle of Water in the Environment

We see water emerge, seemingly out of nowhere, when it falls from the sky in the form
Did You Know:
of precipitation - rain or snow. When rain falls to the Earth, a number of things can
In May of 2000, happen to it. When it hits land, the water may travel as runoff across impermeable
residents of Walkerton surfaces (such as rock, hard soils and pavements) and ends up in streams, lakes, and
Ontario began to feel
oceans. Some water soaks into the ground (a process called infiltration) to replenish
ill. For days the
Walkerton Public groundwater or it is drawn into plants through their roots. The water that does not
Utilities Commission infiltrate the ground eventually ends back up in the atmosphere through the processes
insisted the town’s of evaporation and plant transpiration (the evaporation of water from exposed surfaces
water was safe to of plants). The combination of these two processes (evaporation and transpiration) is
drink despite having
called evapotranspiration.
lab results showing
contamination in the A simplified version of the hydrologic cycle might look something like this:
water.
On May 21, 2000 the

regions Medical Health
Officer issued a boil
water advisory for the
region. At least 7
people died as a direct
result of drinking
water contaminated
with E. coli and many
of the town’s
residents became ill.
Hydrologic Cycle Terms:

Precipitation is condensed water vapour that falls to the Earth’s surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, ice droplets and sleet.
Snowmelt refers to the runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff includes the variety of ways by which water moves across the surface of the
land. This includes both surface runoff and when surface runoff begins to concentrate,
channel runoff.
Infiltration is the flow of water from the earth’s surface into the ground. Once infiltrated,
the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
Water Quality 101 9
Evaporation is the transformation of water from the liquid to the gas phase as it moves
from the ground or the earth’s water bodies into the atmosphere. The primary energy
source for evaporation is the Sun.
Condensation is the transformation of water vapour to liquid water droplets in the air,
producing clouds and fog.
Rain water (precipitation) is often far from pure. Rain droplets form around dust
particles and because of this the rain water will contain the dust particle and any
contaminants attached to it. If clouds and rain originate above sources of industrial or
agricultural contaminants it is possible that these contaminants will be found in the
rainfall water.
2.4 Surface Water

Because the water sources for micro-systems may be streams and lakes, understanding
how water finds its way into those surface water sources and the kinds of contaminants Did You Know:
found in them is important. As stated earlier runoff is water that moves across the land. The length of time
The runoff that does not evaporate or become stored as groundwater flows throughout water can reside as
a land system known as a watershed. Watersheds are formed by land that slopes toward groundwater in an
aquifer can be as little
a specific stream, river, lake or wetland. Watersheds are water basins which move water as a few days or as
from a higher elevation to a lower elevation. Water bodies in these lower elevations are long as tens of
potential water supplies for micro-systems. thousands of years.
Precipitation events deposit water into a watershed and this water eventually flows into
a surface water body. The timing and quantity of this water flow varies due to the size
and length of the precipitation event and seasonal effects. During heavy rainfalls, runoff
volume is high and it may travel great distances. A longer and lighter rainfall might
produce less runoff but may provide more infiltration into the ground. During the
spring, warmer temperatures convert the winter accumulation of snow into flowing
water, which normally flows across frozen land. This event, known as spring runoff
from snowmelt, results in peak stream flows and changes the surface water characteristics.
For many regions in Canada, spring runoff is the dominant annual hydrological event,
affecting water supply and water quality.
All these variations in flow affect the characteristics of surface water bodies that might
be used as water sources. The nature and location of the flow affects the temperature,
turbidity, and the overall chemical, physical and biological characteristics of the water
source. This in turn affects the treatment requirements.
Often streams, rivers, and lakes are considered as pristine sources of water but in reality,
this is not the case. As runoff makes its way across a variety of surfaces into a water
source, it passes countless potential contamination threats. Some threats of
contamination are natural (wildlife waste, disease-causing microbes, natural chemicals
in sediments and the Earth’s geology) and some are man-made (chemical pollutants,
human waste, industrial and recreational activities).
One major source of potential contamination is wildlife, both living and dead. Animals
will deposit excrement both on the land and in the water. In addition, the decaying
bodies of animals can contribute to poor water quality or the growth of living disease-
causing microorganisms. This potential for contamination is true not just for wild
animals, but for domesticated ones as well, especially agricultural livestock and in cities
and towns, pets.
10 Water Quality 101
Fig 2.3 Contamination of Surface Waters
Another natural source of contamination of surface water is plants and plant material.
Both living plants and decaying plant material can add contaminants to the water. This
is true not only of plants that grow on the land surface but also those that grow in the
water. During the summer months surface water warms up which can promote algae
growth, the release of harmful toxins from blue-green algae blooms and the increase of
other naturally-occurring bacteria and microorganisms.
In some cases, surface water may have groundwater flowing into it, (e.g. from the
discharge of springs). Groundwater is normally more heavily mineralized than surface
waters and can add undesirable concentrations of natural substances such as iron,
manganese, sulphate and many other minerals.
Given all the potential contaminants that surface water is exposed to from the time it
falls as precipitation until the time it is used as a source of water for a micro-system, an
understanding of the characteristics of the surface water source is an important part of
being able to continually provide a safe supply of drinking water. There will be seasonal
variations in both the quantity of water available as well as the quality of the water.
Extreme weather events such as heavy rainfalls or prolonged dry spells will also affect
the quantity and quality of the sources water. Understanding these variations and their
impact on the treatment system is one of the key factors in providing safe drinking
water on a continuous basis.
2.5 Groundwater
Groundwater, like surface water, is also part of the hydrologic cycle. As water infiltrates
Did You Know: the ground, some of it is trapped and stored by aquifers. As it percolates through the
In developing nations , Earth’s geologic formations, and is stored within the aquifer, water dissolves the
80% of diseases are chemical constituents from the soil and rocks. This changes the water quality and adds
water related. concentrations of dissolved compounds (like calcium carbonate) and elements (like
iron, manganese, arsenic and radium) to the water. Of course the concentrations of
dissolved matter depend on time and geologic exposure and the biological, chemical
and physical processes within the aquifer and the water movement in the aquifer.
Water Quality 101 11
Fig 2.4 Aquifers
Water may spend a long time in an aquifer before being pumped to the surface or
discharging naturally. Residence time (the amount of time water spends in an aquifer Did You Know:
on average) may be hours to months to years – even thousands of years. This leaves a lot In Canada pre-
of time for the water to dissolve surrounding elements and acquire different packaged water
characteristics. In an undeveloped area (an area free from human impacts) these (bottled water) is
considered to be a
compounds and elements may represent the only treatment challenges facing a micro- food and is regulated
system using groundwater. Some of these characteristics, while naturally-occurring, under Division 12 of
can be harmful to human health (e.g. arsenic, nitrate) or may interfere with treatment the Food and Drug
or cause harmful by-products (e.g. ammonia, organic matter). Regulations.
Aquifers sufficiently protected from human and animal influences are generally
protected from disease-causing microbiological contaminants, and may only require
treatment for a few characteristics. The protection occurs from impervious confining
layers (layers or rock or clay), or simply by their depth and natural ground filtration,
since a significant amount of contamination will be filtered out as water percolates
downward through soil and rocks. Generally, since groundwater flows are much less
variable than surface water, groundwater water quality characteristics are also more
constant than those of surface water.
Shallow aquifers (generally those shallower than 30 m) represent a much greater
contamination risk, especially from harmful bacteria. (For a more in-depth discussion
of harmful bacteria, review Section 3.3 - Microbiological Contaminants.) These
aquifers are often unconfined aquifers, sometimes called water table aquifers. Shallow
aquifers are highly influenced by the above-ground environment, and its sources of
contamination ranging from natural environmental sources to those from human land
use activities. Changes in snowmelt or precipitation can cause large fluctuations in the
amount of water residing in these aquifers. Recharge (water entering the aquifer) takes
place so quickly that few, if any, contaminants are filtered out by infiltration and
percolation processes. Water entering the aquifer is little different from the runoff water
that enters surface water sources. For this reason, shallow aquifers are often classified as
Groundwater Under the Direct Influence of surface water (GUDI). These sources are
considered as surface water bodies from a treatment and health perspective, due to
their susceptibility to harmful microbiological and other types of contaminants. These
other contaminants include organic matter which can form harmful disinfection by-
products if not removed prior to disinfection. (Note: some shallow aquifers may be
confined by layers of impermeable rock or clay and might be considered a low
contamination risk.)
Fig 2.5 A Shallow Aquifer
2.6 Municipal Water

In some cases the source of water supply for a micro-system may be a municipal water
supply. Although this type of source may provide potable water at the treatment plant,
it is still necessary to ensure that the water is safe after it makes its way through the
distribution system to the federally owned facility. In some cases there may still be a
need for additional water treatment measures. If treatment is required, a water quality
professional will determine the configuration of the system. They will also establish the
type and frequency of water quality testing required.
Even with a municipal water supply as a source it is important to know where the water
originates. Knowing whether it is from a surface water or groundwater source (or a
blend of both) helps to understand if and when there might be potential for source
water contamination. Equally important is knowing the municipal supplier, what
treatment process is in place, the frequency of testing of the treated water and where the
test results can be viewed. Make sure that the supplier will make contact with the federal
facility in the event there is a problem with the quality of the water they are supplying.
Fig 2.6 A Municipal Water Supply
Operators of micro-systems treating and distributing water at a federal facility are

required to ensure the safety of the drinking water, even if the source is from a treated
municipal supply. Treatment by the municipality does not exclude the micro-system
from the need to conduct water quality tests. In order to ensure the safety of the water
supply it is important to follow the established water quality monitoring program.
2.7 Bottled Water

In Canada, pre-packaged water (bottled water) is regulated as a food under Division 12
Did You Know:
of the Food and Drug Regulations. These regulations indicate how bottled water can be
labelled and what it can contain. Provincial and
Territorial regulations
Bottled water labelled mineral or spring water is a potable water (fit for human require all municipal
consumption) that comes from an underground source. It cannot come from a public drinking water
water supply. Mineral water is spring water with a larger amount of dissolved mineral supplies to be tested
salts, usually above 500 milligrams per litre of total dissolved solids. Mineral and spring for numerous
parameters on
waters must not have their composition modified through the use of chemicals, except
a frequent basis.
that carbon dioxide and ozone can be added during the bottling process to protect the Private water supplies
freshness, and fluoride can be added for dental health reasons. (wells, dugouts and
ponds) are not subject
Bottled water not specifically identified as mineral or spring water, is water from any
to such regulations.
source (municipal water, well water, etc) that can be treated to make it fit for human For private water
consumption or to modify its composition. Treatments include carbonation, ozonation, supplies, it is the
ultraviolet irradiation, and filtration to remove harmful bacteria or contaminants. These responsibility of the
bottled waters can be distilled or passed through different deionization processes to owners/users to have
their water tested.
remove their minerals, or they are simply municipal tap waters bottled for sale. The
label on these water containers must show how they have been treated, for example
“carbonated,” “demineralised,” “distilled,” etc.
All bottled water offered for sale must be safe for people to consume. Mineral or spring
water must not contain any coliform bacteria or harmful levels of substances at the
source. Other bottled waters may undergo a variety of treatments and should meet the
regulatory requirements for coliform and aerobic bacteria. Pre-packaged ice also has to
comply with the regulations. Because they are foods, pre-packaged (bottled) water and
ice also have to comply with all of the provisions of the Canadian Food and Drugs Act,
which are generally based on the GCDWQ. More information on the subject of bottled
water can be found at the Health Canada website, on the page entitled “Frequently
Asked Questions about Bottled Water” (Health Canada, 2009).
2.8 Understanding the Water Source

Knowing the source of your water and the characteristics that influence it (the watershed
for surface water, the aquifer for groundwater) is the first step in understanding the
water supply and the treatment system required to deliver safe drinking water. In order
to make sound decisions concerning treatment, it is important to know the
vulnerabilities of the source water to environmental effects and the water’s biological,
chemical and physical characteristics.
The quality of a water source very rarely remains constant over time. For this reason, it’s
important to monitor changes, not just in the water itself, but in any area that has the
ability to impact the water source. Treatment systems are designed to treat water for
targeted characteristics, usually within a narrow range of concentrations. If the source
water quality varies significantly, the treatment process can fail to deliver safe drinking
water (e.g. a major flood or pollution event can impair treatment). Regular water quality
monitoring and testing of source water and treated water are essential components of
micros-system operation and help to ensure that the source water is within an acceptable
range for the treatment limitations of the micro-system.

3 What’s In the Water
3.1 Introduction
Water that occurs naturally in the environment contains much more than just water. In
Did You Know: addition to the hydrogen and oxygen that combine to form water molecules (H2O),
In 1854, the first there are also many contaminants. Some of these contaminants are visible, and can
linkage of disease make the water cloudy or murky. These contaminants are not dissolved into the water,
caused by water, was but rather, they are suspended. But even if water looks perfectly clear it can contain a
made in London.
variety of contaminants that are either microscopic in size or are dissolved in the water.
Previous medical
opinion was that Contaminants in water are generally grouped by their characteristics: microorganisms,
cholera was an air organic and inorganic chemicals and radiological compounds. Water is generally
borne disease. Dr. John
described by its various chemical, biological, physical and radiological characteristics.
Snow linked the spread
of cholera to the use It is unusual to find several sources of water that are exactly the same; all water supplies
of water from the have different characteristics.
Broad Street pump. Microorganisms occur in water in three main groups: bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
These groups will be discussed in detail in later sections. They may be in the water from
natural sources or as a result of human or animal activities. While some of these
microorganisms are harmless, others are capable of causing serious illness in humans.
Organic chemicals are generally those that contain carbon in their atomic structure,
such as naturally occurring dissolved organic matter or synthetic organics such as
pesticides, gasoline and plastics like vinyl chloride. Many organic chemicals are man-
made (anthropogenic) in origin. Inorganic chemicals typically do not contain carbon
and are generally natural in origin. They include compounds such as nitrate and
sulphate and elements such as iron, manganese, copper, and arsenic. Radiological
contaminants are generally derived from the weathering, erosion and mining of rock
materials containing these elements, or may be the result of nuclear processes (e.g.,
tritium). Radionuclide exposure is a known health risk to humans.
There are also many other key measurements that indicate the condition of the water.
These include pH, a measurement of the water’s acidity, alkalinity which is a measure of
the ability of water to neutralize acids, and hardness which is a measurement of specific
dissolved minerals, primarily calcium and magnesium.
In addition to measuring the individual concentrations of contaminants described
here, the measurement of groups of contaminants are also parameters that help to
understand water quality. Measures of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Total
Suspended Solids (TSS) are used as important parameters for understanding source
water quality and the amount and type of treatment required.
It is important to remember that harmful contaminants in the water that are of concern are rarely
visible! In many cases, the most harmful contaminants are those that can not be seen. This
is why it is extremely important to have a basic understanding of water treatment.
3.2 Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality

There are many substances in water besides water molecules. Some of these substances
have no health effects on humans, while others can have effects based on long-term
(chronic) exposure or even single event (acute) exposure. The Guidelines for Canadian
Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ), published by Health Canada provides acceptable
limits, called Maximum Acceptable Concentrations (MACs) for the contaminants that
have a human health impact. Drinking water that continually contains a substance at a
concentration greater than the MAC can contribute significantly to consumers’
exposure to that substance and may, in some instances, be capable of inducing harmful
effects on health. These MACs are based on current, published scientific research and
are reviewed on a regular basis and Health Canada either reaffirms existing MACs or
establishes new ones. Both the Canada Labour Code and the Guidance for Providing
Safe Drinking Water in Areas of Federal Jurisdiction reference the GCDWQ documents
for acceptable concentrations of contaminants. This chapter discusses some of the
parameters covered in the GCDWQ, but not all of them. It is important to know all of
the contaminants in the source water and their specific MACs so that their reduced
levels can be verified in the treated water.
In addition to the MACs for contaminants that have health impacts, the GCDWQ also
contains operational guidelines and aesthetic objectives for drinking water. These are
established to identify the maximum concentrations of a contaminant that should not
adversely affect the operation of a treatment system or the aesthetic quality of the water.
Operational guidelines and their technical documents are designed to keep the
concentration of the contaminant at safe levels while at the same time permitting
efficient and effective micro-system operation.
Aesthetic objectives are developed to provide guidance on how to produce water that
is nice to drink. If a glass of water looked bad or smelled like rotten eggs, it is unlikely
that anyone would want to drink the water. In such a case a person might even seek out
an alternative source, one that tastes or smells better, but perhaps one that is chemically
or biologically contaminated. When the time and effort has been taken to make sure
water is SAFE to drink through various treatment techniques, it is also important to
make sure the water is palatable to ensure that people actually WANT to drink it.
This chapter covers certain water contaminants in greater detail and can be used as
a reference tool later on as well. The contaminants covered include those that occur
frequently in either surface water or groundwater. A table showing the GCDWQ values
for these parameters can be found in Appendix A. As the guidelines are periodically
updated, always check the Health Canada website for the most current values.
3.3 Microbiological Contamination

The most significant health risk from drinking water is microorganisms. Of course this
opens the door for many questions: What are microorganisms? Are there different
types of microorganisms? Are all microorganisms harmful? The word microorganism is
a very general term that is used to describe a multitude of different, tiny living organisms.
When it comes to drinking water, the 3 main groups of microorganisms of concern are:
bacteria, protozoa, and viruses.
Fig 3.1 Microorganisms pose the greatest risk to health
It would be extremely difficult and time-consuming to individually test for all of the
Did You Know:
known harmful microorganisms, so drinking water experts use an indicator approach
E.Coli is a natural to make the process a bit easier. Microbiologists (scientists who study bacteria and
bacterial resident in other microorganisms) have found that microorganisms found in water are often linked
the intestines of all
animals, including
to faecal contamination. Coliforms are a group of bacteria that are naturally found on
humans. When E.Coli is plants and in soils, water, and in the intestines of humans and warm-blooded animals.
detected in water it What microbiologists and drinking water experts have also discovered is that coliform
usually indicates fecal bacteria are fairly easy to grow and test for in a laboratory. Because coliforms are
contamination from widespread in the environment, they can be used as one of the many operational tools
human, agricultural or
wildlife sources.
to determine the efficacy of a drinking water treatment system.
So why is this group, coliform bacteria, so important? Not all coliform bacteria are
harmful. In fact, most are harmless. But if a water sample from a treated micro-system
tests positive for coliform bacteria, then it MAY contain some of those harmful bacteria
outlined later in this chapter, because their presence in the treated water indicates a
breakdown in the treatment cycle. In other words, if the treatment cycle failed to kill or
inactivate (making it so the bacteria cannot reproduce in your body causing illness)
these indicator bacteria, then it very likely failed to kill or inactivate any harmful bacteria
that were present in the water. The ability to detect faecal contamination in drinking
water is a necessity, as pathogenic microorganisms from human and animal faeces in
drinking water pose the greatest danger to public health.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a member of the coliform group of bacteria that is naturally
found in the intestines of humans and warm-blooded animals. As it is not usually found
naturally in other environments such as on plants or in soils or water, the presence of E.
coli in a water sample is a good indicator of recent faecal contamination.
If a water sample tests positive for total coliforms, then it may or may not contain
harmful bacteria, and further action is needed before the water can be considered safe,
including additional testing. The presence of total coliforms in the distribution system
or plumbing system samples indicates a problem with the integrity or operation of
these systems. If a test is positive for E. coli, that water sample has certainly come into
contact with animal faeces and is therefore unsafe to drink. Whereas the Total Coliform
test by itself can show that a sample might be harmful, an E. coli test can confirm that a
sample definitely IS harmful. For a micro-system (a single source and small distribution
system) a positive E. coli test would indicate that immediate action needs to be taken –
issuing a boil water advisory. Consult with a water quality specialist, standard operating
procedures or the Health Canada website for what needs to be done. The Health
Canada website provides a decision tree to help choose a course of action when
microbiological indicator tests are positive.
In order for water to be treated for microorganisms it must first be treated through
various processes to remove other contaminants so that the disinfection treatment
process used to kill or inactivate the microorganisms will be effective. Turbidity is a
measurement of suspended matter in the water – the lower the turbidity, the lower the
concentration of suspended particles. The suspended matter can include substances
such as inorganic clay and silt, organic particles and compounds, plankton and
microscopic organisms (some of which may be disease-causing pathogenic micro-
organisms such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa). All surface water and groundwater
will have some degree of turbidity.
Turbidity is a key indicator because it identifies how well the treatment process has
removed all the suspended particles in the source water before the disinfection process
is applied. Water treatment plants are designed to deliver water with the lowest turbidity
possible. If turbidity values change or fluctuate, this is a key indicator that the source
water quality has worsened, and/or treatment processes have been compromised or
are not optimized, and/or water treatment distribution pipes may be sloughing off dirt
or micro-organisms.
Fig 3.2 A flask containing suspended solids, showing turbidity

Turbid water can potentially harbour and shield disease-causing micro-organisms,

reduce the effectiveness of disinfection or other treatment processes, and provide
nutrients for the re-growth of micro-organisms in water distribution pipelines.
3.3.1 Bacteria
Bacteria are probably the most well known of the three groups mentioned here. Most
Did You Know: people have at least heard of bacteria and perhaps even heard of some different types of
Boiling water for bacteria. Bacteria are single celled organisms that range in size from about 0.5 microns
several minutes will kill to several microns long. To give an idea of just how small that is, 1 micron (short for
bacteria but will not
micrometre) is 1/1000th of a millimetre. In other words, if a single bacterium happened
reduce the amount of
minerals such as to be 1 or 2 microns in length, it would take between 500 and 1000 of them stacked end
nitrate or metals such to end to reach the length of a single millimetre.
as lead. Scientists often group bacteria by their morphology or in other words, their form and
shape. Bacteria come in three different shapes: rod shaped (bacillus), spherical shaped
(coccus), and spiral shaped (spirillum). This type of grouping makes it easier for
scientists to view bacteria under a microscope and quickly narrow down which group
they are looking at.
Bacteria can be found everywhere on the planet, and that really does mean
EVERYWHERE. Bacteria live inside the bodies of animals and help them digest food.
Bacteria are on the roots of plants helping them gather nutrients. Bacteria are on every
surface and inside every object and organism imaginable. There is not a single place on
Earth that does not contain bacteria of one form or another. Of course this includes the
water sources commonly used by micro-systems such as streams, ponds, rivers, lakes,
and even aquifers. Bacteria require specific nutrients (food) to reproduce, so they are
typically more prevalent in surface water (as opposed to groundwater) where those
nutrients are easily available. When streams and lakes are used as water supply sources
for micro-systems, the need to treat the water for bacteria is inevitable.
The vast majority of these bacteria are completely harmless to humans, but unfortunately,
those harmless bacteria share their habitat with some very harmful bacteria as well.
Exposure to these harmful bacteria through drinking water can lead to severe illness or
in some instances even death. Health problems, mainly related to the stomach and
intestines (gastrointestinal), from just one exposure to bacteria can happen in a few
days, or even a few hours. For this reason, it is extremely important to ensure that the
water produced by a micro-system is tested and considered to be free of all bacteriological
contaminants.
Indicator Organisms (E. coli and Total Coliforms)
Although modern microbiological techniques have made the detection of pathogenic

bacteria, viruses, and protozoa possible, it is currently not practical to attempt to routinely
isolate them from drinking water. It is better to use indicators that are less difficult, less
expensive, and less time consuming to monitor. This should encourage a higher number
of samples to be tested, giving a better overall picture of the water quality and, therefore
better protection of public health. Of the contaminants that may be regularly found in
surface and groundwater sources, pathogenic microorganisms from human and animal
faeces pose the greatest danger to public health. For this reason, the ability to detect
faecal contamination in drinking water is a necessity for ensuring public safety.
Total Coliforms
Coliforms are a group of closely related bacteria that are generally free-living in the
environment, but their presence in water is a possible indication of contamination of
the water system. The presence of coliforms in a treated water sample may be an
indication of biological growth in a water distribution system or another point of
contamination. Testing for total coliforms is part of good practice and an indication of
this organism may be a sign of the presence of other pathogenic bacteria.
Table 3.1 Bacteria of Concern to Micro-system Operators
Name of Bacteria Description

Escherichia coli (E. coli) Escherichia coli (E. coli) are microorganisms that make up a
family of common bacteria found in the intestines of humans
and animals, where the bacteria assist in the breakdown and
fermentation of food. There are hundreds of different strains
of E. coli, most of which are harmless to human health. Of the
coliform group of organisms, E. coli are considered a more
specific indicator of faecal contamination and tests have been
developed that can rapidly and easily determine their presence
in water. In addition to being faecal specific, E. coli do not
usually multiply in the environment, are excreted in the faeces
in high numbers (approximately 109 cells per gram) making
detection possible even when greatly diluted, and have a life
span on the same order of magnitude as those of other enteric
(meaning of, relating to, or affecting the intestines) bacterial
pathogens. These features make E. coli the best available
indicator of faecal contamination.
E. coli is released from faecal matter that may be washed into

water by rain, snowmelt, and other forms of precipitation. As
such, E. coli is a type of faecal coliform, and its presence in
water indicates contamination with sewage or animal wastes.
Among other causes, sources of such contamination may
include naturally occurring wildlife, agricultural runoff and
sewage contamination of the source water or the accidental
mixing of sewage with drinking water in the water distribution
system either through a cross-connection or because of an
integrity breach or failure in the distribution system (e.g. pipe
break). As a general rule, groundwater tends to have lower
levels of E. coli than does surface water, due to filtering action
of soil and rock.

Campylobacter spp. Campylobacters are pathogenic bacteria found primarily in the
intestinal tract of domestic and wild animals, especially birds.
Human sewage also contains large number of these organisms.
Campylobacter is transmitted through the faecal-oral route,
mostly through contaminated food, and sometimes through
water. Waterborne outbreaks of gastroenteritis involving
Campylobacter jejuni have been recorded on numerous
occasions, with improper treatment, post-treatment
contamination or consumption of untreated water supplies
being the most frequent causes. Campylobacter enteritis
typically presents as flu-like symptoms and/or abdominal pain,
followed by a profuse watery diarrhoea. Treatment
technologies effective in the removal and inactivation of E. coli
are effective against Campylobacters.
Helicobacter spp. The genus Helicobacter has at least 25 species, of which
Helicobacter pylori is the species of relevance for the water
industry. H. pylori is a recognized human pathogen, and it is
believed that there are a few routes of transmission, including
through drinking water. Disease is benign for the most part in
the majority of persons infected, but more serious disorders
such as peptic ulcers or stomach cancer can develop in a small
percentage of cases. In the majority of H. pylori infections
there are no outward telltale signs of disease. Infection is
considered to be lifelong unless treated. Like other bacteria, a
proportion of the H. pylori present in the source water will be
removed using physical methods, such as coagulation,
sedimentation, and filtration. H. pylori is also susceptible to
disinfectants commonly used in drinking water treatment (e.g.,
chlorine, UV, ozone and monochloramine). The current body of
research suggests that the concentration and time of contact
for disinfection provided by a typical water treatment plant is
sufficient to inactivate H. pylori in the finished water. However,
if H. pylori does enter the distribution system, potentially
through a breakdown in treatment or infiltration into the
system, disinfectant residuals maintained in the distribution
system are probably insufficient for inactivation. Overall, the
predominant transmission route for H. pylori seems to be
situation dependent, with person-to-person transmission
playing a key role in many circumstances. Water and food
appear to be of lesser direct importance.

Salmonella spp. Salmonella is a complex grouping of bacteria (taxonomic
genus) consisting of over 2000 different varieties and types
that can cause infections in animals and humans. Salmonella
enterica is the species of most relevance for human infection.
As Salmonella is a pathogen that normally exists in animals but
can infect humans (a zoonotic pathogen), runoff from
agricultural lands can provide a mechanism for the transfer of
animal faecal wastes to source waters. Infected humans and
as a result, sewage, are also a source of Salmonella.
Transmission of Salmonella occurs through the faecal-oral
route, predominantly through food. Drinking water is not often
implicated as a source of Salmonella infection. Salmonella
survival characteristics in water and their susceptibility to
disinfection have been demonstrated to be similar to those of
coliform bacteria, including E. coli. It is generally recognized
that well-operated disinfection will be sufficient in controlling
Salmonella in treated drinking water.
Most people infected with Salmonella develop diarrhoea, fever
and abdominal cramps 6 to 72 hours after being infected. The
illness usually lasts four to seven days and most people
recover without treatment. As with any disease causing
diarrhoea or vomiting, those infected should drink plenty of
liquids to replace lost body fluids. This is particularly important
with very young children and seniors. In severe cases, patients
may need to be given fluids intravenously, which is usually
done in hospital. (Source: Health Canada http://www.hc-sc.gc.
ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/food-aliment/salmonella-eng.php)
Shigella spp. Like Salmonella, Shigella belongs to the same microbiological
family as E. coli. Shigella is a human-specific pathogen and is
not expected to be found in the environment. Infected humans
are the only significant reservoir of Shigella. Transmission is
faecal-oral, through drinking water or food that has been
contaminated with human faecal wastes. Person-person is also
a significant route of exposure for Shigella, particularly among
children. Shigella-associated illness is marked by a watery
diarrhoea containing blood and mucus. Once infected,
recovering individuals may continue to shed Shigella in their
faeces for days up to several weeks or months. Shigella
survival characteristics in water and their susceptibility to
disinfection have been demonstrated to be similar to those of
coliform bacteria, including E. coli. It is generally recognized
that well-operated disinfection will be sufficient in controlling
Shigella in treated drinking water.

Legionella Legionellae are recognized human pathogens; they are a cause
of respiratory illness which can be serious for persons with
weakened immune systems (immunocompromised). They are
free-living aquatic bacteria that occur widely in water
environments. The presence of Legionella is more of a concern
for water systems outside of municipal water treatment
systems, such as cooling towers, hospital and residential
plumbing systems. However, the organisms are also capable of
colonizing drinking water distribution system biofilms.
Legionella species exhibit a number of survival properties that
make them quite resistant to the effects of chlorination and
elevated water temperatures.
Plumbing systems outside of public water supply systems (e.g.,

in residential buildings, hotels, institutional settings) are most
commonly implicated in Legionella pneumophila infections.
Since Legionella is a respiratory pathogen, systems that
generate aerosols, such as cooling towers, whirlpool baths and
shower heads, are the more commonly implicated sources of
infection. Although hot water supply systems are a common
origin of contamination, cold water supplies at a temperature
within the range of Legionella multiplication (25°C) can also be
implicated. Legionella is not transmitted from person to
person.
There are two distinct illnesses caused by Legionella:

Legionnaires’ disease and Pontiac fever. Collectively, these
illnesses are referred to as legionellosis. General
recommendations regarding the control of Legionella in
domestic plumbing systems involve maintaining proper water
temperatures. The National Plumbing Code of Canada includes
requirements of a minimum of 60°C for water temperature in
hot water storage tanks, to address the growth of Legionella.
Where increased hot water temperatures create an increased
risk of scalding for vulnerable groups (e.g., children, the
elderly), appropriate safety measures should be applied to limit
the temperature to 49°C. Thermostatic or pressure-balanced
mixing valves can be installed to control the water
temperature at the tap to reduce the risk of scalding.
In conclusion, it is interesting to note that most strains of harmful bacteria reviewed in
this chapter reside in the digestive tracts of animals. Faecal contamination from cattle,
deer, elk, songbirds, waterfowl, humans, and even pets like dogs and cats have each lead
to waterborne disease outbreaks in North America, even within the last several decades.
Protecting a watershed from the faeces of animals, and thus bacteria, reaching a drinking
water source would be next to impossible. So, it is most important to monitor the water
source for the presence of bacteria by testing for the INDICATOR organisms E. coli,
and Total Coliforms (TC) and then treat the water accordingly. This manual will cover
the specifics of water testing (including testing for bacteria) in a later chapter.
3.3.2 Viruses
Viruses are the smallest of all of the groups described here. In fact, viruses are the
smallest known living organisms. It would take about 100 virus particles stacked end to
end to equal the length of a single bacterial cell. Scientists cannot even look at viruses
with standard microscopes; they require special multi-million dollar scanning

microscopes. Only in the last few decades have scientists begun to understand viruses.
One extremely important fact about viruses is that they cannot reproduce on their own
like bacteria. Viruses must enter a host (like a human) and essentially take over that
host’s cellular machinery to make copies of itself. This may not seem all that important
at first, but what it means is that most viruses are looking for a very specific host. In
other words, a virus that affects deer or elk, is very unlikely to cause illness in humans.
For the most part, a human is only affected by viruses from other humans. There are of
course exceptions, but most viruses stick to a specific group of hosts.
In order to determine if a water source may be contaminated with viruses that could be
harmful, consider this question: “Are there human sources of contamination present?”
Of course, there are sources of human contamination that you will not be able to see.
Hydrogeologists (experts on groundwater) have recently discovered that viruses can
not only reside in aquifers, but they can actually travel through them with the movement
of groundwater. It is possible that human contamination from elsewhere could reach
your source, even if you are using groundwater. Again, this is a relatively new concept.
It was once believed that viruses were only a problem for surface water systems and that
deep groundwater was a “secure” source of water.
Numerous waterborne disease outbreaks have been attributed to viruses, though it is
sometimes difficult to determine the exact source of contamination or even the specific
virus involved. Some of the viruses known to contaminate water are described here.
Table 3.2 Viruses of Concern to Micro-system Operators
Name of Virus Description

Hepatitis To date, six types of hepatitis viruses have been identified, but
only hepatitis A (HAV) and hepatitis E (HEV), appear to be
transmitted via the faecal–oral route and therefore associated with
waterborne transmission. HAV infections, commonly known as
infectious hepatitis, result in numerous symptoms, including fever,
malaise (fatigue), anorexia, nausea and abdominal discomfort,
followed within a few days by jaundice. HAV infection can also
cause liver damage, resulting from the host’s immune response to
the infection of the hepatocytes by HAV. In some cases, the liver
damage can result in death. The incubation period of HAV infection
is between 10 and 50 days, with an average of approximately
28–30 days, and is shorter at a greater dose.
Norovirus Noroviruses are shed in both faecal matter and vomitus from
infected individuals and can be transmitted through contaminated
water. They are also easily spread by person-to-person contact.
Norovirus infections occur in infants, children and adults. The
incubation period is short (24–48 h), and health effects are
self-limiting, typically lasting 24–48 h. Symptoms include nausea,
vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and fever. In healthy
individuals, the symptoms are generally highly unpleasant but are
not considered life threatening. In vulnerable groups, such as the
elderly, the resulting illness is considered more serious.
Name of Virus Description

Rotavirus In general, rotaviruses cause gastroenteritis, including vomiting
and diarrhoea. Vomiting can occur for up to 48 h prior to the onset
of diarrhoea. The severity of the gastroenteritis can range from
mild, lasting for less than 24 h, to severe. The incubation period is
about 4–7 days, and the illness generally lasts between 5 and 8
days. Rotavirus is the leading cause of severe diarrhoea among
infants and children and accounts for about half of the cases
requiring hospitalization, usually from dehydration.
To recap, viruses can be found in both groundwater and surface water sources. They are
typically specific to a certain group of animals (like humans for instance), and they are
extremely small. All of these factors make testing for viral contamination a lot like
finding a needle in a haystack. Instead of testing for viruses, systems typically take
measures to ensure that, if the system is contaminated by viruses, appropriate treatment
techniques are in place to take care of the problem. To take this one step further, if it is
suspected that a water system is contaminated with viruses, the first step is to TREAT
rather than TEST. The specific treatment techniques employed to deal with viruses will
be covered in other chapters.
3.3.3 Protozoa
Protozoa are a group of microorganisms that are very difficult to define. In drinking
water, most scientists agree that protozoa can be classified as unicellular, heterotrophic
organisms that divide (reproduce) within another host organism. What this means is
that protozoa are each a single cell (unicellular), that does not make its own food
(heterotrophic, as opposed to phototrophic like a plant that can make its own food
from sunlight). The final part of the definition is where protozoa become a problem for
humans. When they reproduce inside hosts like humans and other animals, they
typically cause gastrointestinal problems or worse. For the most part, protozoa are
larger than bacteria and viruses. Sizes range from around 2 microns to about 50 microns
for a typical protozoa cell. This makes viewing protozoa with a microscope relatively
easy, though identifying exactly what you’re looking at can be a difficult task that is best
left to the experts.
Typically we find these organisms only in surface waters and groundwater that is under
the direct influence of surface water (GUDI). Although they are typically not as
prevalent as bacteria, protozoa are still a major concern. The enteric protozoa that are
most often associated with waterborne disease in Canada are Cryptosporidium and
Giardia. These protozoa are commonly found in source waters, some strains are highly
pathogenic, can survive for long periods of time in the environment and are highly
resistant to chemical disinfection.
Table 3.3 Protozoa of Concern to Micro-system Operators
Name of Protozoa Description

Giardia lamblia Giardia lamblia is a parasitic protozoa found all over the world. It
lives and reproduces in the intestines of mammals. Typically,
Giardia is non-invasive (does not invade healthy cells) and results
in asymptomatic (without symptoms, showing no subjective
evidence of existence) infections. Symptomatic giardiasis can
result in nausea, anorexia, uneasiness in the upper intestine,
malaise (a general feeling of discomfort or uneasiness) and
occasionally low-grade fever or chills. The onset of diarrhoea is
usually sudden and explosive, with watery and foul-smelling
stools. The acute phase of the infection commonly resolves
spontaneously, and organisms generally disappear from the
faeces. Human and other animal faeces, especially cattle faeces,
are major sources of Giardia. Giardiasis has been shown to be
endemic (present or usually prevalent) in humans and in over 40
other species of animals. Person-to-person transmission is by far
the most common route of transmission of Giardia. Persons
become infected via the faecal–oral route, either directly (i.e.,
contact with faeces from a contaminated person, such as children
in daycare facilities) or indirectly (i.e., ingestion of contaminated
drinking water, recreational water and, to a lesser extent, food).
Giardia is the most commonly reported intestinal protozoan in
North America and worldwide.
Cryptosporidium spp. Humans and animals, especially cattle, are important reservoirs for
– most common for Cryptosporidium. Individuals infected with Cryptosporidium are
human infection: more likely to develop symptomatic illness than those infected
C. parvum and with Giardia. The most common symptom associated with
C. hominus cryptosporidiosis is diarrhoea, characterized by very watery,
non-bloody stools. The volume of diarrhoea can be extreme, with 3
L/day being common in immunocompetent hosts and with reports
of up to 17 L/day in immunocompromised patients. This symptom
can be accompanied by cramping, nausea, vomiting (particularly in
children), low-grade fever (below 39°C), anorexia and dehydration.
Human cryptosporidiosis has been reported in more than 90
countries over six continents. Cryptosporidium oocysts (a thick
walled structure that allows the protozoa to move to a new host)
are easily disseminated in the environment and are transmissible
via the faecal–oral route. Common mechanisms of transmission
include person-to-person, contact with animals, especially
livestock, consumption of contaminated drinking water,
recreational water and food. Cryptosporidium oocysts are
commonly found in sewage and surface waters and occasionally in
treated water. Cryptosporidium is one of the most commonly
reported enteric protozoans in North America and worldwide.
Name of Protozoa Description

Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect warm-blooded
animals, including humans, but the primary host is the cat. It is
usually transmitted by ingestion of tissue cysts through
consumption of raw or undercooked infected meat, by ingestion of
oocysts through consumption of contaminated food or water or
after handling contaminated soil or infected cat faeces. Similar to
the other protozoa listed above the symptoms are gastrointestinal
illness with the most vulnerable more susceptible to severe
complications. Although this organism tends to cause mild flu-like
symptoms, it can be life-threatening for immunocompromised
individuals and pregnant women. Little is known about the
distribution of this organism in water sources; however, oocysts
have been reported to survive for up to 17 months in tap water.
There was an outbreak in British Columbia in 1995, which was
thought to be due to contamination of a water reservoir by
domestic and wild cat faeces. Water treatment processes in a
treatment system for the removal or inactivation of Giardia and
Cryptosporidium should be effective against this organism.
3.4 Chemical Contamination

Water sources can be contaminated by inorganic or organic chemicals. Although inorganic
and organic chemicals can be either man-made or found naturally in the environment, each
is more commonly found in their particular environment. Inorganic chemicals tend to be
found naturally in the environment, while organic chemicals tend to be more man-made.
In the following sections inorganic and organic chemicals will be described in more detail.
Fig 3.3 The Relative Sizes of Micro-organisms
3.4.1 Inorganic Chemical Contaminants

To begin with, the word inorganic refers to any chemical compound that lacks carbon.
However, there are numerous exceptions to the “no carbon” rule, even in drinking water
discussions. It is perhaps most useful to dispense with the definition of an inorganic
contaminant, and focus more on examples.
Inorganics are often naturally occurring contaminants that may be harmful to health, affect
treatment processes for a micro-system, or cause aesthetic problems such as stains on
bathroom fixtures and laundry. Some inorganics are beneficial to health at low doses.
Inorganic contaminants typically leach out of geologic formations like rocks and soil that
come into contact with water. For this reason, inorganics are typically found at higher
concentrations in groundwaters than surface waters. Groundwater may be in contact with

the rocks and soil for a few years, tens of years or even thousands of years before it is
pumped to the surface for drinking water. This provides a lot of time for the water to work
on the surrounding rocks, dissolving inorganics into solution. But inorganics can also find
their way into water from the atmosphere or even from the biological processes of bacteria
and plants. Of course, some inorganics may be concentrated in a particular area or water
source by humans. Depending on the location of a micro-system, some inorganics may be
much more common than others. Systems that are near agricultural areas such as farming
operations or animal feed lots may have source waters with elevated levels of nitrate and
nitrite. Systems that are close to industrial activities like smelting or mining may see
elevated levels of arsenic, lead, or copper. Groundwater in Canada quite often will also
contain iron and/or manganese, calcium and magnesium. It is important to understand
that drinking water containing low concentrations (i.e., up to the Maximum Acceptable
Concentration) of most contaminants will not pose a risk to human health.
There are numerous inorganic substances that are commonly found in surface water and
groundwater. The results of a water sample analysis will indicate the inorganic contaminants
in the source water. Further information on each substance can be found on the Health
Canada website. When looking for information on contaminants, it is important to consider
several factors. Firstly, use only credible sources. Secondly, make sure that the information
is about the contaminant in water, not just the substance itself. As indicated above,
concentrations below the MAC will not pose a human health risk, and in some cases may
have a beneficial health aspect. Some inorganic compounds may have operational
guidelines; these guidelines may not only be for better system operation but concentrations
below the guideline also may improve some treatment operations like membrane filtration
or disinfection.
3.4.2 Organic Chemical Contaminants

Organic chemical contaminants are generally those that contain carbon in their atomic
structure. These contaminants can occur naturally – oil, natural gas and dissolved organic
matter to name just a few. But there are quite a few anthropogenic (man-made) organic
chemicals, such as pesticides, gasoline (refined oil) and vinyl chloride. Some organic
chemicals can pose a significant risk to the health of individuals exposed to them, especially
if the exposure is prolonged. Organic chemical contaminants have been associated with
numerous ailments including cancer, gastrointestinal distress, and neurological disorders.
When analysing drinking water samples for organic chemicals, tests are conducted on two
major groups: Volatile Organic Contaminants (VOCs) and Synthetic Organic
Contaminants (SOCs). VOCs are chemicals that readily volatilize into the air, meaning
they turn into a gas that can usually be smelled in a glass of water. SOCs include chemicals
such as pesticides, dry cleaning agents and fuels. These are man-made chemicals that have
been created to make life easier (at least until they reach a water supply). Many of these
chemicals do not fully mix with water, and instead remain in pockets of highly concentrated
contamination - called “plumes” which can occur in both surface water and groundwater.
Should a micro-system intake pull a plume into the treatment facility, there is unfortunately
very little that can be economically done to make that contaminated water safe to drink.
Although there are treatment options available, these are often difficult to install and
operate in micro-systems.
It is important to monitor organic contamination and try to remedy the problem before it
enters a drinking water system in such a concentrated form. Organic contaminants can be
found in surface and groundwaters. If they reach a groundwater source, remediation (getting
rid of the contaminant) is very difficult and could take years. One common source of organic
contamination reaching groundwaters includes underground fuel storage tanks that crack
or corrode and begin to slowly leak into the surrounding soil. Eventually, rainwater moves
downward through the soils, carrying this contamination with it to aquifers.
Below is a list of some organic contaminants. Clearly, some will be found in the water due
to careless handling and accidental spills. However, pesticides are commonly found at trace
amounts in surface water and to a lesser extent in groundwater. Pharmaceuticals are also
becoming quite commonly found in trace amounts in surface water sources.
Table 3.4 Organic chemical contaminants of concern
Contaminant Description
Chloroorganics Chloroorganics are a group of chemicals which are common in many
of the solvents we use on a daily basis. For example, dry cleaning
solutions are a common source of two chloroorganics that have
had a major impact on groundwater sources in all of North America.
These chemicals can create plumes (clouds of chemical that do not
mix with the water) of contamination that are difficult to remove
or even reduce in abundance.
Fuels Fuels are a prevalent source of drinking water contamination,
especially for groundwater sources. These are anthropogenic
sources of contamination that can only be stopped by making a
conscience effort to keep them from getting into surface and
groundwater sources. Underground storage tanks for petrol
stations, or even small ones used on farms have broken down over
the years. Before the hazards of fuel contamination were clearly
understood underground storage tanks were made of materials
that did not stand the test of time. Slowly, but deliberately, Health
Canada and other government agencies have worked with owners
to monitor, remove, and replace leaking underground storage tanks
as needed.
Benzene Benzene is a colourless, odourless chemical that is used in the
production of many other products and chemicals such as plastics,
rubbers, some drugs, and pesticides. It is a natural by-product of
petroleum products and a known carcinogen. Benzene is only
expected to be found in water as a result of a spill.
Pesticides Pesticides are a tricky subject to address. Although many of them
are less harmful for the environment than they once were, there
are some pesticides that remain a problem for drinking water. The
answer is not simple, as a variety of pesticides are used in
agricultural operations to ensure that enough food is produced.
Working together with farmers, scientists and government,
officials believe the answer may lie in a combination of better
chemicals and better application techniques. In the past
addressing application techniques was not considered helpful, yet
many now realize that reducing over-spray and only using enough
chemicals to get the job done has significantly reduced the
amount of stray pesticide reaching our sources of water.
Contaminant Description
Pharmaceuticals Pharmaceuticals have recently emerged as an organic contaminant in
drinking water sources. They are being found in extremely low
concentrations, but the fact that they are being found in drinking
water is significant. It is thought that many of these pharmaceuticals
reach water sources through wastewaters. Pharmaceutical products
that we take are not entirely used by the body; some of them are
excreted in our urine and faeces. Even though our municipal
wastewater travels through extensive treatment, these treatment
processes have never been designed to remove pharmaceuticals, so
some pass through the wastewater treatments processes unaltered.
There are also numerous septic systems on the landscape and they
offer little to no treatment for pharmaceuticals. Nearly all
pharmaceuticals that make it to a septic system are delivered to the
surrounding soil and groundwater. Although the effect of
pharmaceuticals are known when they are taken as a drug, very little
is known about the health effects of these pharmaceuticals when
they are taken at the very small concentrations found in source water
(environmental exposure) over a period of time.
3.5 Other Water Characteristics

There are many water characteristics that affect drinking water quality, a few of which may
be of interest to micro-systems. These include pH, alkalinity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS),
conductivity, and hardness.
3.5.1 pH
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a water is. This relates directly to the amount of
Hydrogen (H+) ions the water has in solution. The more H+ ions, the more acidic the
water and the lower the pH number. The pH is typically measured on a scale of 0 to 14,
with 0 being extremely acidic and 14 extremely basic. In the middle at 7 is neutral. Each
step on the pH scale represents a 10-fold change from the previous step. In other words, a
water with a pH of 6 has a concentration of 10 times more H+ ions in solution than a water
with a pH of 7. So it may not sound like much, but each step on the pH scale is actually a
major leap. Most natural waters range from a pH of 6.5 to a pH of 8.0, so they are very close
to neutral. Each treatment process has a specific range of pH where it works best. Keeping
the pH within those ranges throughout the treatment process can be challenging. This is
where alkalinity comes into the picture. For some, the difference between pH and alkalinity
can be the most confusing.
3.5.2 Alkalinity
Alkalinity represents the water’s ability to limit changes in pH. In technical terms it is the
water’s ability to buffer against changes in pH. Alkalinity, contrary to what some may think,
does not represent how basic (i.e. opposite of acidic) a water is. This misconception comes
from the word “alkaline” and should be disregarded for all discussions of alkalinity.
Alkalinity essentially represents a water’s ability to neutralize any acid that is added. If the
alkalinity of a water is too low, every treatment chemical addition causes a large swing in
pH. A stable pH is very important to maintaining treatment processes, water quality and
safety. The micro-system operator may need to spend time trying to correct these pH
swings so that the treatment processes will work correctly. Increasing the alkalinity may be
the answer to reducing the pH swings enough to keep the pH stable within the limits
needed for the treatment processes.
3.5.3 TDS
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a catch-all term used to describe any number of dissolved
inorganic contaminants and small amounts of organic matter in the water. In general the
determining factor of whether a solid is considered a “dissolved” as opposed to a “suspended”
solid is whether it will pass through a very fine filter. Depending on the laboratory method
being followed, the size of this filter is in the range of 0.45 to 2 microns. If the solid passes
through, it is included in the TDS calculation; if not, then it is considered part of the Total
Suspended Solids (TSS). Typically, TDS includes calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate and nitrate. TDS is easily measured in the field
using conductivity and this value is then converted to a concentration in mg/L using a
conversion factor specific to the water type. Generally speaking, these dissolved solids are
not considered a health issue.
3.5.4 Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of how much electricity can pass through a sample of water.
Most people are under the assumption that water conducts electricity quite easily, yet this
could not be further from the truth. In fact, pure water is an excellent insulator (a substance
that does not conduct electricity, rather, it stop electricity from passing through it). But
water that has ions in it (resulting from dissolving molecules like table salt for instance)
WILL conduct electricity. It is these ions that raise the conductivity of water. In other
words, the more dissolved ions in water, the higher the conductivity. Many water treatment
system operators measure conductivity as an indirect indicator of the level of TDS. A
conductivity measurement can be used to estimate the amount of TDS in water by
converting it to a concentration in mg/L using a conversion factor specific to the water
type. Although there is no exact relationship between conductivity and TDS, a simple
conductivity measurement can give a good approximation of the level of TDS in the water.
3.5.5 Hardness
Hardness is primarily caused by calcium and magnesium ions in the water. These ions
come from natural geologic deposits like limestone and dolomite which are dissolved
when they come into contact with water, especially slightly acidic waters. Hard water causes
scaling, a build up of white solids that may look a lot like table salt, but are actually made of
calcium and magnesium. Scaling can form around heating elements on boilers and water
heaters, it can clog pipes and faucets, and it can even negatively affect other drinking water
treatment processes. Hard water is very likely the most important and common problem
faced by micro-systems using groundwater. It is not as common for surface water systems
to have to deal with hard water, primarily because groundwaters are in contact with geologic
features for a much longer time and can dissolve more minerals into solution. However, in
some cases hardness can also be present in surface water sources.
3.5.6 Colour
Water that is coloured indicates the presence of dissolved matter in the water, which affects
the transmission of light. Colour can be a result of dissolved organic matter in the water, such
as humic and fulvic acids from soil and peat, and tannins and lignins from decaying vegetation.
The orange color of river water can often be attributed to tannins. Lignins also come from the
breakdown of organic matter, mainly wood. Although they do not cause health concerns for
drinking water, tannins and lignins do pose operational issues. Tannins, for instance, are
acids that react easily with metals, causing oxidation (rust is oxidized iron) and staining.
Inorganic iron and manganese in groundwater may impart red or black colour to the water.
Microorganisms may also impart colour, for example, iron bacteria or slime-forming
bacteria. While colour is an aesthetic parameter, the reduction of colour helps to remove
other parameters from water (organic matter, iron, manganese, etc.). Colour is measured in
True Colour Units (TCU). Colour is not a health based objective but rather an aesthetic
objective.
3.6 Other Contaminants to Consider

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is the measure of the amount of suspended contaminants
in the water. Suspended solids can include a wide variety of natural materials such as silt,
soil and decaying plant and animal matter and even industrial waste products. Bacteria,
nutrients, pesticides, and metals may attach to suspended solids which could lead to
significant water quality problems.
A good way to understand the concept of Total Suspended Solids is to run a simple
experiment. Take an ordinary glass of water and stir in a spoon full of soil. After a few
minutes, some of the soil settles to the bottom. These are called settleable solids, meaning
they do not stay suspended in the water because they are too heavy. These solids are not
part of the TSS measurement. Although there is visual confirmation that some solids have
settled out, the water still looks murky. The murky appearance comes from those particles
in the soil that are not dense enough to settle to the bottom of the glass. These are the Total
Suspended Solids and they are typically measured by filtering the particles out, then
measuring the total weight of the particles collected. Total Suspended Solids are an
important measure of how much physical (not chemical or biological) contamination is
present in a water source. A source water with visible suspended solids particles should
always be treated. For any system, micro-systems included, removing TSS is an extremely
important step in the water treatment process.
But TSS is not the only measure of the cloudiness or murkiness of the water. Turbidity is
an important but different measure for drinking water purposes.
Turbidity is caused by very small particles suspended in the water. So small in fact, that
they weigh almost nothing and may not be visible. This is why they are considered a
separate parameter from TSS even though they are similar. While TSS is a measure of
weight, turbidity is a measure of the amount of light scattered by the water. Turbidity
particles make the water look cloudy, not by blocking your eyes from peering through it,
but by scattering the light that hits the surface of these tiny particles. Perhaps the best way
to explain this is by example – driving a car on a foggy night. With the high beams on, every
tiny particle of moisture in the air scatters and reflects the light making it difficult to see
even a few feet in front of the vehicle. The more microscopic drops of moisture in the air,
less light shines down the road and more light gets dispersed and reflected. Turbidity is like
measuring how difficult it would be to see through fog with the high beams on. Turbidity
particles are so small that they remain suspended in the water and may never settle out
without a little help. Turbidity can also be used as an indicator of the quality
of drinking water. It is often used to monitor the effectiveness of filtration in removing
particles, including microbiological contaminants. Even waters that appear crystal clear
to the naked eye may contain turbidity particles. Turbidity must be removed by a micro-
system because harmful bacteria can hide behind these particles, which reduces the
effectiveness of disinfection. There are a variety of filtration technologies that can be used
to remove particles before the disinfection stage.
Radiological contaminants can come from both natural and anthropogenic (man-made)
sources. The occurrence of natural radionuclides in drinking water is associated most
commonly with groundwater. Natural radionuclides are present at low concentrations in
all rocks and soils. In the cases where groundwater has been in contact with rock over
hundreds or thousands of years, significant concentrations may build up in the water. These
concentrations are highly variable and are determined by the composition of the underlying
bedrock as well as the physical and chemical conditions prevailing in the aquifer. Although
rare, natural radionuclides have also been known to occur in shallow wells.
Uranium
Most uranium contamination is natural resulting from groundwater being in contact

with uranium in the ground though it is possible to find sources of human-caused
contamination. Uranium is used in the nuclear power, military or similar industries.
Uranium found in groundwater is not very radioactive. The health concerns related to
uranium are kidney disease which results from the chemical nature of uranium, not its
radioactivity.
Radium
Radium is another radioactive material that is often found in conjunction with uranium. It
will usually make its way into drinking water naturally, though it is possible to find sources
of human-caused contamination. Radium was once used extensively in the production of
phosphorescent paints, like those used on watch dials.
Although the establishment of drinking water guidelines for a contaminant usually takes
into consider¬a¬tion the ability to measure the contaminant and remove it from drinking
water, the MACs for radionuclides are based solely on health effects. Exposure to radiation
from all sources can result in changes to sensitive biological structures, either directly
through the transfer of energy to the atoms within the tissue or indirectly by the formation
of free radicals. Since the most sensitive structure in the cell is the deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule, exposure to radiation may damage the DNA, causing the cells to die or
to fail to reproduce. This can result in the loss of tissue or organ function or the development
of cancer. The likelihood of these events occurring increases with the amount of radiation
received. Types of cancer most frequently associated with radiation exposure include
leukaemia and tumours of the lung, breast, thyroid, bone, digestive organs, and skin. These
cancers can develop between five years and several decades after exposure.
Most radionuclides can be reliably measured to levels below the established MACs. Water
samples may be initially analysed for the presence of radioactivity using tech¬niques for
gross alpha and gross beta determinations rather than measurements of individual
radionuclides. These measurements are generally suitable either as a preliminary screening
procedure to determine if further radio¬isotope-specific analysis is necessary or, if
radionuclide analyses have been carried out pre¬viously, for detecting changes in the
radiological characteristics of the drinking water source.

4 Basic Chemistry and Calculations
4.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces you to the chemistry of water and calculations you will perform
in relation to operating a micro-system. The e-Learning tool which accompanies this
workbook shows detailed, step-by-step animations which illustrate the calculations
you will perform, and so you should view them in conjunction with reading this chapter.
These calculations are just simple math, so don’t let them intimidate you. The sections
will take you through each calculation one step at a time.
Appendix B contains several reference tables of conversion factors. You will learn how
to use these tables in this chapter.
Before you begin to do calculations, you need to understand the chemistry of water.
4.2 Chemical Composition

Water, like all other matter, is made up of atoms. These atoms look like miniature solar
systems, with planets orbiting a sun. In this representation, the sun is what is called a
nucleus. The nucleus is made up of particles, some of which give the nucleus a positive
electric charge. The number of small, positively charged particles in the nucleus
determines whether the atom is a hydrogen, calcium or manganese atom, or the atom
of some other chemical.
Tiny particles orbit the nucleus. These particles are called electrons and have a negative
electric charge. When the number of electrons matches the number of positive charges
in the nucleus, the atom is electrically neutral. Electrically neutral atoms are called
elements.
Fig. 4.1 An Atom

An element is sometimes defined as a pure chemical substance that is neutrally charged.

To date, scientists have discovered 118 elements which make up the periodic table.
Elements differ from each other based on the number of protons (positively charged
particles) in the nucleus. This number is called the Atomic Number, which is
prominently displayed on the periodic table. Elements have a neutral charge, so if they
have positively charged protons, then they must also have negatively charged particles
to “neutralize” the charges. These negatively charged particles are called electrons.
Elements tend to gain and lose electrons all the time. When this happens, they become
either positively or negatively charged “ions” depending on whether they have lost or
gained electrons.
So, an element is a neutrally charged chemical substance, and an ion is an element with
a few extra or less electrons – giving it either a positive or negative charge.
All chemical matter consists of the 118 elements in some form, either alone or in
groupings. A group of elements chemically bound to each other is called a molecule.
For example, water is a molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom – and this gives the molecular name for water – H2O.
4.3 pH and Alkalinity

The water chemistry parameters of pH and Alkalinity have already been covered in
Chapter 3 of this manual. Understanding these two parameters is one of the most
important parts of water chemistry. Nearly every chemical reaction from disinfection
to corrosion is highly affected by pH and alkalinity. Learning to first monitor and
control these two parameters will make chemical additions and adjustments for other
treatment processes easier to do and understand.
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic the water is. In drinking water it is important for
the treatment process and for potability to ensure that the targeted pH is maintained.
In the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, pH is an Aesthetic Objective
and the acceptable range is between 6.5 and 8.5. However, for certain disinfectants or
processes, a pH above 8.5 is acceptable. The pH for each treatment step or process may
differ, depending on the process (e.g., coagulation). The pH may need to be adjusted
both before and after a process. A pH less than 6.5 can cause pipes and fixtures to
corrode. A pH less than 6.5 is not a health-risk in itself – but it can dissolve metals, such
as lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper, that may be present in your water pipes. This will
increase the concentrations of these metals in your drinking water, which can cause
health concerns. While water with a high pH does not necessarily pose a health risk it
can cause water to have a bitter taste. Remember that a pH of 7.0 is neutral – the water
is neither acidic nor basic.
Another term used to describe water that has a pH above 7.0, other than basic, is
alkaline. This leads to confusion about the chemical property of alkalinity. They are not
the same thing. Water that is alkaline has a pH above 7.0. Alkalinity, however, is a
measure of the water’s capability to buffer (neutralize) an addition of an acid such that
the pH does not decrease. Alkalinity is an important water characteristic to consider
when adding treatment chemicals, as a water with a low alkalinity may produce
unacceptable changes in pH when a chemical is added.
Fig 4.2 The pH Scale
4.4 Concentration
Concentration is simply the measurement of the amount of one substance in another
substance – like cream in coffee. When we are talking about water, the substance being
dissolved is called the solute, and the water is called the solvent.
A solute’s concentration in water can be expressed in weight per volume—as in
milligrams per litre, parts per million and percentage. Concentration can also be
expressed in volume per volume, as in millilitres per litre. Grains per US gallon is a
common unit of measure for hardness—the amount of hardness producing minerals in
water.
As a micro-system operator, you need to be familiar with all these units of measure. You
must be able to convert one into another as well.
For example if there is 1 gram (a measure of weight) of iron in 1 litre (a measure of

volume) of water, then the concentration of iron in that water is 1 g/L. Since there are
1000 milligrams in a gram, this would be an iron concentration of 1000 mg/L. This is a
weight by volume concentration, sometimes abbreviated on container labels as w/v.
Sometimes this concentration is expressed in another form, called parts per million or
ppm. For solutions where water is the solvent, the concentration in mg/L is equivalent
to ppm, that is, 1 mg/L = 1 ppm. This is because one litre of water weighs 1,000,000
milligrams. This does not necessarily apply to other solvents (chemicals).
Another common measure of concentration is by the volume of one liquid in another,

that is, a volume by volume (v/v) concentration. This is usually measured by the smaller
amount of liquid in the larger amount of liquid, for example millilitres per litre – mL/L. For
example, if 5 millilitres (a teaspoon) of dye is added to 1 litre of water, then the
concentration of that dye is 5 mL/L.
There is one more concentration that is encountered in water quality, and that is
concentration expressed as a percent (%). There is no general rule as to whether the
concentration is w/v or v/v, but the calculation is quite simple. The percentage is always
measured on the basis of parts per hundred – 1 g/100mL = 1% (w/v) and 1mL/100mL =
1% (v/v).
For the first example above, an iron concentration of 1 g/L would be 1g/1000mL. Since
we need to get down to 100 ml, we divide both sides by 10, giving 0.1 g/100ml, a
concentration of 0.1% (w/v).
The second example is 5mL/L or 5mL/1000mL; again dividing by 10 to get to 100mL of

solution gives a concentration of 0.5mL/100mL = 0.5% (v/v).
One common chemical concentration that is expressed as a percent is the amount of

sodium hypochlorite in bleach. Sodium hypochlorite is the disinfecting agent in bleach,
and it’s concentration in household bleach is typically 5% (w/v). That means that there
is 5 g of sodium hypochlorite in 100mL of the bleach solution – 5g/100mL. This same
concentration – 5% – can be expressed as 50 g/L.
A Handy Number
Since there are 1000 mg in 1g, a concentration of 5%, or 50g/L is the same as
50,000mg/L.
As a micro-system operator, you need to be familiar with all units of measure. You must
be able to convert one into another as well. Please see Appendix B for additional sample
calculations and conversions.
4.5 Dilution
Dilution is the process of taking a strong solution and making it weaker by adding a
solvent (in the case of water treatment –water). Dilution is something that is a daily
occurrence that we don’t even think about – two simple examples are adding cream to
coffee (which dilutes the cream’s original concentration) and making orange juice from
frozen concentrate (the concentrated juice is diluted by the water added). In these case
we know by experience or by following the directions how much to dilute the product
by to make the desired final product. But in the area of water treatment, we need to
calculate exactly how much concentrated stock to start with and how much solvent
(water) to add to end up with the desired result. This isn’t too difficult, and is described
by this simple formula:
V1 x C1 = V2 x C2 where:
V1 = the volume of the starting (concentrated) solution
C1 = the concentration of the starting solution
V2 = the volume of the final (diluted) solution
C2 = the concentration of the final solution
Both volumes and concentrations must be in the same units. For example if V1 is in mL
(millilitres) and C1 is in mg/L, then V2 must be in mL and C2 must be in mg/L.
The easiest way to understand this is to use an example.
Shock chlorination of a well is a process that is used to treat a well if it has tested
positive for coliforms. It is also a good process to use as part of a scheduled
maintenance program to extend the life of the well. The process requires that the water
in the well be shocked with chlorine which means adding chlorine to the water in the
well to create a strong chlorine solution.
Well diameter and casing type: 5 inch steel casing (the inside diameter is 5 inches)
Total well depth: 135 feet
Distance to the top of the water in the well from the surface: 87 feet
Volume of water in the well = 6.546 ft3 (see calculation in 4.6 – Volume)
The chlorine will come from household bleach, which is 5% chlorine, or 5g/100mL. So
how much concentrated bleach when added to the well water will be diluted to give a
final concentration of 200 mg/L?
V1 = unknown
C1 = 5 g/100 mL = 50 g/L = 50,000 mg/L
V2 = 6.546 ft3 x 28.317 L / ft3 = 185. 36 L
Note: the conversion factor of 28.317 which converts cubic feet to litres is found in the
table in appendix B.
C2 = 200 mg/L
V1 x C1 = V2 x C2
This formula can be rearranged to solve for V1 as follows:
V1 = V2 x C2 / C1
Therefore V1 = 185.36 L x 200 mg/L / 50,000 mg/L = 0.741 L = 741 mL
Adding 741 mL of 5% bleach solution to the well will dilute the concentrated solution to
give a final concentration of 200 mg/L (200 ppm in the well).
4.6 Volume
Volume is the amount of space an object takes up. A micro-system operator will
sometimes need to calculate the volumes of two basic shapes: rectangular containers
and cylindrical containers. The amount of water in a rectangular container is calculated
by multiplying the length of the container times the width times the height. In other
words, volume equals length times width times height.
The amount of water in wells and other cylindrical containers, however, is calculated
using a different equation. The volume of a cylinder equals pi (π) - a mathematical
constant that has a value of 3.1416—times the radius of the base of the container times
the radius of the base of the container again times the height of the cylinder. Or, in
other words, volume equals pi times the radius of the cylinder’s base squared times the
height of the cylinder.
When performing these calculations, be mindful that several units of measurement are
used to indicate volume—millilitres, litres, cubic feet, cubic metres, fluid ounces, pints,
quarts and US gallons, to name a few. Be sure that the units of measure used to indicate
a rectangular container’s length, width, height, or a cylindrical container’s radius and
height are all the same.
The formulas are:
V = L x W x H (for a rectangular prism shape) where:
V = volume
L = length
W = width
H = height
L, W and H must all be in the same units; for example if they are all in inches then the
resulting volume will be in in3; if they are all in mm then the resulting volume will be in
mm3.
V = π x R2 x H or V = π x D2 / 4 x H (for a cylindrical shape) where:
V = volume
R = radius of base
D = diameter of base
H = height of cylinder
π = Pi = 3.1416
As above R (or D) and H must be in the same units, which will give volume in those
units.
FIG 4.3 The Volumes of a Cylinder and a Rectangular Prism

Here is a practical example of the calculation for volume.

In Section 4.5 – Dilution, the example of shock chlorination of a well which had tested
positive for coliforms was used. The volume of water in the well was given in that
example; below is how to calculate the volume.
Well diameter and casing type: 5 inch steel casing (the inside diameter is 5 inches)
Total well depth: 135 feet
Distance to the top of the water in the well from the surface: 87 feet
What is the volume of water in the well?
H = depth of water in the well = 135 feet – 87 feet = 48 feet
D = inside diameter of well = 5 inches x 1 foot / 12 inches = 0.4167 feet
R = radius of well = diameter / 2 = 0.4167 / 2 = 0.20835 feet
V = π x R2 x H = 3.1416 x 0.20835 x 0.20835 x 48 = 6.546 ft3
4.7 Flow Rates

In simplest terms flow rate is a measurement of a volume in a specific amount of time.
It is a very common measurement in water treatment, as the physical size of treatment
devices limits the amount of water they can treat in a given time. In mathematical terms,
flow rate—Q—equals volume divided by time.
Many treatment devices are rated based on this treatment capacity – US gallons per
minute (USGPM), cubic feet per second (cfs), gallons per minute (GPM), gallons per
day (GPD) and so on.
Here are some common conversions for flow rates in US gallons:
1 ft3/s (cfs) = 0.0283 m3/s = 28.317 L/s = 448.8 USGPM = 646,317 USGPD
and similarly for Imperial gallons:
1 ft3/s (cfs) = 0.0283 m3/s = 28.317 L/s = 373.7 IGPM = 538,171 IGPD
Another area where it is useful to understand flow rates is in calculating how long it will
take for certain events to occur. Here is a practical example:
Example of Flow Rate Calculation
There is a 300 (US) gallon tank in the back of a truck. How long will it take to fill the
tank with a garden hose that flows at a rate of 1.5 USGPM?
Again, flow is a measure of volume per unit of time, mathematically expressed as:
Q = V / T where:
Q = flow rate
V = volume
T = Time
This formula can be rearranged to be expressed as either in time or volume:
T = V / Q or V = Q x T
The example is looking for a time answer, so the solution would be:
T = V / Q = 300 (US gallons) / 1.5 USGPM = 200 minutes = 3 hours and 20 minutes!!
Avoid the Gotchas!

When performing calculations, remember that several units of measurement are used
to indicate volume – millilitres, litres, cubic feet, cubic metres, fluid ounces, pints,
quarts and US gallons, to name a few. Be sure that the units of measure used to indicate
a rectangular container’s length, width, height, or a cylindrical container’s radius and
height are all the same.
Also, when calculating the volume of a cylinder, make sure to use the RADIUS of the
base of the cylinder not the DIAMETER. Radius is equal to half of the diameter.
4.8 Conversion Calculations

Water pressure and temperature are two important water characteristics. Both can be
represented with one of several units of measure.
For example, one unit of measure for pressure is pounds per square inch (psi). Another is
kilopascals (kPa). As an exercise, convert 50 pounds per square inch to kilopascals.
Again, the key to solve this problem is in the Units and Conversions table in Appendix B.
Look under the heading “Pressure”. The table indicates that 1 kPa = .145 psi. However,
the problem is to convert the other direction, from psi to kPa. In this case we divide by
the conversion factor, rather than multiply:
50 psi x 1 kPa / .145 psi = 344.8 kPa
Now, for a temperature conversion: convert 25˚ Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. Looking
at the conversion information in Appendix B, the conversion is to multiply the number of
degrees Celsius by 1.8 and then add 32 to get the number of degrees Fahrenheit.
25˚ C x 1.8 = 45 + 32 = 77˚ F
To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, the conversion process is simply

reversed: subtract 32 from the number of degrees Fahrenheit and divide by 1.8 to get
the number of degrees Celsius.
77˚ F – 32 = 45 / 1.8 = 25˚ C
As indicated above, the e-Learning tool provides examples of calculations that are
typically used in the field of water quality for micro-systems.
To test your understanding of the training content so far, try answering

the questions which appear at the end of appendix B.

5 Treatment Technologies
5.1 Introduction
Numerous treatment technologies exist for drinking water treatment systems but
generally speaking only a few are employed regularly in micro-system operations. There
may be one or several individual treatment steps in a treatment system – together these
steps are commonly referred to as the “treatment train”. Every system will have a slightly
different treatment train based on the individual parameters and characteristics of each
water source.
The primary purpose of all technologies within the treatment train is to make the water
safe to drink. Some technologies, like disinfection, directly address the safety of water
by killing or inactivating microorganisms that cause disease. For other technologies, it
may be more difficult to see the end goal, but each step is important. As an example, the
water going into a filter may look just as clean as the water coming out, but remember
it is not always the visible contaminants that cause operational and health issues.
A treatment train is designed to address targeted issues and the steps or components
are incorporated in a sequence that ensures optimum operation. All systems also
require monitoring and regular operation and maintenance procedures, from chemical
dosing to backwashing and even replacement of critical components. This chapter
contains brief descriptions of common treatment techniques, many of which may be
incorporated in the steps of a micro-system treatment train. Note that for each
technique, there may be multiple technologies for water treatment. For information on
the specific function of system components, consult the manufacturer’s information, or
talk to a water quality specialist who will be able to explain your system and its
limitations.
Fig. 5.1 A sample treatment train

5.2 Clarification
Simply put, clarification is any process that removes solids from water. The various
types of solids that can be in raw water have been explained in Chapter 3. Some solids Did You Know:
will sink readily to the bottom (settle out), with denser particles settling out quickly Aluminum can be used
while others require more time. However, many particles remain suspended in the in the treatment of
water. Suspended particles are almost always found in surface water, and clarification is potable water and it
can occur naturally. It
a conventional and usually an essential step in the treatment of all surface water. has been has also
Clarification usually involves one of two processes: waiting long enough for the solid been suggested that
particles to settle or changing the water’s chemistry to make settling happen a bit aluminum is a cause of
quicker. These simple types of clarification which involve mainly settling are considered Alzheimers disease,
to be passive, which means they do not require a lot of energy to work. Clarification is Lou Gehrig’s disease
and other forms of
a good primary step in a treatment train as it is essential to reduce suspended solids in senile dementia. It is
the water as much as possible. Many other processes such as filtration and disinfection still unclear if
rely heavily on success of the initial clarification process in order to perform effectively. aluminum leads to
these diseases or if it
A weir and other similar devices are commonly used at the source water intake. These is that the diseases
devices essentially allow water to be taken from the cleaner top layers of the stored cause brain tissues
water where the concentration of suspended solids is lowest. It is a simple, yet effective to retain aluminum
device for reducing larger suspended sediment and solids in the water, but it will not secondarily.
work to remove the very small suspended particles (“colloidal” matter). Also common
is a settling tank or basin. Prior to entering the treatment phase of a micro-system, the
water is typically allowed to flow through a tank or basin which gives particles time to
settle out. These devices are especially common for micro-systems which use moving
sources of surface water (streams and rivers) since these sources have a lot of suspended
solids stirred up from the sediment by the flowing water. Settling tanks allow time for
the larger and heavier suspended solids to settle to the bottom of the basin. Water is
drawn from the top of the tank, either directly through a pipe or through the use of a
weir as previously described.
Fig 5.2 The concept for a Weir

With regular monitoring and maintenance, a simple settling basin or weir setup can
vastly reduce the level of treatment required in subsequent steps of the treatment train.
This is especially true if the treatment train includes filtration - any removal of suspended
solids by clarification improves the effectiveness and operation of filters.
In order to remove more of the suspended particle, the water chemistry may be adjusted
by adding chemicals called coagulants (aluminium or iron based chemicals). Coagulants
are added to help suspended solids clump together (resulting in larger particles called
“floc”) and settle quickly. This is a common practice for systems using surface water
sources with high concentrations of suspended soil particles (such as silt) and other
suspended solids.
The use of coagulation chemicals requires proper dosing, testing and monitoring and
the process may be too complicated for micro-systems. However, some unique
approaches for chemical coagulation have been adapted for use by micro-systems and
are now commercially available. These generally rely on a basic understanding of the
chemical dose needed and a water supply that is not widely variable in its chemical
dosing requirements. The chemical is injected into the water, and the resulting floc is
allowed to settle in a specially designed settling tank, before the water is filtered. These
micro-system style coagulation and clarification systems have been functioning well
for micro-system operators and are even in use at some small rural communities.
5.3 Filtration
Filtration is a process by which particles are removed from the water. Most commonly
this is achieved by straining them through a porous filter media such as sand where the
spaces between particle (voids or pores) are too small for the particles to pass through.
A filter’s primary purpose is to remove suspended solids such as particles that cause
turbidity. The selection of a filter and the design of the filter media considers the type
and size of particles to be removed from the source water. Grain size distribution, filter
media depth, volume and surface area and the water flow rate through the filter media
are all critical design features of filters. Sometimes a sequence of filters can be used
where initial coarse filters remove larger particles and subsequent finer filters are
designed for removal of smaller particles. Filtration rates are a key design feature. Slower
filtration rates trap more particles than faster filtration rates. Filters are limited by the
amount of material that is removed, and eventually need to be cleaned (backwashed)
on a regular schedule.
Filters come in all shapes, sizes, and types. The simplest contain a single type of media
such as sand. More complex filters have multiple layers of sand, gravel and other filter
media of specific grain size distributions. Some filters may include layers of a material
called granular activated carbon (GAC - similar to charcoal). Other filters such as steel
sieves, canisters, and cartridges rely on physical straining. Cartridge filters may use
synthetic material in a cartridge composed of tightly wound paper or fabric; some
cartridges of compressed stone-like materials are designed for even more effective
removal of very small particles.
The first filtration step in a micro-system usually employs is a coarse filter or intake
screen. If your micro-system uses surface water, the intake is normally surrounded by a
screen. Though it may not look like it, this intake screen is indeed a filter. Water flows
through a restriction (the screen), which is designed to keep large debris like sticks,
rocks, and other things such as animals from entering your system. Following this
coarse filter, components in a conventional filtration system may include a settling
tank, followed by sand and gravel filters, and subsequent treatment components. These
filters are continuously reusable by proper operation, which includes scheduled
backwash cycles.
Some systems may only have cartridge type filters, or may have a combination of
conventional and cartridge filters. Cartridge filter systems usually employ several filters
progressing from coarse to fine. The first filter is generally one that pre-filters the water.
Often, these filters remove particles in the neighbourhood of 5 to 50 microns in size. This
may sound pretty small, but in the microbial world of water, even 5 microns is large. Most
microorganisms and all dissolved solids will pass right through this filter. Sediments and
suspended solids larger than 5 microns will be removed. Depending on the characteristics
of the source water, the system may have one or several more filters following the pre-
filter. All of these filters function in essentially the same fashion, they allow water to flow
through, while restricting the passage of particles of specific sizes. Most cartridge filters
are designed to be replaced with a new cartridge on a scheduled basis.
5.4 Sand and multi-media filters

Sand filtration is a technology that has been used for centuries. In this filter water is
delivered on top of the bed of sand and the water flows by gravity through the sand
where it is collected by a system called the underdrain, commonly a group of connected
perforated pipes. The interlocking grains of sand form the filter, allowing only very fine
particles to pass through. In addition to the physical restrictions presented to
contaminants by the interlocking particles, sand filters also remove particles through a
process called electrostatic adsorption. Electrostatic forces refer to the fact that the
grains of sand naturally have slightly positive electrical charges on their surface. The
small suspended sediment and colloidal particles in the water have natural negative
charges. As water passes by the grains of sand, contaminants adsorb (stick to the
outside) of the grains through these “electrostatic forces.” This type of “chemical
process” is somewhat similar to chemical coagulation but at a much weaker strength.
This common type of sand filter is often referred to as a “rapid sand filter”.
Fig 5.3 A Slow Sand Filter
When the sand filter gets full of the particles it was designed to remove, it is cleaned by
backwashing. Backwashing involves forcing clean water backwards through the filter at
a high flow rate, which dislodges the particles trapped in the sand. The backwash water
will need to be disposed of properly, following directions provided by a water quality
specialist. If maintained properly, a rapid sand filter will have a very long service life.
A sand filter is effective at removing suspended material, and over time improvements
to this simple filter technique have been made using various sizes of sand and other
materials, resulting in multi-media filters. These filters, as the name implies, include
several filter media types of different densities and sizes such as sand, garnet, anthracite
(a hard type of coal) and gravel. They are designed to be as effective as a sand filter, but
can treat more water in the same size of filter. The layers of media material are designed
to stay in place during backwashing due to their different densities, so that as the
backwash cycle ends the heavier materials settle to the bottom first, with the lighter
ones on top.
As noted earlier the water flow rate through a filter is critical. With sand or multi-media
filters, a general rule is that the slower the flow rate, the better the filter performance.
Gravity filtration is the most common, and the most practical to manage particle
removal in balance with filter backwash frequency. However, gravity filters require
substantial floor space, which is generally at a premium for a micro-system. Many
micro-systems utilize pressure filters which are much smaller than gravity filters but
tend to be less effective than gravity filtration. Properly-designed pressure filters and
backwashing frequencies must always be suited to the characteristics of the water
source, and operated to cope with any varying changes in water quality, particularly
when sediment loads or algae loads increase.
One of the best particle removal filters is a slow sand filter, operated at very slow flow
rates where water passes through layers of fine to coarse sand and then through the
gravel. These filters rely on the development of a biologically active layer on the top of
the sand. This coating is called the schmutzdecke—a German word meaning “dirty
skin”. In addition to the physical filtration provided by the sand, the naturally occurring
organisms in the schmutzdecke consume or convert various contaminants thereby
increasing their removal from the water. For example, some organisms remove iron or
arsenic, while others will remove other microscopic organisms. Be aware that the water
flow through a slow sand filter may stop completely if the schmutzdecke is allowed to
become too dense. When flow is reduced, scrape away the schmutzdecke and the top
several centimetres of sand.
Slow sand filters have been adapted to micro-systems for use on individual households
and have been quite successful on groundwater supplies. They may have limited
application on surface water supplies which normally have larger loading from
particulate matter and algae, causing the filters to plug prematurely. As with any type of
primary treatment, when these type of filtration systems are in the treatment train it is
essential to have disinfection before using the water.
Make sure to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for the operation and
maintenance of rapid sand, multi-media, pressure and slow sand filters.
5.5 Granular Activated Carbon Filters

Granular Activated Carbon filters (GAC) are another common option for micro-
systems, and are used for removal of organic matter, colour, taste and odour problems. Did You Know:
The word “Activated” comes from the fact that during the manufacturing process, grains Drinking water
of carbon are fed into an oven at a very specific temperature. This heat puffs the grains fountains should be
of carbon up like puffed rice cereal. The process creates numerous grooves and ridges disinfected a minimum
of once every two
on the carbon grains resulting in a very large surface area for adsorption to occur. months and at an
Adsorption is a chemical processes that removes dissolved organic matter, colour, taste increased frequency
and odour compounds. GAC filters use large volumes (or beds) of carbon, and require if heavily used.
sufficient contact time between the water and the carbon media. The dissolved organic
matter chemically adsorbs or sticks to the large surface area of granular activated
carbon. Eventually, the GAC filter’s ability to adsorb contaminants is exhausted, and
the media is “spent” and requires replacement.
Fig 5.4 A Granular Activated Carbon Filter
Recent advances in GAC filters have resulted in the design of biological GAC filters.
Biological GAC filters have been successfully adapted to micro-systems and achieve
removal of dissolved organic matter in micro-systems. This type of system relies on a
combination of biological removal of the organic matter, and possibly biological
regeneration of the ability of the carbon to adsorb the organic matter. The system has
been successfully adapted for use on micro-systems by using a gravity sand filter ahead
of a biological GAC filter. The design is commercially available for individual systems
and small communities.
Note that both regular and biological GAC filters will eventually need to be replaced or
reactivated. Once the filter is spent, replace the media in the filter or return it to the
manufacturer to have it reactivated.
5.6 Cartridge Filters

Cartridge filters are yet another type of filter used in micro-systems. The advantage to
Did You Know: all cartridge filters is that they are easy to change out and can be arranged in a limitless
Kitchen sink RO units combination of different sizes to accommodate almost any water source. There are two
produce “reject” water basic types of cartridge filters – pleated (or surface) filters and depth filters. Both are
in volumes anywhere named by where particles are trapped – either on the outside surface, in case of pleated
from seven to twenty
filters or across the entire depth of the cartridge in the case of depth filters. Pleated
times the volume of
treated water. This filters may be cleaned by backwashing, and are therefore reusable to a certain extent.
means that for every Depth cartridges become plugged and must be replaced on a regular basis. They are
litre of drinking water contained in housings of plastic or metal, 0.5 metres long to several meters in length.
produced, the RO unit Some cartridges may contain carbon and work a lot like GAC filters. Many restrict
will generate seven to
contamination solely based on size, either by tightly winding string, rolling paper or
20 litres of reject or
waste water. fabric, or compressing powders into a solid block that is permeable only to water and
perhaps some very small contaminants. These systems are useful only on relatively
clean water, and can be expensive due the cost of continual cartridge replacement.
Fig 5.5 A Cartridge Filter
5.7 Membrane Filters

At the finest end of the spectrum of filters is the membrane filter. Media bed (sand,
carbon, etc.) filtration and cartridge filters rely on a physical process where the solid
particles are separated from the liquid water. Membrane filters work on much the same
principle; however, they are designed to remove very small particles and some
membrane filters can even remove particles that are dissolved in the water. This family
of filters includes (from coarsest to finest) Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration, Nanofiltration
and Reverse Osmosis (RO) membranes. Membrane filters are a common choice for
micro-systems. Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes can typically filter out
particles 10 times smaller than an average sized virus. In general, membrane filters
require high pressure to move the water through the membrane which will remove all
contaminants larger than the opening size of the membrane. Only a portion of the
water supplied to the membrane is filtered; from 50% to 85% of the water is rejected,
and this reject water will contain the filtered contaminants of the treated water,
increasing the concentration of contaminants in the reject water stream. The disposal
of the concentrated reject water can be very costly and must consider the impact on the
environment Normally, properly designed pre-treatment is required before a membrane
filter to ensure it will not be plugged by larger particles or fouled by other constituents
(such as hardness, iron, and the numerous chemical and biological contaminants found
in all groundwater supplies). In addition, due to the very small pore size of membrane
filters treating water with this type of filter is a much slower process than any other type
of filtration process.
Fig 5.6 A Membrane Filter
It is important to monitor the performance of membrane filters regularly. Pay particular

attention to any changes in the quality or quantity of the treated water. Poor filter
performance may be a sign that the water has not been adequately pre-treated, or that
the upstream components in the treatment train are not operating properly. It may also
be a sign that the membrane filter is dirty.
Sometimes, filters degrade enough to allow untreated water to pass through. At this
point, the problem must be recognized and the filter either fixed or replaced. Many
manufacturers offer recommendations regarding the replacement of filtration units.
Check the product brochure or manual that came with the filtration unit, and monitor
the quality of the treated water to detect signs of filter degradation early.
Like all filters, membrane filters will eventually become too clogged with contaminants
to let water pass through. Membrane filters can be cleaned with chemical washes, or
they can be sent to the supplier for cleaning. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to
reinstall, operate and maintain membrane filters.
For more information on filtration and reverse osmosis systems, please

take the time to review the DVD modules entitled
“Filtration and Ion Exchange for Micro-systems” and
“Ultraviolet and Reverse Osmosis for Micro-systems”
5.8 Oxidation
Oxidation, although not necessarily a treatment technology by itself, is a chemical
process that can improve filtration by converting a portion of the dissolved particles
into insoluble suspended particles. This process is commonly used to convert dissolved
contaminants such as iron or manganese into particulate form.
Oxidation involves the addition of an oxidant – such as air or a stronger oxidizing
chemical like potassium permanganate, chlorine or ozone - into the water converting a
portion of the dissolved particles into insoluble suspended particles which can then be
removed by physical filtering.
Oxidation and chemical oxidation are commonly used to convert iron or manganese
into suspended particles that can then be filtered out. Iron at low concentrations is
usually easy to remove by oxidation with the addition of air. But manganese does not
oxidize so readily. Manganese that is not removed will stain appliances and kitchen and
bathroom fixtures black, and impair laundry activities. Manganese will also give a bad
taste to prepared beverages and cooked foods. A manganese greensand filter uses
oxidation and physical filtration to remove manganese. Potassium permanganate, an
oxidant, is added before the greensand filter, causing oxidation of the manganese. The
oxidized manganese is physically filtered out by the sand. The sand in the filter is
specially treated to attract and adsorb manganese as well. Manganese greensand filters
are also capable of removing high concentrations of iron and treating hydrogen
sulphide—a compound that causes water to smell like rotten eggs.
Oxidation treatment systems rely on precisely adjusting the amount of oxidant added,
based on the water chemistry, sufficient contact time, and appropriate filter maintenance.
Ozone, a very strong oxidant, may also be used to oxidize and break down organic
matter, which can more readily be removed by granular activated carbon filtration.
However there are safety concerns when using ozone so this feature is not often
incorporated in a micro-system.
5.9 Ion Exchange

As discussed in Chapter 4, electrically charged atoms or molecules are called ions. Ion
exchange is a chemical process for “exchanging” one ion in the water for another.
Commonly, micro-systems use ion exchange to trade calcium and magnesium ions in
the water for either sodium or potassium ions. Water that contains high levels of calcium
and magnesium is often called hard water. While not a health risk hard water can harm
distribution systems, disrupt water-treatment processes, damage water heaters,
dishwashers and washing machines, and keep soap from producing suds. Many
treatment trains therefore involve an ion exchange process, called a water softener, to
replace the calcium and magnesium with sodium or potassium.
Water is brought into a vessel containing resin filter media (specially designed synthetic
plastic beads). The negatively charged (anionic) resins used for softening purposes are
attracted to positively charged (cationic) calcium and magnesium ions. As water passes
through the resin, calcium and magnesium hardness ions are drawn out of solution as
they bind to the resin, exchanging themselves for the weaker cations on the resin which
are released into the water (principally sodium or potassium depending on the system
used). Eventually, enough hardness causing calcium and magnesium ions are bound
onto the resin that the resin bed is exhausted and cannot remove any more ions. It has
reached its loading capacity for removing calcium and magnesium and the bed needs to
Did You Know:
be “regenerated”. Regeneration is accomplished by flooding (saturating) the resin bed
In a water softener, with a sodium chloride (or potassium chloride) brine solution with a chemical energy
one (1) cubic foot of a strong enough to break the calcium and magnesium bonds. The regeneration brine
typical high capacity
solution therefore “re-generates” the design feature of the media to continue exchanging
resin can remove
30,000 grains or sodium or potassium for calcium and magnesium as water is passed through the media.
about 500,000 After the regeneration step, the ion exchange backwash solution is discarded to a waste
milligrams of hardness. water stream before the component is put back into its operational mode. Water
This means that if softeners are programmed to regenerate automatically. To conserve water the
water is 500 mg/L
regeneration process should be initiated based on the total amount of water treated and
hard, one cubic foot of
resin would soften not time.
1,000 L of water Water softeners come with a brine tank that holds the salt solution used in the
before requiring
regeneration process. Be sure to check the level of salt in the tank regularly and add salt
regeneration.
as required. Also, monitor the hardness of treated water regularly. Use a field test kit to
determine the hardness or send a sample of the treated water to a certified lab.
Fig 5.7 A water softener
While the beneficial aspects of softening are a good enough reason to use it, the process
must be managed for its impact on water. Ion exchange softening will add either sodium
or potassium to the water, each of which can be problematic if their concentrations are
too high in the distributed water. Sodium, for instance, can be a problem for those
drinking the water that may be on sodium-restricted diets. High sodium content in the
backwash water can also have an impact in certain septic fields. In clay soils, sodium
mixed in the water can cause the clay itself to expand, thus making it impermeable to
water and useless as a septic drain field. These impacts of course depend on the amount
of softening needed, and the quantities of brine solution discharged.
Although “softening” ion exchange units are a fairly common and familiar component
in a treatment train, the ion exchange principle can be applied to design a component
that removes other contaminants from the water, such as iron, manganese, fluoride,
sulphate, nitrate, and magnesium or virtually any other targeted cation or anion that
does not foul the resin bed. When ion exchange is used for purposes other than
“softening”, it is possible that it can make water aggressive. The ions that contribute to
alkalinity (a water’s buffering ability to absorb acids without a pH change) can also be
removed when using certain types of resins. When this happens, the pH will be lowered
and the water becomes aggressive, oxidizing metal components and pipes in the system.
For more information on filtration, ion exchange, please take the time
to review the DVD modules entitled
“Filtration and Ion Exchange for Micro-systems”
5.10 Disinfection
Disinfection is the process of killing or inactivating disease-causing microorganisms in
order to make the water safe to drink. Disinfection is not sterilization, which is
impractical and unnecessary for drinking water.
Once inside your body, microorganisms may find it an ideal location to replicate
themselves. This replication increases the number of microorganisms and in the case of
disease-causing pathogens in water it may cause human health issues. Most traditional
disinfection methods are designed to kill the pathogens in the water however this isn’t
always simple to do. Other disinfection processes inactivate the pathogens, which
doesn’t kill them but prevents the microorganism from reproducing thereby reducing
the likelihood of illness from the pathogens. Many different disinfection processes
exist, but the addition of chlorination chemicals and the use of Ultraviolet (UV) light
disinfection are the two that predominate for micro-systems.
The type of disinfection used in a micro-system will depend on the microorganisms
found in the water. For example, some microorganisms are resistant to chlorine
including the protozoa Cryptosporidium. Talk to a water quality specialist to learn more
about the disinfection process most suited to the water supply.
Chlorination has been effectively used to produce safe drinking water for nearly a
century. Chlorine was first introduced to water treatment as a disinfectant in the early
1900’s. It is easy to apply, measure and control and it is relatively inexpensive.
Chlorination relies on adding a sufficient dose of chlorine chemical to the water to kill
microorganisms. The targeted concentration of chlorine must be large enough to react
with chlorine-consuming substances in the water and remain at a concentration that is
of sufficient strength to kill the targeted disease-causing organisms. Chlorination dose
and contact time are two critical factors in disinfection.
Determining the proper amount of chlorine to add is important. If not enough chlorine
is added, or the chlorine does not have enough contact time with the water, all of the
chlorine-sensitive, disease-causing microorganisms may not be killed. If too much is
added the drinking water will taste and smell strongly of chlorine. A water quality
specialist can help to determine the correct amount of chlorine to be added to the
treatment system for your primary disinfection.
When applied properly, the primary chlorine disinfection process will kill the targeted
organisms. If chlorine is also used for secondary disinfection, there should be a small
residual concentration of chlorine left as the water makes its way to the consumer. This
residual chlorine is called free chlorine residual and it and helps protect the distributed
water from microbiological regrowth. This is an operational advantage because it helps
protect the distributed water and also allows operators to test for the free chlorine
residual at the tap to ensure the water is safe.
Occasionally chloramine (chlorine and ammonia) is used as the secondary disinfectant
instead of chlorine. In this case there will be a total chlorine residual instead of a free
chlorine residual.
While there are different ways to chlorinate water, the most common is to feed a
specific dose of chlorine into the water for a sufficient contact time. The treated water is
then tested for free chlorine residual concentration immediately after the chlorination
point. If chlorine or chloramines is used for secondary disinfection, the water is also
tested for free chlorine or total chlorine residual concentrations at points in the
plumbing (distribution system) where water is available, such as taps and drinking
fountains. The concentration of disinfectant residual in potable water should be not
less than 0.2 mg/L of free chlorine (when using chlorine) or 1.0 mg/L of total chlorine
(when using chloramine). Although both measurements are important to determining
correct operation, the free chlorine residual is the most important value to indicate that
the water is initially disinfected.
If naturally-occurring ammonia is present in the water (sometimes present in
groundwater), sufficient chlorine dosing is necessary to consume all of the ammonia to
achieve the targeted free chlorine residual. If this is done incorrectly, the water may not
be safely disinfected.
Chlorine reacts with organic matter naturally present in water such as that from
decaying leaves. This chemical reaction forms a group of chemicals known as chlorinated
disinfection by-products, or CDBPs. The most common of these by-products are
trihalomethanes, or THMs, and haloacetic acids, or HAAs. Together, the concentrations
of THMSs and HAAs can be used as indicators of the total loading of all CDBPs that
may be found in the drinking water supply. Several studies have found a link between
long-term exposure to high levels of CDBPs and a higher risk of cancer. Generally,
rivers or other surface waters contain more organic matter than wells.
Pre-treating the source water before chlorination reduces the natural organic matter
that reacts with chlorine and will help reduce the level of CDBPs in the drinking water.
Treatment processes like clarification and filtration that occur before chlorination will
help reduce the formation of CDPBS. If CDBPs such as THMs and HAAs are a concern
for the drinking water system, speak to a water quality specialist and have the water
analyzed for chlorinated disinfection by-products.
5.11 Types of Chlorine

Chlorine can come in one of three forms: gas, liquid, and solid. Chlorine that is used in
micro-systems is typically in the liquid form. Regardless of the form of chlorine used Did You Know:
only chlorine that meets NSF/ANSI Standard 60 should be used as a drinking water A water softener can
disinfectant readily remove up to
3 mg/L of iron with
Gaseous chlorine, though the least expensive of the three, is not a common form for a five cycle fully
micro-systems due to the hazards involved. Gaseous chlorine can be extremely automatic softener.
dangerous if used improperly or leaks occur due to an accident. Chlorine gas, heavier
than air, will sink to the bottom of a room and can be deadly with only a few breaths. If
your system is using chlorine gas for disinfection, you should have a dedicated chlorine
room with proper ventilation, secured chlorine cylinders, and emergency equipment
in case of a leak.
Liquid and solid chlorine forms are much less dangerous than gas chlorine, though
precautions must still be taken. Liquid chlorine is commonly available in concentrations
of 5 - 15% chlorine by volume. A typical chlorine concentration from a chemical
supplier supplying a micro-system is 5 - 12%. One disadvantage to using liquid chlorine
is that it is primarily water, meaning it can freeze in the winter if not stored properly.
Liquid chlorine will also lose it effectiveness if left unused for long periods of time and
can form undesirable by-products. In order to minimize these effects follow the
manufacturer’s recommendation regarding storage. A form of liquid chlorine with
which you may be familiar with is household bleach, though most bleach is only around
5 or 6% chlorine. Some forms of this household chemical are actually approved for
drinking water use (if applied properly) so they may be of use in situations when no
other disinfectant is available. Be sure, however, that the household bleach to be used is
unscented and is not past its expiry date.
Solid chlorine is commonly used for swimming pools, yet it is also sometimes used for
micro-systems, providing it is packaged and labelled for use in potable water supplies.
This form of chlorine comes in concentrations of 50-70% by weight and must be mixed
with water before being delivered as a disinfectant. Because it must first be mixed with
water, additional equipment is needed for a solid chlorine system. One problem often
associated with the use of solid chlorine is clogging of tubes and pipes during the initial
dissolving phase.
Both liquid and solid chlorine (after dissolving in water of course) are fed into the water
supply using a chemical feed pump. These pumps must be calibrated for a particular
flow so that precisely the right amount of chlorine is delivered to disinfect the water. In
some cases, this calibration process may be automated, but not always. Finding the
right amount of chlorine involves knowing a bit about how chlorine works to disinfect
the water and monitoring the amount of free chlorine residual in the system following
the treatment cycle. For any system that includes chlorine disinfection there should be
testing procedures in place for monitoring this parameter. For more information on
chlorine residual, please review section 6.2 of this workbook.
5.12 Ultraviolet Light

Many systems, especially those using groundwater, are opting for a chemical-free
disinfection option. Ultraviolet (UV) light has become an extremely popular primary
disinfection method in recent years, especially for micro-systems. UV light produces
radiation powerful enough to inactivate bacteria, viruses, and protozoa in water by
disrupting their genetic material so they cannot reproduce inside our bodies. Similar to
a chlorination system concentration (strength of the UV light) and contact time are
important - UV light disinfection relies on generating a correct dose of UV light for a
sufficient length of time in contact with the targeted disease-causing organism. A small
UV system requires little energy to run and can be an extremely efficient and effective
system for treating water, providing the water is clean enough (proper treatment before
the UV light unit). The water must be low in suspended solids, turbidity particles,
calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, organic matter and colour. The light has to reach
the microorganism in order to inactivate it – having particles in the water that will get
in the way of the light will reduce the effectiveness of the UV system. A parameter
known as Ultraviolet Transmittance – a measurement of the ability of UV light to pass
through the water will help determine if additional pre-treatment is required before the
UV device.
A UV light disinfection system should meet NSF/ANSI Standard 55 for Class A
systems and be fitted with lights or alarms to warn when the UV doses drop too low. If
the light or alarm built into the UV light system triggers, be aware that this indicates
that safe drinking water can no longer be ensured until proper maintenance is
performed.
Fig 5.8 A typical UV disinfection system

As with any part of a treatment system, there are maintenance tasks associated with UV
disinfection. The water is passed through a vessel with a quartz sleeve which protects
the UV bulb in the centre of the device. The quartz sleeve requires regular cleaning and
may need eventual replacement. The UV bulb will lose its strength over time, and
should be replaced on a regular basis. Warning systems (a light and/or alarm) should
be built into the UV system to indicate when the UV dose is too low, indicating that
maintenance is required in order to continue to provide safe drinking water. A
disadvantage of a UV system is that it is not possible to measure a treatment residual
like a chlorination system. The only way to know if it is working is to measure
microbiological contaminants in the treated drinking water.
For more information on disinfection and UV light systems, please take the
time to review the DVD modules entitled
“Disinfection Processes for Micro-systems” and
5.13 Design of a Treatment System

The intent of this course is to provide introductory information on water quality as it
relates to micro-systems and not to provide in depth scientific information in order to Did You Know:
design treatment trains. However, throughout this chapter information has been There are no known
presented on various treatment processes and an indication of what contaminants they beneficial or harmful
are capable of removing. The focus was on the treatment process, so this section takes health effects
associated with
that information and provides it from the perspective of contaminants in the water and the ingestion of
in general what treatment processes could be used to remove these contaminants. demineralized or
Each treatment train is designed to meet the specific requirements of the source water. distilled water.
Most likely, it is arranged to initially remove large suspended particles and then finer
suspended particles in the following step. Any remaining suspended particles and
dissolved contaminants are then removed. The last step in the treatment train is the
disinfection of the water.
The treatment train may start out with a clarification process, which would include
some combination of a settling tank, coagulant addition and mixing to remove the
larger suspended particles. This could be followed by a sand or multimedia filter. Then
it might have a finer cartridge filter. Depending on the dissolved contaminants it may
have an ion exchange unit or a membrane filter, such as a reverse osmosis filter. At some
point in the filtration process oxidation might be used to bring dissolved particles out
of the water so they can be filtered and removed. Also, a Granular Activated Carbon
filter might also be used to take out dissolved organic matter, colour, taste and odour.
After the water has been sufficiently filtered it will be disinfected, typically by
chlorination (especially if there is a distribution system) or with ultraviolet light.
This is a classic treatment train. However, not all treatment trains will contain all of
these components, and the components may not be in the order listed above. Each
treatment train is designed specifically for the characteristics of the source water.
TABLE 5.1 Treatment technologies for typical contaminants
Treatment Technology Targeted Contaminants Special Requirements

and Conditions
Clarification Suspended solids - Requires the installation of
a settling tank
- Coagulants may be added

to aid settling
Sand and multi-media filters Various size particles - Rapid and slow sand filters
(depending on pre- are available
treatment), Oxidized metals
- Slow sand filters require a
large amount of floor
space
- Various medias are

available for different
contaminants
Activated carbon Filters - Removes tastes, odours, - Carbon particles have large
Granular activated carbon many Volatile Organic surface area to absorb
filters Contaminants (VOCs) contaminants
and lead
- Carbon eventually has to
be replaced or regenerated
Cartridge filters Removes particles of - Depth or pleated filters are
various sizes available
- Must be replaced
periodically
Ion exchange (Water Calcium, Magnesium, low - Requires addition of
Softener) concentrations of Iron sodium or potassium to
(<2 mg/L) regenerate resin beads
Membrane Filtration - Wide range of inorganic - Requires significant
Reverse osmosis substances (TDS, Hardness, pretreatment
Arsenic, Sulphates,
- Produces large amounts of
Manganese, Iron, etc.),
reject or waste water,
Microorganisms (Protozoa)
approximately 50% of
treated water
- High % removal of many

contaminants in water
Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection Microorganisms (Bacteria, - Chemical free method of
Viruses, Protozoa) disinfection
- Pre-treatment required
- Only primary disinfection,

no secondary disinfection
Chlorination Microorganisms (Bacteria, - Requires adequate
Viruses), Oxidizes metals pre-treatment
- Ongoing monitoring of free

chlorine residual required
- Provides primary and

secondary disinfection
The source of the raw water will have an affect on the design of the treatment train.
Water that comes from properly installed deep wells which are operated according to
designed flow rates has already been filtered by the aquifer, so it doesn’t generally need
as much filtration as surface water. So a groundwater treatment system may have less
filtration than a surface water treatment system.
Groundwater spends a lot of time in contact with natural minerals, and so may be quite
hard and contain dissolved minerals such as iron, manganese and even arsenic. These
are less prevalent in surface water – so a groundwater system might have the addition of
oxidants with filtration and an ion exchange unit, whereas these are less typical on
surface water systems.
Regardless of the source of the water it must be disinfected. Microorganisms are found
in both surface water and groundwater, and must be killed or inactivated before the
water is safe to drink.
It is important to not only monitor the effectiveness of the disinfection process but to
also monitor the quality of the source water on a regular basis. A qualified specialist
should evaluate the tests of the source water to determine if there are adjustments
needed in the design and operation of the water treatment train.
5.14 Operation and Maintenance of a Treatment System

Your system may have been designed by a water treatment specialist, but its operation
and maintenance are likely up to you. Your first task is to become familiar with all the Did You Know:
equipment and processes in the treatment train. Take the time to review the The minimum
manufacturer’s recommendation for operation and maintenance and capacity of each treatment
component of your system. Using the flow meter, periodically check the flow rate to requirement for
systems on
make sure your system is not treating more water than it is rated for.
groundwater, is
If there are any questions, contact your water quality specialist for clarification. Never disinfection to ensure
hesitate to call a professional if an operation or maintenance task is over your head. greater than 99.99
per cent (4 log)
reduction of viruses,
Part of being a good operator is knowing when the help of others is needed. You may be
at or before the
responsible for the health of others, so the operation and maintenance of your treatment
first consumer.
systems is nothing to take lightly
Periodically, intake screens for surface water systems will need to be cleaned off. This is
an easy, but potentially time-consuming task. In the winter, it is also possible that the
water surrounding the intake becomes frozen. It may be necessary to manually keep ice
from forming in this area and clogging the intake.
Chemical injection systems must dose the correct amount of chemical. If water quality
varies, the doses need to be adjusted. Contact times in mixing chambers or contact tanks
also need to be correct and flow rates may need to be varied if the dosage is changed.
Sand, and multi-media filters require water (and sometimes air scour) backwashing on a
regular frequency. After the filter traps enough particles the backwash of this particulate
matter needs to be performed to re-establish the capacity of the filter. The dirty backwash
water is flushed to waste. Filter backwashing must occur well before the filter is plugged
or an internal channel develops which allows contaminated water to “break through” into
the treatment process. Filter backwashing must be done properly so that the filter media
is not damaged as it is uplifted and cleaned by the backwash water.
Granular activated carbon media requires replacement once it loses its capacity to
remove the targeted organic compounds. The exception to this is biological activated
carbon filters that are continuously regenerated by biological activity in the carbon
media; however, even these filters require regular water backwashing and may even
require intermittent cleaning or even replacement.
Cartridge filters require maintenance. Pleated and surface cartridges might be able to
be backwashed and put back into service so the manufacturer’s recommendation
should be followed closely. Depth cartridges will need to be replaced at the end of their
useful life. Consult the owner’s manual that came with the filter unit or contact a water
quality specialist for more information.
Membrane filters might be able to be cleaned using clean-in-place procedures (usually
with chemical washes containing acids and bases) to manage or reduce the extent of
membrane plugging by inorganic and organic foulants and biological organisms which
secrete wastes that foul membranes. Oftentimes, membranes may be sent to a supplier
for cleaning.
Eventually, all filters will reach a point where they become too clogged with contaminants
to let water pass through, or they degrade enough to let both water and contaminants
through. It is at this point that the problem must be recognized and either fix the filter,
or replace it all together. Many manufacturers will have recommendations regarding
the replacement of filtration units.
Ion exchange filters required appropriate brine regeneration at appropriate times. The
regeneration cycle is usually automatically controlled either based on time or a physical
characteristic of the treatment process such as flow. The level in the brine tank must be
monitored and additional regenerant such as sodium or potassium (usually in a solid
form – salt) should be added as required.
Chlorine disinfection systems require regular addition of chlorine, correct dose
adjustments and monitoring of free residual chlorine. They will also require periodic
cleaning, as chlorine is an oxidant and will cause some build-up on metal parts.
UV light disinfection systems required regular cleaning of the quartz sleeve and also
regular replacement of the UV lamp. Scheduled sampling and testing for microbiological
contaminants is also required for this type of disinfection process.
Keep a record of all maintenance for all treatment components. Follow manufacturer’s
recommended maintenance schedules, and modify as necessary to suit the water
being treated.
For more information on operation and maintenance of treatment system

components, please take the time to review the DVD modules entitled:
“Filtration and Ion Exchange Processes for Micro-systems”
“Disinfection Processes for Micro-systems”

6 Distribution Systems
6.1 Introduction
Once water has passed through the treatment train and the contaminants removed or
reduced to acceptable levels and it has been disinfected it is safe to drink and use for other
purposes such as washing and food preparation. The water now has to get from the
treatment location to where it will be used. The pipes and valves that control and carry
the water are called the distribution system. This may only be the plumbing in the
building, or if the treatment system is in a separate location it may also include
underground piping from the treatment system to the building. It is important that
proper operation and maintenance procedures be followed in order to prevent the
contamination of the potable water as it makes its way through the distribution system
from the treatment location to the point of use. Although each micro-system will have
some unique characteristics, this chapter highlights some of the common elements that
need to be considered for the proper operation and maintenance of a distribution system.
6.2 Chlorine Residual

Chlorine is the eleventh most abundant element in nature. Probably the most familiar
form is in the salt (sodium chloride) naturally present in sea water and salt deposits in the
ground. As a drinking water disinfectant, chlorine plays a critical role in protecting people
from waterborne illnesses.
Chlorine has many uses and application in today’s world – and of particular interest to
water quality and micro-systems is the use of chlorine to disinfect the water and ensure it
remains potable. The use of chlorine as a disinfection agent for water dates back more than
150 years. Today chlorination plays a critical role in protecting drinking water supplies
from waterborne infectious diseases and it continue to be used extensively by municipal
water treatment plants and micro-systems to disinfect water. There are two reasons for the
use of chlorine in the treatment train – the first is to disinfect the water – this is called
primary disinfection. The second reason is to ensure that a small concentration of chlorine
remains in the water after it is disinfected to ensure that it remains potable as it goes
through the distribution system to the end user – this is called secondary disinfection.
The addition of chlorine is a very complex chemical process. When chlorine is used as
the primary disinfectant and fed into water, it is first consumed by any organic
contaminants present. This is called chlorine demand. The more contaminants in the
water, the higher the chlorine demand and therefore, more chlorine must be added to
satisfy this demand. In other words, the cleaner the water is when it gets to the disinfection
stage, the less chlorine will be required for disinfection.
Once the chlorine demand is met, if chlorine is added to the water as a secondary
disinfectant, it will start to form what is called a free chlorine residual. The free chlorine
residual is what keeps the water disinfected all the way to the tap, even if it is stored in a
tank or cistern for a length of time. But even this chlorine will decrease over time. It is
important to know how much water is used in the system on a daily basis, and add (dose)
chlorine appropriately so that a free chlorine residual is maintained all the way to the tap.
If the residual drops to zero, there is a risk that the water may not be microbiologically
safe to drink.
After primary disinfection if the water is not immediately used or travels through a
distribution system then it needs to have a secondary disinfectant as described above.
Typically this secondary disinfection is achieved by dosing with chlorine. However,
sometimes chloramine (chlorine and ammonia) is used as the secondary disinfectant
instead of chlorine. In this case the total chlorine residual is measured to ensure adequate
protection, rather than the free chlorine residual when chlorine is used. . Chloramines
are typically used in municipal treatment systems or in micro-systems that have large
distribution systems.
Free chlorine is the amount of all forms of chlorine present in water (i.e., gas (CL2),
hypochlorous acid (HOCL) and/or hypochlorite (OCL-)) that is not combined with
ammonia or other compounds. Combined chlorine is what results from the reaction of
free chlorine with ammonia (i.e., chloramines).Total chlorine is the sum of both
combined chlorine and free chlorine. In other words:
Total chlorine = free chlorine + combined chlorine
The concentration of disinfectant residual in potable water should be not less than 0.2 mg/l
of free chlorine when using chlorine or 1.0 mg/l of total chlorine when using chloramine.
Chlorine can be measured in a number of different ways. In general, if the chlorine
demand for the water is 2.0 mg/L and you dose with chlorine at 5.0 mg/L, the initial free
chlorine residual will be 3.0 mg/L. Of course this is just on paper - in the real world, the
process is much more complex and will require some form of testing to ensure you have
an appropriate residual.
The most common test is the DPD (Diethyl-paraphenylenediamine) colour comparator
method. This test is the quickest and simplest method of testing for chlorine residual.
The kit used will specify that it will measure either free chlorine residual or total chlorine
so read the instructions carefully. With this test, a reagent is added to a water sample in a
small vial or bottle. This will result in a reaction with the chlorine turning the sample to a
pink or red colour. The intensity of the colour is compared against standard colours on a
chart which relate to a known level of chlorine. The stronger the colour, the higher the
concentration of chlorine in the water. If the kit is used to determine total chlorine, be
sure to follow the instructions carefully and attentively to avoid false or incorrect readings.
Fig 6.1 A DPD Colour Comparator Kit

A variation of the DPD method uses a device called a colorimeter to measure the
Did You Know:
intensity of the sample color directly. This device passes a light through the sample of
It is extremely dyed water and measures the amount of and type of light that cannot pass through. This
important for all gives a direct measure of the sample color without having to compare it to a chart by eye.
new or repaired
watermains to The second and more sophisticated technique for measuring chlorine levels is the
be disinfected. amperometric method. This method uses an electronic meter with a probe that contains
Disinfection may be a solution of potassium chloride (KCl). As the water travels past the probe, the chlorine
done in accordance
reacts with the potassium chloride resulting in an electric current. The probe measures
with the American
Water Works this current to determine the chlorine concentration in the water.
Association (AWWA) As mentioned in Chapter 5 chlorine reacts with organic matter naturally present in
Standard for water such as decaying leaves and forms a group of chemicals known as chlorinated
Disinfecting
Water Mains.
disinfection by-products, or CDBPs. The most common of these by-products are
trihalomethanes, or THMs, and haloacetic acids, or HAAs. Several studies have found
a link between long-term exposure to high levels of chlorination by-products and a
higher risk of cancer. Generally, rivers or other surface waters contain more organic
matter than wells.
Filtering the source water before chlorination reduces the natural organic matter that
reacts with chlorine and will help reduce the level of DBPs in the drinking water. If
DBPs such as THMs are a concern for the drinking water system, speak to a water
quality specialist and have the water analyzed for disinfection by-products.
For more information on disinfection, please take the time to review the DVD
module entitled “Disinfection Processes for Micro-systems”
“Disinfection Processes for Micro-systems”
6.3 Drinking Water Storage Tanks

Drinking water storage tanks are commonly used in remote or rural communities (e.g.
small isolated locations, First Nations) to store treated water where municipal or on-
site sources like wells are not available. Storage tanks are used to store treated water
which is supplied via water trucks or in some cases, small diameter low-pressure rural
water pipelines. They may also be found in a micro-system that treats water at a rate
lower than the supply needed by the system to meet the demand. Drinking water
storage tanks are also used on ships in order to provide passengers and crew with
drinking water. When used on ships, storage tanks are used to store potable water which
is either produced on board, or supplied in bulk while at port.
There are various types and sizes of drinking water storage tanks. The choice of size and
type will depend on various factors, including siting (on land, on ship), climatic
conditions (indoor or outdoor storage tanks), topographical conditions (above ground,
buried) and other factors. All drinking water storage tanks should be constructed with
materials that meet NSF/ANSI Standard 61, be watertight, have an access hatch with a
watertight lid, a fill pipe and a vent pipe. Storage tanks should be installed in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions. All pertinent codes, legislation and acts (public
health protection, construction, plumbing, environmental considerations, etc.) must
also be followed.
Fig 6.2 Drinking water storage tanks
For buried storage tanks, it is particularly important to ensure that the access hatch
cannot be damaged. Installing some type of barrier protection around the storage tank’s
access hatch, to prevent damage from vehicles, is one method of increasing their
lifespan. All storage tanks should be locked and protected from access by individuals
other than qualified persons such as water delivery personnel.
All pipes and plumbing fittings connecting the storage tank to the point-of-use should
be constructed in accordance with the National Plumbing Code of Canada. The
distribution pipe leaving the tank should have a sampling port or sampling valve to
allow for monitoring of water quality.
Proper operation and maintenance of storage tanks is important to ensure continuous
delivery of safe drinking water. Storage tanks should only store water that meets the
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, and that has been disinfected with
chlorine. After storage a sufficient chlorine residual should be maintained to ensure
microbiological safety. If the tank remains unused for any period of time throughout
the year, the tank may need to be emptied and flushed with chlorinated water before it
is put into operation.
Regular inspection, cleaning, disinfection of and repair to the drinking water storage
tank is required to avert any serious health and safety risks. Tanks are considered
confined spaces – areas whose enclosed conditions and limited access make them
dangerous. This means that proper safety procedures must always be used when
entering a storage tank. Follow the operation and maintenance procedures provided by
your water quality specialist and the manufacturer.
For tanks that are not pressurized, there will always be an opportunity for exposure to
air which could encourage microbiological growth on the inside of the tank. One of the
recommended practices to prevent microbial contamination is a thorough cleaning
using a strong chlorine solution (shock chlorination). Inspect the tank on a regular
basis. Vents should be screened to keep pests like birds and rodents from entering the
tank. These vents should be clean because a clogged vent could create a vacuum within
the tank from normal water use that can collapse the tank. Look inside the tank to make
sure nothing is floating on the surface of the water. The bottom of the tank should be
visible and it should look clean. Make sure the tank is not rusty, does not have holes, or
is cracking. Remember, a leaking tank is a potential source of contamination for the
water. Be sure to follow all standard operating procedures for working around and in a
confined space. It is also considered a best practice to keep records on storage tank
operation, condition and regular water quality monitoring.
For more information on storage tanks, please take the time to review
the DVD module entitled
“Drinking Water Storage Tanks”
6.4 Valves and Piping

A micro-system may be rather simple, or it may be a complex system of pipes and valves.
Knowing how the system operates in this case can be a challenge. It is important to take
the time to learn what each valve in the system does, how it operates and to exercise it
(close and open it) on a regular basis to ensure it works when it is needed. Take note of
any changes in condition of the pipes and valves in the system. If a valve becomes
corroded or starts to leak, do not wait until it fails completely before repairing or
replacing it. This might be a “do it yourself ” task or one that can be done by a qualified
plumber. The same goes for pipes in the micro-system. Pipes do not last forever, and
catching a corroded pipe before it ruptures can save time, money, and a lot of headaches.
Note that all plumbing work must be done in accordance with the National Plumbing
Code of Canada.
When a piece of pipe or a valve is replaced due to breakage or periodic maintenance, it
is important to understand what to do before placing the system back in operation. It is
wrong to assume that new components are clean components. After changing a system
component, especially after an unexpected break or any replacement of underground
pipes, the system will need to be cleaned and disinfected. If the section of pipe being
worked on was isolated by valves, only that section will need to be disinfected. If this
was not possible then the entire system will need to be disinfected. Typically, this
process involves first flushing the system with water until it “looks clean” and then
disinfecting the system by a process called shock chlorination (sometimes also referred
to as hyperchlorination).
Shock chlorination involves adding chlorine to a system at a much higher than normal
dose. Shock chlorinating at levels of 20, or even 50 mg of chlorine per litre of water
(mg/L) is common practice, depending on the level of contamination in the system.
Although it is safest error on the side of higher chlorine concentrations, always keep in
mind that any chlorine put into the system will eventually need to be flushed out into
Did You Know:
the environment. Chlorine can be harmful to surrounding plant and animal life, so use
only what is needed. In some cases the water flushed out should be de-chlorinated – a Nearly 80% of
water quality specialist will be able to provide instructions on how to do this. Check Canada’s population is
classified as “urban,”
with a water quality specialist or local waste water authority before sending a large
and the distribution of
quality of chlorine down the drain or to a septic field (in the case of a septic tank), as water to this group of
the chlorine may cause harm to the system or the environment. users is a major task.
To shock chlorinate, the first step is to calculate the required dosage. For this example,
assume the desired chlorine concentration is 20 mg/L. Suppose that the section of pipe
that needs to be disinfected holds 100 litres of water. For a concentration of 20 mg/L
pure chlorine needs to be added at the rate of 20 mg for every litre of water. Therefore
this will require the addition of 20 X 100 or 2,000 mg or 2 g of chlorine to that section
of pipe. But chlorine is not supplied pure – it is generally supplied in a liquid
(hypochlorite) solution which may be only 5% (0.05) or 10% (or 0.1) chlorine by
volume. Assuming that 1 gram of liquid chlorine is about equal to 1 ml, then 2 ml (2 g)
of pure chlorine is requires, or 2/0.1 = 20 ml of 10% hypochlorite solution (a review of
Chapter 4 may be beneficial in order to understand this example).
Once the correct dosage has been determined, add it to the system and let the water
dosed with chlorine sit. Chlorination takes time to work. Depending on the dose, the
chlorine and water mixture may need to stand in the system for 2 - 24 hours (the higher
the dose, the shorter the wait). After about 2 hours, take a sample to see how much
chlorine residual remains in the system. If the residual has dropped below 10 mg/L at
this time, the system will need to be flushed and the chlorination cycle started again –
the repaired section was too dirty and the chlorine demand was therefore too high. If at
the end of 2 hours the chlorine residual is 10 mg/L or greater, let the system sit another
2 hours and then flush the lines until there is no longer any smell of chlorine. Before
bringing the system back on line, take a water sample and test it for the presence of
coliform bacteria. See Chapter 8 on Monitoring and Testing for more information about
how to take a sample and Chapter 9 on Analysis and Reporting for information about
how to interpret the results. If the test is negative, the system can be returned to service.
6.5 Cross Connection and Backflow Prevention

The water treated in a micro-system must remain potable. Even in the smallest micro-
systems the possibility of a cross-connection or backflow event is always there.
A cross-connection is any direct connection of the treated water supply to any source of
pollution or contamination. This can include direct connections to irrigation systems,
storm sewer lines, septic system lines, or even a garden hose left sitting in a bucket of water,
a pond or a puddle. Note the use of the word “direct” in each of these statements. Obviously
irrigation systems and garden hoses need to be connected to the water supply, but there
must also be measures in place to prevent potentially contaminated water from these
systems from entering the drinking water supply. Such a flow of contaminated water into
the potable supply is called a backflow event. Backflow events can be divided into two
categories: backpressure and back-siphoning.
Backpressure takes place when something connected to the water system overcomes the
pressure in the system and pushes water through the pipes in a reverse direction. An example
of this might be an improperly plumbed boiler that builds up too much pressure and
contaminates the system with water from the boiler tank.
Back-siphoning takes place when the system experiences a sudden loss of pressure and
water from a contamination source is sucked in a reverse direction by the vacuum created.
An example of this might be a garden hose left submerged in basin of water that contains
water and soap or in a puddle. A sudden pressure drop in the system will draw water up
through the hose that is submerged in the basin or puddle and into the potable water piping.
Backflow prevention involves any step that is taken to prevent a backflow event from taking
place. This can be broken down into two sets of prevention activities: avoiding cross-
connections in the first place, and installing protection devices where cross-connections are
possible.
Avoiding cross-connections is usually as easy as making sure that all plumbing for the
system is done by a licensed professional. These individuals are trained to recognize cross-
connections and can help evaluate the system for potential hazards. Additionally, making
sure that the end of any pipe (including hoses) connected to the system is NOT submerged
in ANY source of water. As described in the back-siphoning example, submerging the end
of a pipe or hose is creating the potential for a backflow event to happen.
Fig 6.3 A Backflow Prevention Device
Many devices exist to help prevent backflow evts. By far the most effective of the backflow
prevention devices is an air gap. Simply stated this involves placing a physical separation
between the end of a potable piping system and the fixture or device receiving the water
supply (e.g. sink) . A kitchen faucet is a good example. The end of the faucet is far from the
rim of the sink. Even if you filled the sink to the top, it would still be far from reaching the
potable piping itself. But now imagine connecting a hose onto the end of the faucet and
letting it hang into the basin of water. Now, the “gap of air” is no longer there, and all the
ingredients for a backflow event are in place.
It isn’t always possible to use an air gap to prevent cross-connections and in these cases
mechanical devices are used to ensure cross-connection does not occur. These devices
must be designed and installed according to the National Plumbing Code of Canada. Some
devices are testable and others are not testable. Testable devices are easily identified by the
presence of test ports. They must be tested every year by a cross-connection control
specialist. Non-testable devices must be installed by a licensed plumber and must be
maintained as part of the distribution system. A water quality specialist or a cross-connection
control specialist can provide more information.
Hiring a licensed cross-connection control specialist is the best way to ensure the water
supply system is protected from cross-connections that can lead to backflows. They are
trained to recognize cross-connections and can evaluate the system for potential hazards.
6.6 Trucked Water

In some situations a micro-system may not have access to municipal water or an on-site
source like a well. In these situations the water is delivered on a regular basis by a Did You Know:
commercial water hauler. For trucked water, the sanitary condition of the transportation Lead can be leached
equipment is critical since all of the water hauling equipment essentially becomes a into the drinking water
part of the distribution system. The tank or container (called a water tank hereafter) supply from lead
service lines (water
used to carry potable water including the pumps, hoses and other equipment used to pipes that link the
deliver the potable water must be maintained and operated under clean and sanitary house to the main
conditions to reduce the potential of contamination. The water tank must not be used water supply), lead
to transport other liquids or material that could contaminate that water. The water tank solder in plumbing,
must not have been used previously to transport a noxious, hazardous or toxic substance. or brass fittings such
as faucets.
The water tank should be constructed of materials that meet NSF/ANSI Standard 61
(which covers materials acceptable for use in potable water systems) and should allow
easy access for cleaning. Any visual inspection inside of the water hauling tank should
follow all standard operating procedures for working around and in a confined space. It
should be disinfected on a weekly basis. When the water tank is filled or emptied,
precautions must be in place to prevent backflow or back-siphoning as discussed in
Section 6.5 (e.g., through an air gap or double-check valve assembly).
The water tank connections must be constructed and protected so that contaminants
cannot enter the water supply and so their nozzles are kept free of ice build-up during
the winter. They should be closed except when filling or cleaning the tank.
The water being delivered should be tested to ensure that a minimum of 0.2 mg/L free
chlorine is present.
As discussed in Section 6.3 (drinking water storage tanks), it’s important to carefully
maintain and clean the receiving tank. Ensure that it is never used for any purpose other
than potable water storage. Clean and disinfect it regularly, before its first use, and after
any repair or maintenance. Finally, ensure to regularly monitor the water quality in the
storage tank for E. coli and total coliforms as outlined by Health Canada.
For more information on trucked water, please take the time to

review the DVD module entitled
“Drinking Water Storage Tanks”
6.7 Bottled Water and Dispensers

Regulations governing bottled water are different from the guidelines governing
production of treated water in a micro-system. For an overview of the regulations
associated with distributing bottled water as a source of drinking water, turn to Section
2.7 of this manual.
Fig 6.4 A typical water dispenser
Even if bottled water is delivered to a facility free from contamination, the process of
distributing that water requires that steps are taken to ensure it is potable when it is
dispensed. It is necessary to clean and disinfect dispensers with a chlorine based
solution on a regular basis. Regular household bleach (unscented) can be used to do
this, as it is cheap, handy, and effective. Cleaning and disinfecting the dispenser by
chlorinating at a concentration of 10 mg/L is a good way to keep the dispenser clean
and the water safe. Step by step instructions on how to clean a bottled water dispenser
are available from Health Canada and have been included in Appendix C.
For more information on bottled water and dispensers, please take the
time to review the DVD module entitled
“Bottled Water: Selection and Application in Federal Facilities”

7.0 Knowing Your System from Source to Tap
7.1 Introduction
As mentioned in Chapter 1, Canada supports the multi-barrier approach to providing
safe drinking water. This includes barriers such as those physical barriers found in the
treatment process, training to understand the treatment process and, the operation and
maintenance of the treatment train and the distribution system. Another important
barrier is knowledge – knowledge of the complete system from the source of the raw
water right to the point where the treated water is used at the tap – source to tap. This
chapter discusses three important tools used to develop that knowledge: a vulnerabilities
assessment, a sanitary survey and a baseline chemical analysis. In addition, the
importance of knowing your source and how to protect it is discussed.
A vulnerabilities assessment, sanitary survey and baseline chemical analysis should be
conducted every 5 years, or when there are significant changes to the treatment system,
land use, or other conditions which may adversely affect water quality. This will help to
determine if changes are required to the monitoring program.
It is recognized that, in the case of unique facilities or situations such as systems in
remote locations that serve very few individuals, it may not be physically or economically
feasible to conduct each of the assessment/survey/analysis components every 5 years
once the first ones have been completed. In these cases, every effort should be made to,
at a minimum, do the vulnerabilities assessment and sanitary survey every 5 years, to
determine if any changes have occurred that might require changes to the ongoing
monitoring program.
Although the assessment/survey/analysis may only be done every five years,
departments should endeavour to be aware on an ongoing basis of any changes at a site
that could impact on water quality.
7.2 Vulnerabilities Assessment and Risk Management

A vulnerabilities assessment has three major components. These are:
1. Learning where your source water comes from.
2. Identifying potential hazards.
3. Determining your source’s susceptibility to these hazards.
In the following sections, we’ll look at these three components in more detail.
7.2.1. Knowing Your Source

The land area that contributes the source water and potential contaminants to the water
supply must be defined and mapped (delineated). This will allow the team responsible
for managing the facilities’ drinking water to focus their efforts within a defined area
and respond appropriately to incidents or emergencies. This is true for both surface
water and groundwater supplies. For a surface water supply, the delineated area is
known as a watershed. For a groundwater supply, the area where water enters from the
surface, called the recharge area, may be in the watershed where the well is, or it may be
quite distant from the well.
This component of the vulnerabilities assessment should include identifying the

characteristics of the water source, geology, and features of the surrounding area to
determine what may be in the water and what could become a concern in the treated
drinking water. For example, dissolved organic material in surface water may lead to
harmful disinfection by-products when the water is chlorinated.
Many methods exist to delineate watersheds and aquifers, ranging from simplistic
terrain mapping to complex mathematical models requiring significant amounts of
field data. The decision about which method is required will depend on source water
characteristics and the relative risk of contamination.
7.2.2. Identifying Hazards

The next step is to identify the potential hazards to the water source within the
delineated area. Hazards can be identified in a number of ways such as inventories of Did You Know:
land uses and contaminant sources, evaluations of watershed and/or aquifer In First Nations
characteristics, and monitoring data related to source water quality and quantity. communities located
south of 60ºN, the
In the vulnerabilities assessment, it is essential to identify hazards, as they influence the responsibilities for
type of treatment required as well as any response required in the watershed/aquifer. drinking water are
For instance, a watershed where the primary hazards come from industrial effluent will shared between First
be managed differently than one where the main threat to water quality is high nutrient Nation Band Councils,
Health Canada, and
levels due to agricultural activities.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada (INAC).
7.2.3. Determining Susceptibility to Hazards In First Nations
Once the hazards have been identified within a delineated area, the vulnerability of the communities located
source to the hazards needs to be determined. The potential impact of the hazards on north of 60ºN,
responsibilities for
human health also needs to be determined. The results of these assessments influence drinking water
the treatment required to ensure the water is safe and aesthetically-pleasing for human generally rest with
consumption. They also guide best management practices on the land affecting the the territorial
watershed / recharge areas by identifying the quantity and quality of the water, and its governments.
potential vulnerability to degradation. Assessment results may be extremely useful to
other agencies, local industry and community water users who share common interests.
In assessing vulnerability or risk, the data from the identification of hazards needs to be
complemented with monitoring data to get an idea of the concentration at which the
contaminant is found in the source water and whether this concentration fluctuates
over time. Fluctuations in physical parameters such as pH and turbidity should be
noted. These types of data are gathered through long-term monitoring programs. While
concentrations can be modeled, it is preferable to obtain real-time, site-specific
monitoring data.
7.3 Sanitary Survey

A sanitary survey is an on-site review, from intake to tap, of the water system’s raw water
quality, the source water intake facilities, treatment equipment and distribution system,
operational procedures in place and maintenance records. The purpose of the survey is
to evaluate the system’s ability to adequately treat the source water in order to produce
and deliver safe drinking water. The extent of the sanitary survey will vary depending
upon the type and complexity of the system.
Monitoring of the quality of a water supply source can identify changes in the water
quality over time, which can help in detecting contamination problems and in
determining whether they have happened at the source, during water treatment, or in
the distribution system. However, it may not be possible to take more than a few samples,
and consequently the results of any analysis may not be representative of the water
supply system as a whole. A sanitary survey is an essential complement to water quality
monitoring. Together they allow for an overall appraisal of the many factors associated
with a water supply system, including the treatment and distribution systems. Combined
with water quality monitoring, a sanitary survey provides a range of information which
will help to locate potential problems. This information may identify failures, issues that
should not normally occur, operator errors, and any deviations from normal that may
affect the production and distribution of safe drinking water.
Fig 7.1 Monitoring for corroded pipes and fixtures
7.4 Baseline Chemical Analysis

The baseline chemical analysis, in combination with the vulnerabilities assessment and
sanitary survey, should be the basis for the monitoring program (i.e. a list of substances
that should be routinely monitored). Based on the monitoring program, departments
should be able to develop an appropriate process to treat the water to meet the needs of
the facility.
The monitoring program for chemical contaminants specifically identified by the
baseline analysis should include, at a minimum, annual monitoring for surface water
sources and monitoring every 2 years for groundwater sources, unless otherwise
specified in the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
As a safeguard, it is also recommended that a baseline chemical analysis be conducted
every five years, unless a sanitary survey or vulnerabilities assessment indicates that this
type of analysis should be done more or less frequently.
If particular substances are consistently absent from a water system, the frequency of
sampling of those substances can be reduced. As well, where water supplies are obtained
from sources that are not likely to be contaminated by human activities (industrial and
agricultural wastes, municipal waste water), a baseline chemical analysis may be needed
only to identify potential new drinking water sources and only occasionally thereafter.
Fig 7.2 Baseline chemical analysis provides input to the monitoring program
For drinking water supplied by a municipality, the baseline chemical analysis would
include an analysis of the water received to determine if there are any concerns with the
supply that require further treatment or whether an alternative source should be used.
Federal departments and First Nations communities should request water quality
testing results from the municipality. This information will indicate which substances
are being tested for and analyzed.
7.5 Source Protection

The vulnerabilities assessment will have identified the water source and the watershed
area (for a surface water source) or the recharge area (for a groundwater sources).
Identifying recharge areas for shallow groundwater may be easy whereas identifying Did You Know:
those areas for deep wells may be extremely difficult. Once recharge areas have been The purpose of a
identified it is important to protect the area to reduce the potential for contamination watershed/aquifer
of the groundwater. The vulnerabilities assessment will also have identified potential management plan is
to implement
risks of contamination to the source water. As a result, your water quality specialist may management actions
have developed a water source protection program. that serve to maintain
or improve the quality
of source waters.
Water source protection is a critical component of the multi-barrier approach to safe

drinking water. It is an important activity for surface water sources and shallow well
sources. Deep wells may have recharge areas very distant from the well, and it may be
very difficult to determine where the surface recharge area for the aquifer is located and
be a part of protecting the surface source of the water. But even deep aquifers can
become contaminated so it is still important to monitor the source water quality.
There are four elements to source water protection: establishing objectives, monitoring
source water quality, developing and maintaining partnerships with other same source
users, and public awareness.
• Establishing guidelines provides targets to meet.
• Monitoring helps to determine if the targets are being achieved.
• Creating and maintaining partnerships and improving public awareness develops
the support needed to manage the difficult task of source water protection.
One of the easiest methods to provide potable water is to start with a water source that
has very few contaminants. Source water protection (SWP) is a method to ensure
everyone in the watershed works together to reduce the contaminants introduced into
the water source. It is a large task requiring the cooperation of many different people
and agencies, and requiring compromises based on the assessment of the risks involved.
Fig 7.3 Source protection includes getting other interested parties involved
Developing a source water protection plan is not usually the responsibility of the micro-
system operator. A water quality specialist, water quality engineer, or environmental
health officer will normally lead a team to develop a protection plan. The leader of the
team will look for input and participation from a variety of sources, which usually
includes but not limited to the facility manager, departmental experts, the micro-
system operator and resources from the community if required.
Source water protection depends on knowledge of the water supply system, from
source to tap. The SWP plan brings together elements from the vulnerabilities
assessment, the sanitary survey and the baseline chemical analysis. It’s a complicated
task that often seems daunting, but it’s critical as one of the multiple barriers that helps
to provide safe drinking water.
7.6 Using Municipally Supplied Water

Often the source of potable water for facilities owned and operated by the federal
Did You Know:
government is the local municipality. The quality of this water is the responsibility of
the owner of the water system, not the local municipality. The watershed/
aquifer plan is an
In order to ensure the water received is of acceptable quality, federal water quality innovative
managers and, in the case of First Nations communities, water treatment plant operators management process
and technical support staff, should be in regular contact with the municipality. that examines all
Maintaining solid relationships with key contacts in the municipality’s drinking water factors affecting the
entire watershed
program is important in order to be kept informed of any water quality or quantity (such as air, land, and
issues that could affect the health of consumers. The municipality’s reports describing water resources) while
water sampling results should be periodically reviewed in order to keep informed of the focusing on the
water’s changing characteristics and to understand the quality of drinking water highest priority
entering the facility’s distribution system or building plumbing. problems.
In cases where water is received from a municipality, it may be possible to negotiate to

have the federal building designated as a routine municipal water sampling location. If
this is not possible, water samples should be collected at the point closest to the intake
of municipal water to the building in order to establish a baseline understanding of the
water quality.

8 Monitoring and Testing
8.1 Introduction
The multi-barrier approach to providing safe drinking water is based on ensuring that
several barriers are in place to prevent contaminants from ending up in the water that is
consumed. These barriers include familiar physical barriers such as source protection
and treatment processes. Another important barrier is the regular monitoring and
testing of the water. A scheduled program of monitoring will provide test results to
indicate the physical processes are working and the water is potable. Without monitoring
and testing, there is no way of knowing whether or not the system is producing water
that meets the federal guidelines for safe drinking water.
The Guidance for Providing Safe Drinking Water in Areas of Federal Jurisdiction document
provides the framework for the responsibilities and duties of those involved with the
provision of safe drinking water. Based on this guidance, a water quality expert will
develop a monitoring program for the micro-system. As this monitoring program is
one of the protective barriers, it is important to follow both the schedule and the
procedures for monitoring the water quality.
Fig 8.1 A Sampling Kit
8.2 When You Should Sample

All federal facilities require some kind of monitoring plan. The monitoring program for
all federal drinking water systems, regardless of their size, should be developed based on
the information provided by a vulnerabilities assessment, a sanitary survey and a baseline
chemical analysis. Each of these components should be conducted by a competent
expert in the appropriate field. This information will be used, along with the Guidance for
Providing Safe Drinking Water in Areas of Federal Jurisdiction to develop a monitoring
plan. This plan will specify when and how often samples will need to be taken.
The monitoring plan should be reviewed every 5 years, or when there are significant
changes to the treatment system, land use, or other conditions which may adversely
affect water quality. The vulnerabilities assessment, sanitary survey and baseline
chemical analysis should be re-visited to determine if changes are required to the
monitoring program.
For very small systems which serve very few individuals, and where the supply has a
history of producing water of high bacteriological quality, it may be possible to reduce
the number of sampling events. In such cases, samples should be collected and analyzed
when the risk of contamination is highest and correspondingly there is potential health
risk. This would include spring thaw, heavy rains or dry periods, when changes are
made to the plumbing system or when a noticeable deterioration in water quality
occurs. It is important to consult with a water quality specialist when reducing the
frequency of sampling.
8.3 What to Sample

The most significant parameters to be monitored relate to the microbiological quality
Did You Know:
of drinking water. The presence of biological activity can result in serious health hazards.
Tests for operational Indeed, ensuring the microbiological quality of drinking water is the highest priority
monitoring do not for protecting public health. The indicator organisms total coliforms and E. coli are the
need to go to an
microbiological parameters that need to be monitored. The presence of E. coli in the
accredited lab.
water indicates that there has been faecal contamination of the water. The presence of
total coliforms in the water indicates that in the case of a non-disinfected system there
is microbiological contamination and in the case of a disinfected system the disinfection
system is not properly treating the water.
Micro-system operators, water quality specials, Environmental health officers or those
responsible for providing safe drinking water may also choose to test for Heterotrophic
Plate Count (HPC) bacteria in order to better understand the overall quality of the
drinking water. If the HPC increases over baseline conditions, this indicates an increase
in microbiological activity in the system. Note that unlike total coliforms and E. coli,
HPC is not a suitable indicator of the microbiological safety of the water.
Federal facilities and facilities in First Nations communities that treat and supply their
own drinking water must monitor their water for turbidity as it is a strong indicator of
water quality. It is also an important indicator of treatment efficiency and filter
performance. Turbidity can be measured by on-line turbidity meters or by using a test
kit. Turbidity samples must be tested on-site by a trained person. Turbidity is measured
in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU), and the allowable value for turbidity will be
established by your water quality specialist.
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended and colloidal matter such as clay, silt, fine
organic and inorganic matter, plankton and other microscopic organisms. Control of
turbidity in water supplies is important for both health and aesthetic reasons. Water
that has high levels of turbidity is not only unappealing to the consumer, but the
particles that cause turbidity can also interfere with disinfection and can be a source of
disease-causing organisms.
If the micro-system incorporates chlorine as either a primary or secondary disinfection,
it is important to monitor the free chlorine residual. Like turbidity, chlorine residual in
a micro-system is a strong indicator of the safety of the water or potential problems
relating to microbiological integrity. The chlorine residual should always be within the
range specified for the system, at all points in the system.
The initial baseline chemical analysis may have identified certain specific parameters
that are present in the source water that are health concerns, such as arsenic. Or it may
have identified parameters that are operational or aesthetic concerns, such as iron and
colour. These parameters should be analyzed in every sample to ensure that the
treatment system is performing properly.
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended and colloidal matter such as clay, silt, fine
organic and inorganic matter, plankton and other microscopic organisms. Control of
turbidity in water supplies is important for both health and aesthetic reasons. Water
that has high levels of turbidity is not only unappealing to the consumer, but the
particles that cause turbidity can also interfere with disinfection and can be a source of
disease-causing organisms.
If the micro-system incorporates chlorine as either a primary or secondary disinfection,
it is important to monitor the free chlorine residual. Like turbidity, chlorine residual in
a micro-system is a strong indicator of the safety of the water or potential problems
relating to microbiological integrity. The chlorine residual should always be within the
range specified for the system, at all points in the system.
The initial baseline chemical analysis may have identified certain specific parameters
that are present in the source water that are health concerns, such as arsenic. Or it may
have identified parameters that are operational or aesthetic concerns, such as iron and
colour. These parameters should be analyzed in every sample to ensure that the
treatment system is performing properly.
8.4 Where to Sample

Samples should be taken at the point where the water enters the system (to monitor the
quality of the untreated source water) and from representative points throughout the
potable water distribution system, although not necessarily the same points on each
occasion. For very small systems where there is little or no distribution system, samples
should be taken as the water leaves the treatment system.
If the water supply is obtained from more than one source, the location of sampling
points in the distribution system should ensure that water from each source is
periodically sampled. The majority of samples should be taken in potential problem
areas: low-pressure zones, reservoirs, dead ends, areas at the side of the system farthest
from the treatment plant and areas with a poor previous record. Facilities that receive
municipal water should collect samples at the water main or point of entry to the
building, in the building’s plumbing system, and in other locations identified in the
vulnerabilities assessment and sanitary survey.
Sampling locations within the building’s plumbing system could be randomly selected
at first, to find “hot spots” – locations where water quality is not as good as it is leaving
the treatment system. Over time, these “hot spots” could become regular sampling
locations. Samples should occasionally be collected from other locations in the
building. The sampling for chemical analyses will differ from the microbiological
sampling with respect to location, frequency and how to sample. Check with a water
quality specialist to ensure that sampling is done correctly for each type of analysis.
8.5 How to Sample

When testing for contamination, it’s critical that the sample taken is representative of
Did You Know:
the water in the distribution system. Following the procedures below will help ensure
Symptoms from that the samples taken and sent to the lab are free from any introduced contaminants.
drinking water that Samples will usually be taken from an accessible water tap.
has been contami-
nated from E.coli can As sampling procedures may change over time, check with a water quality specialist to
appear as soon as a ensure the procedure that is being followed to collect a sample is correct.
few hours or as long
as a month, after
When testing for contamination, it’s critical that the sample taken is representative of
ingesting the E.coli the water in the distribution system. Following the procedures below will help ensure
contaminated water. that the samples taken and sent to the lab are free from any introduced contaminants.
Samples will usually be taken from an accessible water tap.
As sampling procedures may change over time, check with a water quality specialist to
ensure the procedure that is being followed to collect a sample is correct.
Microbiological Sampling.
1. Remove aerators, hoses, screens, or treatment devices attached to the faucet (they
can harbour bacteria).
If the environment is dirty, you may want to dip the faucet in a solution of unscented
household bleach to ensure that live microbiological material from the faucet
doesn’t accidentally fall into the sample. Make this solution from 2ml bleach per
litre of water. Note that sterilizing the faucet is not a mandatory part of the sampling
procedure, but might be advisable if the faucet is quite dirty.
2. Wash your hands or use single-use sterile gloves.
3. Read and follow exactly the instructions that come with the sampling kit supplied
by a laboratory. Select the appropriate sampling bottle. Some kits come with a
powder in the sample bottle. This powder is Sodium Thiosulphate. Do not rinse or
pour this powder out as it is needed to neutralize the chlorine in the water.
4. Sample using the cold-water tap only. Open the tap fully and allow the water to run
for two minutes before taking sample.
5. After the water has run for 2 minutes, reduce the flow to the diameter of a pen.
6. Remove the cap from the bottle, but don’t put it down. Fill bottle to the fill line
marking, taking care not to touch the inside of the cap or bottle threads and don’t
let the bottle touch the tap.
7. Replace the cap on the sample bottle, and tighten it firmly so that the sample is
sealed in the bottle.
8. Immediately wipe the outside of the bottle dry and fill out all the required
information on the bottle’s label. Then complete the laboratory’s chain of custody
form, including signing it where necessary. Keep one signed copy of the form.
9. Place sample and the chain of custody forms in the re-sealable plastic bag provided
by the laboratory. Place the bag in the shipping container, usually a cooler, along
with an ice pack to keep the sample cool.
10. In order for the sample to be tested, it needs to be kept cool until it reaches the
testing laboratory. The sample needs to arrive at the laboratory within 24 to 48
hours.
For more information on how to take a water sample, please take the
time to review the DVD module entitled
“Procedures for Conducting Water Sampling in Federal Facilities”
8.6 Where to Send Samples

When testing and analysing water samples (with some exceptions, such as E. coli and
Did You Know:
total coliforms, under the conditions outlined below), federal departments or, in the
case of First Nations communities, managers and operators of facilities and technical Beaver fever is caused
support personnel, must use a laboratory accredited by one of the following: by giardia, a instetinal
parasite that can
Canadian Association for Laboratory Accreditation Inc. (CALA), affect mammals and
humans.
Standards Council of Canada (SCC), or,
Programme d’accréditation de laboratoires d’analyse environnementale (PALAE)
(Quebec).
SCC/CALA defines accreditation as “the formal recognition of the competence of a
laboratory to carry out specific tests.” Accreditation is awarded to a laboratory for each
individual test, for example, the analysis of pesticides in drinking water.
Canadian missions in other countries should use laboratory services accredited as
meeting the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard IEC17025-
1999, General Requirements for Competence of Calibration and Testing Laboratories.
A list of accredited laboratories worldwide can be found at the website of the
International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC). The list of laboratories
by country can be found in the Membership area.
In the case of sampling and testing for some microbiological parameters (E. coli and
total coliforms), managers and/or operators of facilities may allow trained personnel to
use portable test kits rather than an accredited laboratory. However, in order to ensure
quality control, a minimum of 10% of all samples must be sent to an accredited lab for
analysis or, if this is not physically possible, additional samples should be analyzed
using the kit for quality control purposes.
Portable test kits can be used to sample a variety of parameters, such as the
microbiological parameters mentioned above or other parameters like turbidity, pH or
chlorine. The supplies that are used with portable test kits may have an expiry date, so
it is important to ensure that all supplies being used are not past their expiry date. All
instruments used should be calibrated for accuracy, and if single use type test kits are
being used each batch of new kits should be tested for accuracy.
Test kits should meet minimum requirements for accuracy and detection (sensitivity)
for the contaminant of interest.
Note: Test kits are not as reliable as laboratory testing and should only be used
as an indicator of problems and not as a means to fully diagnose them. If a test
kit indicates a possible contamination, further laboratory testing is required.

9 Analysis and Reporting
9.1 Introduction
The results of a laboratory analysis of a water sample will indicate what is in the water.
However, it is up to the water quality team to interpret these results and decide what
actions, if any, are needed. Who interprets the results and who takes any action required
will vary – in some cases the water quality specialist will interpret the results and advise
the person responsible for operating and maintaining the system what action to take. In
other situations the micro-system operator may receive the laboratory report and use
operating manuals to help with the interpretation of the analysis and standard operating
procedures to determine what action to take.
9.2 Reading a Laboratory Report

A laboratory report contains not only the results of the water sample analysis, but also
all the information that was recorded on the sample bottle and the chain of custody
form that was sent in with the sample. It’s important to take the time to review this
information to ensure that it was transferred accurately onto the laboratory report.
At the top of the report is the laboratory’s name and contact information. The lab may
also list its accreditations. As indicated in Chapter 8, laboratories are accredited not by
their name, but by the tests they have been accredited to carry out.
Also near the top appears all the information about the sample. This will include the
name of the person who sent in the sample, the location of where the sample was taken,
the date it was taken and the date the lab received the sample. It will also contain the
name of the sample that was provided, for example, “kitchen sink”. If a sample number
was written on the sample bottle then that information should also appear on the
report.
The main body of the report will contain a number of columns, which will usually
include Parameter (Analyte), Units, Result, Detection Limit (DL) and Method.
The Parameter column indicates what the sample was analysed for. This will include the
list of parameters that was specifically requested. In some cases, laboratories have
standard test suites for potable water, so the list will include all the parameters in that
test suite if that is the way the analysis of the sample was requested.
The Units column indicates the units that the test results and the detection limit are
expressed in. The most common units are milligrams per litre (mg/L) or sometimes
micrograms per litre (µg/L). As discussed in Chapter 4, 1 mg/L is equivalent to 1 part
per million (ppm). So the units may also be expressed in ppm. In the case of tests for
microorganisms, such as total coliforms or E. coli, the units are the number of Colony
Forming Units per 100 ml (which is abbreviated to CFU/100mL). If the laboratory
uses a presence / absence method to analyse for a particular parameter, the units will
indicate P/A.
The Result may indicate an exact number – this is the result of the analysis showing the
actual concentration of the substance in the water sample. If the result indicates “<” and
then a number, this indicates that the concentration of the substance in the water was
below the detection limit of the equipment the laboratory uses to test for the substance
in accordance with the standard method for the test. The Detection Limit column
indicates the detection limit of the equipment used by the laboratory for each individual
parameter.
The Method column indicates the standard method that the laboratory used to analyze
the sample for each specific parameter.
9.3 Test Results

As mentioned above, the analysis of the test results may be done by the water quality
Did You Know:
specialist or in some cases it may be done by the micro-system operator. The first step
At elevations greater is also described above – to review the sample information to verify that the test results
than 2,000 m water that have been provided are for the micro-system. The next step is to carefully compare
boils at slightly loxer
the results of the sample analysis against the Maximum Acceptable Concentration
temperatures.
Therefore water (MAC) in the current Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. This
should be boiled for information can be found on the Health Canada website. It can also be obtained by
two minutes to kill contacting a water quality specialist. As the parameters that are tested for will remain
disease causing the same over time, the operation and maintenance manual prepared by a water quality
organisms.
specialist for the micro-system should also indicate what parameters are to be analyzed
and their corresponding MACs.
The first parameters to consider are the microbiological parameters – total coliforms
and E. coli. The guideline for both these parameters is 0 CFU/100mL.
For very small systems with little or no distribution system, the following guidance
could apply:
No sample should contain E. coli. As discussed in Chapter 8, the presence of E. coli
indicates faecal contamination and the possible presence of enteric pathogens; therefore
the water is unsafe to drink. If E. coli is detected, a boil water advisory should be issued
and corrective actions taken.
No sample should contain total coliforms. The presence of total coliforms does not
necessarily mean a boil water advisory must immediately be issued; however, re-
sampling and/or other corrective actions should be taken.
In non-disinfected well water, the presence of total coliform bacteria in the absence of
E. coli indicates the well may be prone to surface water infiltration and is therefore at
risk of faecal contamination. In disinfected water systems, the presence of total coliform
bacteria indicates a potential failure in the disinfection process. In both disinfected and
non-disinfected systems, total coliform detection may also indicate the presence of a
biofilm in the well or plumbing system. A biofilm is a community of micro-organisms
attached to a solid surface, for example the inside wall of a pipe, in an aquatic
environment.
Even though the biofilm itself is not a health concern, it could interfere with analytical
testing. Also, it could eventually impede water flow, potentially leading to deterioration
of aesthetic water quality and ultimately taste and odour problems.
Boil Water Advisories
As discussed above, when considering microbiological contamination, boil water

advisories should be issued - or an alternative safe source of drinking water used - in the
following cases:
• If the water supply is not disinfected and is contaminated with either total coliforms
or E. coli.
• If the water supply is disinfected and water leaving the treatment system has no
chlorine residual or is contaminated with either total coliforms or E. coli.
A boil water advisory tells people to boil the water before they use it to drink, prepare
food and beverages, make ice cubes, wash fruits and vegetables or brush their teeth.
People must understand that, until further notice, they cannot drink or use water unless
it has been boiled.
It is recommended that a boil water advisory be used only as a temporary measure
while problems are being identified and corrected.
If total coliforms are present with no E. coli present, re-sampling and corrective action
should be taken. These corrective actions could include shock chlorination (the
addition of a strong solution of liquid chlorine into a drinking water system to reduce
the presence of microbiological contaminants) and flushing of the well and/or
distribution system.
If there is no evidence to suggest faecal contamination, a boil water advisory may not
be necessary.
9.4 Accountability and Record Keeping

Monitoring all operational and compliance aspects of a drinking water system is an
important part of establishing on-going verification that the water is safe to drink and
the operational plan is being followed. Equally important is being accountable for the
records of all these activities. This includes a system of document management which
ensures that documents are properly maintained and easily accessible.
Documentation is equally important as a tool for verifying that training activities are
taking place and that corrective actions have been taken as required. It also helps track
the continuous improvement of operations and/or policies. Comprehensive
documentation is also a fundamental requirement in the event that any operator or
manager should be required to show that they have been taking all due diligence in
using the system to produce and provide potable water.
Finally, well-maintained documentation allows for a more effective and meaningful
audit process. Audits that are based on good records can lead to improvements of both
the management and operational strategies being used to provide safe drinking water.
Accurate and accessible records of monitoring and testing are important, but they’re
not the only records that should be kept. Documentation should be in place to keep
track of the location and condition of the treatment equipment, distribution system,
and the associated treatment/cleaning chemicals and spare parts. Examples of common
record types are listed below:
• Water quality testing results – baseline testing, and all ongoing bacterial and chemical
analyses, all recorded chlorine residual and turbidity levels.
• A summary of analytical results obtained during the year, in table format

• Reports on the quality of drinking water from the municipal system (if the facility
receives municipally supplied water)
• Correspondence and reports of any incidents, including remedial and emergency
measures, boil water advisories, shock chlorination, etc. A record of corrective
actions taken as part of operational controls, or in the event of a sample analysis
that indicated the water exceeded any of the MACs.
• Assessment reports (such as vulnerabilities assessment, sanitary survey, cross-
connection control survey/program, potable/drinking water management plans, etc.)
• Reports of in-house operational procedures, tests, protocols (communication,
storage of on-site chemicals, etc.)
• Infrastructure and maintenance reports including:
- “As-built” drawings
- Plumbing drawings
- ”Life history cards” (these files should contain data about each piece of
equipment in the water system, including the date and conditions of installation,
types of material, record of service problems and/or performance and costs of
operation and maintenance)
- Schedule of routine O&M for distribution system and treatment equipment
- Operational and maintenance manuals
- Manufacturer’s information and specifications for each piece of equipment
• Training records, including exam results, relevance of training, and validation of
the source of training
• Auditor’s reports (internal/external auditing)

10 Where to Get Help
10.1 Introduction
This course has covered a lot of information – sources of water, contaminants that
might be found in those water sources, the various methods of treating water to remove
contaminants, various tools to use to completely understand the system from source to
the tap, monitoring, sampling, analysis and reporting. In addition, basic mathematics
and chemistry for water systems. That is a tremendous amount of information to
memorize, and even more to put into practice and truly learn. There are several ways of
putting all this knowledge into practice, but perhaps one of the best ways is to take a
close look at the water system, and understand how the water gets from it’s source to
the tap that will fill the glass of water. Not only will this help to put some of the new
knowledge into practice, but it will help to identify locations and situations where risks
to the safety of the water might be encountered and what can be done to manage those
risks.
Providing safe drinking water is a complex job that can easily exceed the capabilities of
any one person. For this reason, it’s important to know your limitations. While nothing
will guarantee that every decision you make will be a correct one, using the tools and
information at your disposal will help you with one critical skill: the ability to know
when a situation exceeds your skill level. Understanding the limits of your knowledge
means you will be willing to ask for help when you need it, and this will give you the
confidence to declare the water unsafe if you have any doubts about its potability.
One of the most important tools to consider is preparation – being ready for most
situations. This can be as easy as looking at one of the devices in the treatment train and
asking questions like “What should be done if that indicator light comes on?”, “What
do the readings on the pressure gauge mean?” or, from a monitoring perspective, “What
should be done if a test analysis reports a parameter is above it’s Maximum Acceptable
Concentration?”. If you don’t know the answer to the question, don’t guess at the
answer. There is a team of people that can be asked for help – the water quality specialist,
other micro-system operators, health and safety officers, provincial water quality
partners, manufacturer’s representatives and others. It’s good not only to ask these
people for help and instruction, but also to ask them if they can be contacted in an
emergency for advice, and to keep their contact information up to date.
The following sections provide some ideas on where to look or who to contact to find
the answers to some of these questions.
10.2 Equipment
All micro-systems have equipment that at the minimum will include a pump and a
series of pipes and valves. In many cases the system will include some type of treatment
equipment to remove contaminants from the water. Both the possible contaminants
and the treatment devices have been discussed in this course. It is critically important
that the equipment be properly operated and maintained to ensure the production and
delivery of safe drinking water.
There are several sources of information that are valuable in operating and maintaining
this equipment. The first is the operator’s manual that came with the equipment. Read
this manual to understand the operation and maintenance of the equipment. If there
are instructions that are not clear, call the manufacturer or the installer for clarification.
Also, this work book explains the general principles for various types of treatment
equipment which should help in understanding how they operate and their limitations.
There may be also other micro-system operators who are familiar with the same types
of equipment that can provide operation and maintenance advice. Make notes on
routine maintenance and operation procedures for all the equipment in the micro-
system. This will not only help to understand the information by writing it down in
familiar terms and language, but it will also provide a list that can be used to verify
scheduled maintenance.
Some equipment problems are easy to solve. For example, it may simply require the
addition of salt to the water softener (an ion exchange device) when the brine tank is
low or replacing the bulb in the Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection system when the indicator
light flashes.
Other problems are more complex. For example, the chlorinator may stop working, or
the controls on the equipment may stop responding. Preparing a plan in advance to
address some of these common problems is a good idea. Part of the plan may be to call
in the experts. Don’t hesitate to do so. Their job is to support micro-system operators
with their task of providing potable water.
There will inevitably be problems with the equipment in the micro-system as it wears
out over time. The first thing to do is to identify the cause of the problem. The operator’s
manual and other sources of information may be of assistance. But sometimes all the
information available won’t immediately identify the problem. When this happens,
contact a water quality specialist or the professional who installed the equipment for
help in determining the cause of the problem. Once the problem is identified, the
solution might be obvious or the advice of a specialist might be required to help devise
a solution.
As indicated in the introduction above, it is useful to think of operational and emergency
situations that might arise. For each situation, develop and write down a solution. Then
identify the names and contact information of people who could help, verify that they
would be willing to help, and write down their contact information. Review this list of
potential problems, solutions and contacts periodically to keep it up to date.
10.3 Distribution System

Most micro-systems have a simple water distribution system, consisting of a
combination of pipes and valves. There may also be some other devices in the
distribution system such as drinking water fountains and janitorial style sinks. Most of
these devices are easy to maintain, but problems can arise.
Contact a water quality specialist immediately if there are any irregularities such as
pressure changes or leaks in the distribution system or changes in the quality of the
water. A qualified professional should be hired to do any repairs or changes to the
distribution system that are required.
10.4 Monitoring
Monitoring the water quality is an important part of providing safe drinking water. This
might be a team effort where the person on site is responsible for taking samples and
implementing corrective actions while a water quality specialist is responsible for
analyzing the test results and indicating what corrective actions need to be taken. In
other cases, the person on site might be responsible for all these actions. In any case, the
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality form the basis for determining the
safety of the water. These guidelines are updated periodically, based on new scientific
findings, so always check Health Canada’s website for the latest version.
One of the most important roles in protecting public health is to monitor the treated
water for the presence of microorganisms, as they can be a serious health hazard. This is
done by monitoring for the presence of indicator organisms – total coliforms and E. coli.
Fig 10.1 Microorganisms pose the greatest risk to health
Chemical parameters are generally a concern only when they are above the Maximum
Acceptable Concentrations specified in the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water
Quality. Some of these chemical parameters may not be health-based, but are important
to ensure the proper operation of the micro-system. To learn more, talk to a water
quality specialist and consult Health Canada’s website for technical documents
published for the different parameters.
This work book provides information about how a monitoring program is developed
and how to take samples in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 provides information on analysis and
reporting, which should also be discussed with the water quality specialist sharing the
responsibility for the micro-system. As indicated in Chapter 8, more information on
sampling can be found on the DVD training module entitled “Procedures for
Conducting Water Sampling in Federal Facilities”.
Water samples must be sent to an accredited laboratory for analysis. If this is not
possible and a portable test kit is being used, ensure that an appropriate quality
assurance or quality control protocol is in place. If there are any questions about the
results of the sample testing, contact the responsible water quality specialist or the
facility’s health and safety personnel right away. If the micro-system is located in a First
Nations community, call the environmental health officer.
Never assume that laboratory results are wrong or that any contaminants found in the
water are safe to drink. Microorganisms can be especially harmful to human health and
must be dealt with immediately. In the event of an emergency or when the water is
considered unsafe to drink, the appropriate water advisory should be issued immediately.
Never assume that laboratory results are wrong or that any contaminants found in the
water are safe to drink. Microorganisms can be especially harmful to human health and
must be dealt with immediately. In the event of an emergency or when the water is
considered unsafe to drink, the appropriate water advisory should be issued immediately.
10.5 Standard Operating Procedures

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) may have been prepared to guide all activities
related to the operation and maintenance of the micro-system. The SOPs are basically
a list of instructions to be followed to address a specific topic or issue. For example,
there may be an SOP on how often samples must be taken and where they are to be
sent. There should also be an SOP on how to issue a boil water advisory. There may also
be SOP on record keeping management. The number and extent of the SOPs will
depend on where the micro-system is located and who is responsible for that location.
These requirements will vary because the location could be a coast guard vessel, a
border crossing, a diplomatic mission abroad, an RCMP detachment, an Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada site or a First Nations community. If available, follow the SOPs
specific to the department, facility or community.
10.6 Continuing Education

This training course provides the information essential to understand and operate a
micro-system. But taking the course does not make the student an expert. The
information from the course needs to be combined with hands on experience in order
to apply the knowledge. That combination of learning through doing, as well as learning
from taking this course, is an important part to any educational process. It is especially
important in the area of water quality where there are many interactive components to
consider.
As you gain more confidence in the area of micro-systems, it may be easy to think that
you have learned all you need to know, and are capable of dealing with any situation
that might arise. But part of being prepared is continuing education – ensuring that
your knowledge and skills are fresh and up to date. Here are some ideas to do just that.
• Stay up to date on the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, and the
operation and maintenance of water treatment systems.
• Familiarize yourself with the Health Canada website on water quality. Here you
will find many helpful resource documents and lots of ready-to-use information.
• Develop partnerships with other facilities and communities that use micro-systems,
and find tools to help you implement sound drinking water management practices.
• Find out who provides training for Provincial water treatment system operators
near you, and see if there are courses that are interesting and useful.
• Provincial health agencies generally provide information on water quality and may
be a useful resource in learning more about contaminants in water.
• Provincial health agencies generally provide information on water quality and may
be a useful resource in learning more about contaminants in water.
Don’t take chances. Don’t take risks. The health of the people at your facility
or in your community is on the line. Ask questions. Get answers. And operate
your micro-system with confidence.

Appendix A:
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality - Summary Table
(From the Health Canada web site March 2011)
The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality are updated regularly by the
Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water. Please consult the
following URL for the most recent version of the guidelines: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/
ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/2010-sum_guide-res_recom/index-eng.php (link verified
March 2011)
Table 1: New and Revised guidelines
Parameter Guideline Previous CHE Approval

(mg/L) Guideline (mg/L)
Microbiological parametersa
Bacteriological 0 coliforms/
100 mL
E.coli 0 per 100 mL 2006
Total coliforms 0 per 100 mL 2006
Heterotrophic plate count No numerical 2006
guideline
required
Emerging pathogens No numerical 2006
guideline
required
Protozoa No numerical None 2004
guideline
required
Enteric viruses No numerical None 2004
guideline
required
Turbidity 0.3/1.0/0.1 1.0 NTU 2004
NTUb
Chemical and physical parameters
Aluminum 0.1/0.2c None 1999
Antimony 0.006 None 1997
Arsenic 0.01 0.025 2006
Benzene 0.005 0.005 2009
Bromate 0.01 None 1999
Chlorate 1 None 2008
Chlorine No numerical None 2009
guideline
required
Chlorite 1 None 2008
Cyanobacterial toxins— 0.0015 None 2002
microcystin-LR
Fluoride 1.5 1.5 1996
Parameter Guideline Previous CHE Approval

(mg/L) Guideline (mg/L)
Formaldehyde No numerical None 1998
guideline
required
Haloacetic Acids--Total (HAAs) 0.08 None 2008
2-Methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic 0.1 None 2010
acid (MCPA)
Methyl tertiary-butyl ether 0.015 None 2006
(MTBE)
Trichloroethylene (TCE) 0.005 0.05 2005
Trihalomethanes--Total (THMs) d
0.1 0.1 2006
Uranium 0.02 0.1 2000
Radiological parameters
Cesium-137 (137Cs) 10 Bq/L 10 Bq/L 2009
Iodine-131 ( 131
I) 6 Bq/L 6 Bq/L 2009
Lead-210 ( Pb)
210
0.2 Bq/L 0.1 Bq/L 2009
Radium-226 ( 226
Ra) 0.5 Bq/L 0.6 Bq/L 2009
Strontium-90 (90Sr) 5 Bq/L 5 Bq/L 2009
Tritium ( H)
3
7000 Bq/L 7000 Bq/L 2009
a
Refer to section on Guidelines for microbiological parameters.
b
ased on conventional treatment/slow sand or diatomaceous earth filtration/membrane
B
filtration.
c
his is an operational guidance value, designed to apply only to drinking water
T
treatment plants using aluminum-based coagulants. The operational guidance values of
0.1 mg/L applies to conventional treatment plants, and 0.2 mg/L applies to other types
of treatment systems.
d
he separate guideline for BDCM was rescinded based on new science. See addendum to
T
the THM document. In certain situations, the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on
Drinking Water may choose to develop guidance documents: for contaminants that do
not meet the criteria for guideline development, and for specific issues for which
operational or management guidance is warranted.
Table 2: Health-based and aesthetic guidelines for chemical/physical parameters
Parameter MAC (mg/L) AO [or OG] Year of Approval (or

(mg/L) reaffirmation)
Aldicarb 0.009 1994
Aldrin + dieldrin 0.0007 1994
Aluminum a
[0.1/0.2] 1998
*Antimony b
0.006 1997
Arsenic 0.01 2006
*Atrazine + metabolites 0.005 1993
Azinphos-methyl 0.02 1989 (2005)
Barium 1 1990
Bendiocarb 0.04 1990 (2005)

Benzene 0.005 2009
Benzo[a]pyrene 0.00001 1988 (2005)
*Boron 5 1990
*Bromate 0.01 1998
*Bromoxynil 0.005 1989 (2005)
Cadmium 0.005 1986 (2005)
Carbaryl 0.09 1991 (2005)
Carbofuran 0.09 1991 (2005)
Carbon tetrachloride 0.005 1986
Chloramines—total 3 1995
Chlorate 1 2008
Chloride ≤250 1979 (2005)
Chlorite 1 2008
Chlorpyrifos 0.09 1986
Chromium 0.05 1986
Colour d
≤15 TCU 1979 (2005)
Copper b
≤1.0 1992
*Cyanazine 0.01 1986 (2005)
Cyanide 0.2 1991
Cyanobacterial toxins- 0.0015 2002
Microcystin-LRc
Diazinon 0.02 1986 (2005)
Dicamba 0.12 1987 (2005)
1,2-Dichlorobenzenee 0.2 ≤0.003 1987
1,4-Dichlorobenzenee 0.005 ≤0.001 1987
*1,2-Dichloroethane 0.005 1987
1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.014 1994
Dichloromethane 0.05 1987
2,4-Dichlorophenol, 0.9 ≤0.0003 1987 (2005)
*2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic 0.1 1991
acid (2,4 -D)
Diclofop-methyl 0.009 1987 (2005)
*Dimethoate 0.02 1986 (2005)
Dinoseb 0.01 1991
Diquat 0.07 1986 (2005)
Diuron 0.15 1987 (2005)
Ethylbenzene ≤0.0024 1986 (2005)
Fluoride 1.5 1996
*Glyphosate 0.28 1987 (2005)
Haloacetic Acids-Total (HAAs) 0.08 2008
Iron ≤0.3 1978 (2005)
Leadb 0.01 1992
Malathion 0.19 1986 (2005)

Manganese ≤0.05 1987
Mercury 0.001 1986
Methoxychlor 0.9 1986 (2005)
2-Methyl-4- 0.1 2010
chlorophenoxyacetic acid
(MCPA)
Methyl tertiary-butyl ether 0.015 2006
(MTBE)
*Metolachlor 0.05 1986
Metribuzin 0.08 1986 (2005)
Monochlorobenzene 0.08 ≤0.03 1987
Nitrate f
45 1987
Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) 0.4 1990
Odour Inoffensive 1979 (2005)
*Paraquat (as dichloride)g 0.01 1986 (2005)
Parathion 0.05 1986
Pentachlorophenol 0.06 ≤0.030 1987 (2005)
pH h
6.5-8.5 1995
Phorate 0.002 1986 (2005)
*Picloram 0.19 1988 (2005)
Selenium 0.01 1992
*Simazine 0.01 1986
Sodium i
≤200 1992
Sulphate j
≤500 1994
Sulphide (as H2S) ≤0.05 1992
Taste Inoffensive 1979 (2005)
Temperature ≤15°C 1979 (2005)
*Terbufos 0.001 1987 (2005)
Tetrachloroethylene 0.03 1995
2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol 0.1 ≤0.001 1987 (2005)
Toluene ≤0.024 1986 (2005)
Total dissolved solids (TDS) ≤500 1991
Trichloroethylene 0.005 2005
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 0.005 ≤0.002 1987 (2005)
*Trifluralin 0.045 1989 (2005)
Trihalomethanes-total 0.1 2006
(THMs)k
Turbidityl 2004
*Uranium 0.02 1999
Vinyl chloride 0.002 1992
Xylenes—total ≤0.3 1986 (2005)
Zinc b
≤5.0 1979 (2005)
a
his is an operational guidance value, designed to apply only to drinking water treatment
T
plants using aluminium-based coagulants. The operational guidance values of 0.1 mg/L
applies to conventional treatment plants, and 0.2 mg/L applies to other types of treatment
systems.
b
Faucets should be thoroughly flushed before water is taken for consumption or analysis.
c
he guideline is considered protective of human health against exposure to all
T
microcystins that may be present.
d
TCU = true colour unit.
e
In cases where total dichlorobenzenes are measured and concentrations exceed the most
stringent value (0.005 mg/L), the concentrations of the individual isomers should be
established.
f
quivalent to 10 mg/L as nitrate-nitrogen. Where nitrate and nitrite are determined
E
separately, levels of nitrite should not exceed 3.2 mg/L.
g
Equivalent to 0.007 mg/L for paraquat ion.
h
No units.
i
It is recommended that sodium be included in routine monitoring programmes, as levels
may be of interest to authorities who wish to prescribe sodium-restricted diets for their
patients.
j
There may be a laxative effect in some individuals when sulphate levels exceed 500 mg/L.
k
xpressed as a running annual average. The guideline is based on the risk associated with
E
chloroform, the trihalomethane most often present and in greatest concentration in
drinking water.
l
efer to section on Guidelines for microbiological parameters for information related to
R
various treatment processes.
Appendix B:
Units, Conversions and Sample Calculations
SI Unit: Multiply By: To Get:

Length
mm millimetre 0.04 inch in
cm centimetre 0.394 inch in
m metre 3.28 feet ft
m metre 1.1 yard yds
km kilometre 0.62 mile mi
Area
cm2 square centimetre 0.16 square inch in2
m2 square metre 1.2 square yard yd2
km2 square kilometre 0.4 square mile mi2
ha hectare (10,000m2) 2.5 acre acrs
Volume
mL millilitre 0.03 fluid ounce fl oz
l, L litre 2.1 pint pt
l, L litre 1.06 quart qt
l, L litre 0.26 gallon gal
m
3
cubic metre 35.0 cubic feet ft3
m3 cubic metre 1.3 cubic yard yd3
Flow
L/s litre/second gallons/minutes gpm
15.85
(US)
Weight
g gram 0.035 ounce oz
kg kilogram 2.2 pound lbs
Temperature
°C Celsius 1.8 and then add 32 Fahrenheit °F
Pressure
kPa kilopascals 0.145 pounds/in2 psi
B Bar (at sea level) 14.5 pounds/ in2 psi
B Bar (at 1000 feet above sea level) 14.1 pounds/ in2 psi
B Bar (at 2000 feet above sea level) 13.67 pounds/ in2 psi
Conversion Factors
1 ft3 water = 62.4 lbs

1 ft water =
3
28.317 L
1 L water = 1 kg **
1 yd =
3
27ft3
1 acre = 43,560 ft2
1 psi = 2.31 feet of water
1 mg/L = 1 ppm
1% = 10,000 mg/L ***
1 grain/US gallon = 17.118 mg/l
1 HP = 550 ft-lbs/sec
1 HP = 0.746 kilowatts
1 kilowatt = 1.34 HP
π(Pi) = 3.1416
** Note that this converts volume of water to weight of water
*** e.g. 5% bleach solution = 50,000 mg/L
Conversion Factors
US Gallons Imperial Gallons

1 ft water =
3
7.48 gal 6.23 gal
1 litre = 0.264 gal 0.22 gal
1 gal water = 8.34 lbs 10.0 lbs
1 MGD* = 694.4 gpm 694.4 gpm
1 MGD = 1.547 cfs 1.858 cfs
1 gpm = 0.00223 cfs 0.00268 cfs
1 cfs = 448.83 gpm 373.8 gpm
* MGD = million gallons per day
* gpm = gallons per minute
* cfs = cubic foot per second

Power of 10 E notation Decimal Equivalent Prefix/Symbol

10 12
E+12 1,000,000,000,000 tera T
10 9
E+09 1,000,000,000 giga G
10 6
E+06 1,000,000 mega M
10 3
E+03 1,000 kilo k
102 E+02 100 hecto h
10 E+01 10 deka da
10 -1
E-01 0.1 deci d
10 -2
E-02 0.01 centi c
10 -3
E-03 0.001 milli m
10 -6
E-06 0.000,001 micro u
10-9 E-09 0.000,000,001 nano n
10 -12
E-12 0.000,000,000,001 pico p
10 -15
E-15 0.000,000,000,000,001 femto f
10 -18
E-18 0.000,000,000,000,000,001 atto a
Sample Calculations
Example Conversions:
Using the conversion tables above, here are a few examples of typical conversions.
Problem: Convert 4 L/s (litres per second) to USGPM (US gallons per minute)
Solution: 4 L/s x 0.264 US gallons / L x 60 seconds / minute = 63.4 USGPM
Problem: Convert 10 grains / US gallon hardness to ppm

Solution: 10 grains/US gallon x 17.118 mg/L / 1 grain/US Gallon
= 172 mg/L = 172 ppm
Problem: Convert ¾ (0.75) HP (motor rating) to kilowatts

Solution: 0.75 HP x 0.746 kilowatts / HP = 0.56 kilowatts (560 watts)
Problem: Convert 10 ft3 to litres and weight in kilograms

Solution: 10 ft3 x 28.317 L / ft3 = 283.2 L
283.2 L x 1 kg / 1 L = 283.2 kg
Dilution:
Preparing a disinfecting solution for cleaning.
Assuming that 200 mg/L is a good concentration for cleaning surfaces, and you wanted
to make 4 litres of this solution in a pail, how much 5% bleach solution would you need
to add?
Again, this question uses the dilution formula:
V1 x C1=V2 x C2
Which can be rearranged to solve for the unknown, V1:

V1 = V2 x C2/ C1
Therefore V1 = 4 L x 200 mg/L / 50,000 mg/L = 0.016 L = 16 ml (roughly 3 teaspoons)

Adding 16 ml of 5% bleach solution to 4 litres of water will dilute the concentrated
solution to give a final concentration of 200 mg/L (200 ppm).
Flow Rate:
The manufacturer’s recommended treatment capacity for a multimedia filter in the

micro-system treatment train is 5,000 US gallons. After the filter has treated that
volume, it must be cleaned by a simple backwash, a process where the flow in the filter
is reversed. If the average flow rate through the filter is 1.2 USGPM, what would be the
setting for the electric timer that controls the start of each backwash cycle?
Flow is a measure of volume per unit of time, mathematically expressed as:

Q = V / T where:
Q = flow rate
V = Volume
T = Time
This formula can be rearranged to be expressed as either in time or volume:

T = V / Q or V = Q x T
The example is looking for a time answer, so the solution would be:
T = V / Q = 5,000 (US) gallons / 1.2 USGPM = 4,167 minutes = 69 hours 27 minutes
or about 2 days 21 ½ hours.
Sample General Questions

Question 1
Which source of water would be the most likely to contain potentially harmful
micro-organisms?
a. Lakes and streams
b. Water from deep wells
c. Bottled water
d. Municipal distribution.
Question 2
In the Hydrological Cycle, the process where water soaks into the ground is called.
a. Evaporation
b. Infiltration
c. Run-off
d. Condensation.
Question 3
What are the main sources of harmful waterborne bacteria that can cause health issues
in humans?
a. Plants
b. The digestive tracts of humans and animals
c. Deep aquifers
d. Run-off water.
Question 4
Viruses can travel long distances in aquifers.
a. True
b. False
Question 5
Hardness in water is caused by:
a. Calcium or Magnesium ions
b. Manganese or Iron ions
c. A low pH value
d. A high turbidity value.
Question 6
Alkalinity is a measure of:
a. The number of Hydrogen ions in the water
b. The ability of water to buffer against changes in pH
c. The percentage of alkaline ions in the water
d. The presence of dissolved alkaline salts.
Question 7
A settling tank is a device to provide:
a. Chlorination
b. Clarification
c. UV Disinfection
d. Monitoring capability.
Question 8
Shock chlorination is intended to:
a. Remove suspended solids
b. Kill microorganisms
c. Remove calcium ions
d. Reduce turbidity.
Answers to Sample General Questions

Answer to Question 1
The correct answer is a: Lakes and streams. Surface water bodies can potentially be
contaminated by animal waste, decaying plants, and industrial and agricultural
operations.
The correct answer is b: Infiltration.
The correct answer is b: In the digestive tracts of animals.
The digestive tracts of humans and animals are the main source of bacteria that cause
waterborne illnesses, and these bacteria can be found in feces
The correct answer is a: Viruses in aquifers can be transported far from the original site
of contamination.
The correct answer is a: Calcium and Magnesium ions from natural geologic deposits
like limestone or dolomite are dissolved into the water and increase the hardness.
The correct answer is b: Adding chemicals to water can cause large swings in pH. A higher
alkalinity suppresses these large swings, and makes water pH control easier for you.
The correct answer is b: Clarification. A settling tank allows heavier suspended solids to
settle out.
The correct answer is b: Kill or inactivate microorganisms. With the appropriate contact
time this should adequately kill any biological activity in the water line.
Appendix C:
Cleaning a Bottled Water Dispenser
The following instructions are for cleaning a cold water cooler with an exposed reservoir
or no-spill device. They are from the Health Canada web site. Check the web site
periodically to see if changes have been made to these instructions.
To clean the reservoir:

Unplug cord from electrical outlet of cooler. Remove empty bottle.
Drain water from stainless steel reservoir(s) through faucet(s).
If there is a removable baffle and/or no-spill device, remove it. You should be able to
see into the reservoir.
Prepare a disinfecting solution by adding one tablespoon (15 mL) household bleach to
one Imperial gallon (4.5 L) of water solution. Use a “food grade” bleach. Some
commercially available household chlorine bleaches contain fragrances, thickeners or
other additives not approved for food use. Do not use scented or colour-safe bleaches.
Bleach decreases in effectiveness with age, so it is recommended to use bleach purchased
less than four months ago. Older bleach may not be strong enough to achieve
disinfection.
Some companies suggest using one part vinegar to three parts water solution to clean
the reservoir of scale before cleaning with bleach. Check your manual. Other disinfecting
solutions may be suitable. Please check with your water cooler supplier/manual.
Pour the bleach/other disinfection solution into the reservoir.
Wash reservoir thoroughly with bleach solution and let stand for not less than two
minutes (to be an effective sanitizer) and not more than five minutes (to prevent
corrosion). Use a clean dish-type scrub brush to clean the inside of the reservoir. Do
not use steel wool, Brillo, or other abrasives on the reservoir as it will scratch the finish
and make it easier for bacteria to grow.
Drain bleach/disinfection solution from reservoir through faucet(s). Rinse reservoir
thoroughly with clean tap water, draining water through faucets, to remove traces of the
bleach/disinfection solution. Rinse and dry the baffle / no spill device and replace. You
may need to rinse the reservoir more than once to remove the taste and odour of
chlorine.
To clean the drip tray (located under faucets):

Lift off drip tray.
Remove the screen and wash both tray and screen in mild detergent.
Rinse well in clean tap water and replace on cooler.
To replace bottle:
Wash hands with soap and warm water before handling. If you choose to use clean
protective gloves (ex. latex), discard or disinfect after each use and prior to reuse.
Note : Protective gloves should never replace proper hand washing and hygiene.
Wipe the top and neck of the new bottle with a paper towel dipped in household bleach
solution (1 tablespoon (15 ml) of bleach, 1 gallon (4.5 L) of water). Rubbing alcohol
may also be used, but must be completely evaporated before placing the bottle in the
cooler
Remove cap from new bottle without touching the surface of the opening to avoid any
contamination.
Place new bottle on cooler.
Appendix D:
Frequently Asked Questions
Will a water filter disinfect my water?

No, filters can remove a lot of the microbial organism that can cause illness but it will
not disinfect your water. Disinfection can only be achieved when you use technologies
like ozone, chlorination and UV. For more information on disinfection see Module 5 or
the DVD on disinfection.
How often should we be sampling for microbiological parameters?

There are many factors to consider when putting a sampling program in place. The
source of the water, number of people being served, and the type of disinfection used
all need to be considered before putting a sampling program in place. For additional
information on monitoring consult the following document “Guidance for Providing
Safe Drinking Water in Areas of Federal Jurisdiction”.
Is it necessary to boil all water during an advisory or order?

During boil water advisories or boil water orders, you should boil all water used for
drinking, preparing food , beverages, ice cubes, washing fruits and vegetables, or
brushing teeth. Severely immunocompromised individuals should always boil their tap
water for the purposes noted above. Infant formulas should be prepared using boiled
tap water at all times. In the event that boiling is not practical, your local public health
authority or other responsible authority may direct you to disinfect the water using
household bleach, or to use an alternative supply known to be safe.
It is not necessary to boil tap water used for other household purposes, such as
showering, laundry, bathing, or washing dishes. Adults, teens, and older children can
wash, bathe, or shower; however, they should avoid swallowing the water. Toddlers and
infants should be sponge bathed.
(Health Canada - http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/boil-ebullition-
eng.php)
My chlorine reading is low at some locations – what should I do?

If the building is supplied with municipal water, assuming chlorine residual is acceptable
at other locations, retest the site in question. If results are low at the location where the
water enters the building contact the water supplier (city/municipality).
If residual disinfectant is added on site – check disinfection equipment.
If disinfectant residual is repeatedly low, flushing lines may be in order and review the
water use patterns(ie stagnating water due to low water use)
The water at our facility normally tastes fine, this morning the water tasted bad.
What should we do?
In the case of municipally supplied water you should contact your water authority
immediately. If you produce your own water on site there may be an issue with your
source water or perhaps your treatment system is not working properly. You should
contact your water quality specialist and investigate the cause of the problem. If the
problem can not be repaired quickly an alternate source of drinking water should be
provided.
The water looks cloudy when I fill my glass and then clears as it sits – is this safe
to drink?
The cloudy water is caused by tiny air bubbles in the water. The pressure in the pipes
causes the air to dissolve into the water. When the water comes out of the tap, it is no
longer under pressure and the air that was dissolved in the water, comes out of solution
forming very tiny bubbles. When poured into a glass, the cloudy water will start to clear
from the bottom up - with the clear water slowly moving upward.
This type of cloudiness occurs most often in the winter when the drinking water is cold,
if there is an aerator on the tap or if service has been done to a line. The water is still safe
to drink.
My building is very old, does that mean there is lead in my drinking water?
Not necessarily. A water analysis can determine if there is lead in your water. The
presence of lead in drinking water depends on several factors:
• Age of the distribution system - Older systems may have lead service lines (not
typical in buildings), solder or fittings (taps, valves) that contain lead.
• Water chemistry – how aggressive the water is will determine if lead will leach out
of the plumbing.
• The length of time water sits in the pipes – Lead levels in the water will increase as
it sits, or stagnates, in the pipes when the water is not used for several hours, such
as overnight or during working hours. Taps that are used frequently will be less
likely to contain lead in the water.
• Whether your water supplier has a corrosion control program in place.
I requested a total coliform test from a lab but I received the results that atypical
bacteria overgrowth and E. coli as zero. Why wasn’t total coliform reported?
Some labs use a membrane filtration procedure to test the water for total coliform but
when this procedure is used the overgrowth of atypical bacteria can block the detection
of total coliform however another media is used for E. coli therefore it can be reported.
Below are the suggested actions:
1. Resample but request an absence/presence test for total coliform.
2. If the sample results in reported exceedances (presence) of total coliform, the next
step is to shock chlorinate the system, resample and request a total coliform count
or a P/A test.
Who samples bottled water?

As part of its enforcement role, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency can inspect
bottled water products, labels and establishments (conveyances, equipment etc.)
involved in the sale, manufacture and distribution of bottled water. In addition, some
provincial and municipal ministries and agencies may inspect bottled water. If your
facility relies on bottled water as its main source of drinking water you should ensure it
meets the requirements of the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
I have a new UV system and it is operating as required by the manufacturer but I

still have total coliform in the water sample from the sample port immediately
after the UV. What should I do?
1. Resample but ensure that you disinfect the sample spigot as outlined in the water
sampling video.
2. Check the Ultraviolet Transmittance (UVT) of the water. This is the ability for the
water to allow the UV to work effectively. The testing for this parameter is usually
done by a lab.
3. Make sure that there is a 5 micron pre-filter to the UV.
4. Contact your water quality specialist.
The indicator light on my UV unit is on, what do I do?

The bulb in your UV unit may need replacement. The bulb gradually loses its disinfecting
capabilities over time. If you are not familiar with the procedure you need to follow to
replace the UV bulb contact the manufacturer or your water quality specialist.
Note that not all UV units have an indicator light or alarm. In these situations you
should be changing your bulb at least once a year. When you change the bulb you
should also clean the quartz sleeve surrounding the bulb.
How long do Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) or carbon based filters last?
Depending on the quality of water coming into a GAC, it could effectively do it’s
intended job for two months, one year, two years or longer. Typically the filter is located
near the end of the treatment train to deal with odour, taste, pesticides and dissolved
organic matter issues. Treating raw surface water without any pre-treatment will use up
the carbon filter in a short amount of time, as a result the carbon will have to be replaced.
In a well designed treatment train the carbon filter should last a long time. Regular
sampling and analysis or when there is a noticeable change in taste or smell can indicate
that a carbon filter should be inspected or replaced. If the carbon filter is located near
the beginning of the treatment train and is removing more concentrations of organic
material, constant inspection of the filter is required to ensure it is not all used up.
A carbon filter, where the carbon is spent and is not operating according to manufacturer’s
specifications or a carbon filter that was improperly sized can negatively impact the
water quality. Microbiological growth will form on the carbon and will be passed on to
the end-user of the water.
What is cross connection control?

This is an existing or potential connection between a potable water system and any
other environment that under any circumstance can enter the potable water system.
How often are testable backflow devices checked?

Testable backflow devices such as a Reduced Pressure Principle Backflow (RP), Double
Check Valve Assembly (DCVA), Pressure Vacuum Breaker (PVB) or Spill Resistant
Pressure Vacuum Breaker must be tested:
• Upon installation
• Annually
• If relocated
• If plumbing in the area of the backflow device is undertaken
• After routine maintenance
I have a very small water distribution system (micro-system) and the facility is a
single story building with just a few employees. Do I need to know about cross
connection control?
Most municipalities will require a form of cross connection control for even a low risk
(minor) water system. It is important to understand what is needed to meet the local
bylaws and the applicable plumbing codes. Contact your municipality and a local
certified cross connection control specialist for more information.
ii Water Quality 101
This product was created as a training tool by the federal Interdepartmental

Water Quality Training Board to provide information on water quality
management methods for potable water systems that serve up to and
including 25 people. These are called “micro-systems”, and are in place
at a variety of locations including remote federal facilities, ships, embassies,
and First Nation communities.
This Workbook is also available in French and Spanish.
Copyright © 2011 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada

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i Water Quality 101

Water Quality 101

Potable Water Micro-System Fundamentals

© Copyright by Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada (2011)

ISBN No. 978-1-100-53413-8

AAFC No. 11490M

© Copyright HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN IN RIGHT OF CANADA (2011)

Material may not be reproduced without permission.

Participating Departments and Agencies:

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Canada Border Services Agency

Canadian Coast Guard

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Correctional Service of Canada

Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada

Health Canada ­— First Nations and Inuit Health Branch

Indian and Northern Affairs Canada

National Defence and the Canadian Forces

Parks Canada Agency

Public Works and Government Services Canada

Royal Canadian Mounted Police

2 Sources of fresh water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 What’s in the water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

7.0 Knowing your system from source to tap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

8 Monitoring and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

9 Analysis and reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

10 Where to get help. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

1 Water Quality Overview

1.2 Regulations and Due Diligence

(MACs), Aesthetic Objectives, and Operational Guidelines for various contaminants

1.3 Natural Sources of Water

1.4 Contaminants in the Water

1.5 Multi-Barrier Approach

1.6 Treatment Processes

1.7 Targets for Safe Drinking Water

1.8 Distribution Systems

1.9 Notes on Chapter 1

2 Sources of Fresh Water

2.2 Distribution of Water On Earth

Fig. 2.2 The Distribution of Water on Earth

2.3 The Cycle of Water in the Environment

On May 21, 2000 the

Hydrologic Cycle Terms:

2.4 Surface Water

Fig 2.3 Contamination of Surface Waters

Fig 2.4 Aquifers

Fig 2.5 A Shallow Aquifer

2.6 Municipal Water

Fig 2.6 A Municipal Water Supply

Operators of micro-systems treating and distributing water at a federal facility are

2.7 Bottled Water

2.8 Understanding the Water Source

2.9 Notes on Chapter 2

3 What’s In the Water

3.2 Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality

3.3 Microbiological Contamination

Fig 3.1 Microorganisms pose the greatest risk to health

Fig 3.2 A flask containing suspended solids, showing turbidity

Turbid water can potentially harbour and shield disease-causing micro-organisms,

Health Canada — First Nations and Inuit Health Branch