1

Foreigners, Pharaonic costumes and physical appearances in

Egyptian depictions of the world (Figure 1).
Egypt Egypt and pharaoh represented order
KATE LISZKA (MAAT) in the center of their universe, while
foreigners symbolized a manifestation of
Ancient Egypt was located at the crossroads chaos (isft). The pharaoh must literally and
between Asia, Africa, and the Mediterranean. figuratively defeat chaos to maintain kingship.
This location favored the development of a Traditional smiting scenes and battle scenes in
multicultural society. Although foreigners monumental art figuratively show the triumph
lived, worked, and traveled in Egypt through- of maat over isft, in the depiction of pharaohs
out its history, monumental Egyptian records conquering foreign peoples. Images of for-
often project an ethnocentric attitude. If eigners are often depicted in places over
Egyptians commonly held ethnocentric atti- which the pharaoh would stand or walk regu-
tudes, as HERODOTUS reported (Histories esp. larly: under the window of appearance, on the
2.41–3), there may have been a strong compul- floor of palatial buildings, on the soles of king’s
sion for foreigners to acculturate to Egyptian shoes, on footstools, etc. Standing on these
standards. Foreigners who wanted to be images served as a metaphorical expression of
accepted into elite or bureaucratic positions subduing chaos, and would magically achieve
actively espoused Egyptian behaviors and mate- the same end. Execration texts similarly served
rial culture in public spheres. The extent to as magical tools to protect Egypt from for-
which first generation foreigners mentally eigners. Found on figurines or broken pots,
acculturated cannot be known. Most foreigners these texts include extensive inscriptions of
adopted Egyptian material culture and behav- foreign names and locations in geographic
iors within a generation or two, except in a few order, which also demonstrate that Egyptians
notable cases (Schneider 2010: 144 ff.; see had a detailed knowledge of the outside world
ACCULTURATION). Nonetheless, the influence of (see EXECRATION TEXTS).
several external cultures contributed to impor- Egyptians also depicted foreigners in ways
tant developments in Egyptian society over that emphasized their individuality. In stories
time. For example, Egyptians adopted foreign like Sinuhe, the Doomed Prince, and the Letter
technology like cylinder seals, glass technology, of Wenamun, foreigners appear as individual-
and the horse and chariot, and foreign gods ized characters with whom the Egyptian
like Astarte, Ba’al, and ANAT. protagonists interact (see LITERATURE AND POETRY,
Egyptians understood foreigners in two PHARAONIC EGYPT). Non-literary texts (e.g.,
distinctly different ways: stereotypically or letters, biographies, and administrative docu-
individually. The stereotypes of foreigners ments) frequently mentioned foreigners and
were prominent elements in the Egyptian con- exhibited a detailed knowledge of foreign
ceptualization of the world. The Hymn to lands. Although Egyptians considered them-
Amun-Re and the Hymn to the Aten state that selves superior to foreigners, and Egypt supe-
Egyptian gods created both Egyptians and rior to foreign lands, as we see in monumental
foreigners with distinct characteristics: “Their inscriptions, Egyptians treated the other great
tongues differ in speech, Their characters like- nations as equals in international correspon-
wise; Their skins are distinct, For you distin- dence, such as the AMARNA LETTERS.
guished the peoples.” Minimally, the Egyptians Many foreigners lived and worked in Egypt.
recognized three main groups of foreigners The WILBOUR PAPYRUS and other documents note
bordering Egypt: Asiatics to the northeast, foreigners living in towns of various sizes, and
Nubians to the south, and Libyans to the mention towns with foreign names. Interna-
west. Each of these races assumed stereotypical tional communities were present in Egypt, but

The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition. Edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine,
and Sabine R. Huebner, print pages 2710–2713.
© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15162
2

Figure 1 Egyptians, Asiatics, Libyans, and Nubians as based on images in the Tomb of Seti I, KV 17. After
Rosselini (1832, pls. 155–6).

the most extensive evidence for them dates to (see TRADE, PHARAONIC EGYPT). Tribute scenes
the Late Period (664–332 BCE), such as the found in monuments and in private tombs of
Greek trading colony of NAUKRATIS (see COLONI- the New Kingdom depict foreigners bringing
ZATION, GREEK), and the Jewish military colony the characteristic products of their lands to
at Elephantine (see ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI). pharaoh and other officials (see TRIBUTE).
Foreigners played a significant part in Foreigners are found in many different
Egypt’s military forces throughout its history. occupations in Egypt, such as farmers, laborers,
Many foreigners initially came to Egypt for priests, cooks, barbers, shipbuilders, copper-
jobs as mercenaries or members of the royal smiths, artists, musicians, etc. In the Ramesside
bodyguard (e.g., Spalinger 2005: 264 ff.). These Period (ca. 1295–1069), approximately half of
military units are often depicted in ethnic the royal cup-bearers were Asiatics. Bilingual
dress during official processions. Nubians scribes and interpreters were essential for inter-
held these positions in great numbers through- national correspondence, trading missions, and
out Egyptian history. The number of merce- military expeditions. Several foreigners were
naries drawn from the Libyans, Asiatics, and powerful doctors or magicians. Foreigners also
SEA PEOPLES increased during the New Kingdom occasionally attained high positions in the
(1550–1069). Greek, Carian, Phoenician, Egyptian bureaucracy. The Nubian Seneb was
Jewish, and Aramean mercenaries were intro- a seal-bearer in the Old Kingdom (2686–2125).
duced in the Saite Period (664–525) (see ARMY, People from PUNT worked in the royal palace
PHARAONIC EGYPT; MERCENARIES). during the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650).
Foreigners also participated in international The Asiatics Aperel and Paser acted as viziers
trade. Many international merchants traveled for Amenhotep III and Sety I respectively in
to the Egyptian borders to trade with Egypt the New Kingdom. The Syrian Bey rose to the
 3

position of Great Chancellor, possibly because government and society to an already

his sister, Sutailja, was the mother of the sickly, multicultural country.
adolescent king SIPTAH (1194–1188).
Many foreigners in Pharaonic Egypt were SEE ALSO: Canaan; Ethnicity, Egypt; Foreigners,
also brought into the country as prisoners of Greece and Rome; Hittite, Hittites; Kushite
war (see PRISON, PRISONERS). They made up the Period, Egypt; Late Period, Egypt; Libya and
majority of slaves in Egypt. These people tra- Libyans; New Kingdom, Egypt; Nubia; Persians
ditionally worked as forced, unskilled laborers. in Egypt; Ptolemy I Soter; Race and racism; Saite
Many of these slaves were considered the prop- Period, Egypt; Second Intermediate Period,
erty of pharaoh, temple estates, or private peo- Egypt; Third Intermediate Period, Egypt.
ple. If prisoners had a special skill, like cooking,
making wine, or cutting hair, they were
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
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Prisoners of war and slaves were also some- Bresciani, E. (1997) “Foreigners.” In S. Donadoni,
times freed through adoption by their owner, ed., The Egyptians: 221–53. Chicago.
a royal edict, or marriage to an Egyptian (see Cohen, R. and Westbrook, R. (2000) Amarna
SLAVERY, PHARAONIC EGYPT). diplomacy: the beginnings of international
Occasionally, Egypt was ruled by pharaohs relations. Baltimore.
Davies, W. V. and Schofield, L., eds. (1995) Egypt,
who were of foreign origin or whose ancestry
the Aegean and the Levant: interconnections in
included non-Egyptians. During the New
the second millennium BC. London.
Kingdom, Egyptian pharaohs often took for- Johnson, J., ed. (1995) Life in a multi-cultural
eign wives in diplomatic marriages. The tombs society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and
of some of these wives were found at Thebes beyond. Chicago.
and Medinet Gurob. Manfred Bietak also Kemp, B. (2006) Ancient Egypt: anatomy of
suggested that the palace containing the a civilization. London.
Minoan bull-leaping reliefs at Avaris belonged Liverani, M. (1990) Prestige and interest:
a foreign wife. These women sometimes pro- international relations in the Near East ca.
duced heirs to the throne. For example, 1600–1100 B.C. Padua.
TUTANKHAMUN’s mother Kiya may have been
Loprieno, A. (1988). Topos und Mimesis: zum
Ausländer in der ägyptischen Literatur. Wiesbaden.
MITTANI. In the 13th Dynasty (1773–1650),
Moran, W. (1992) The Amarna Letters. Baltimore.
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Mysliwiec, K. (2000) The twilight of ancient
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Second Intermediate Period (1650–1550), the Oren, E., ed. (1997) The Hyksos: new historical
HYKSOS – a name derived from the Egyptian and archaeological perspectives. Philadelphia.
phrase “rulers of foreign lands” – controlled Redford, D. (1992) Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in
the northern half of Egypt. In the Third Inter- ancient times. Princeton.
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