Christian Leader’s Institute:

World History 101

The Beginnings of “Civilization” to 1500 A.D.

Rev. Richard Hamstra

Session 5 Egypt
 Egypt
• READING ASSIGNMENT: Article by Josuha J. Mark;
Ancient Egypt ; http://www.ancient.eu/egypt/

• Recommended viewing
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuUMe-
43A3E mintues 1-141
 Ancient Egypt: 3150-331 B.C.
Egypt is nearly completely defined by the Nile
River and it annual, and predictable, periods
of flood and lower water.
• From the ancient times there was a Lower and
Upper kingdom in Egypt, with the Upper Nile
closer to the African mainland (southern)and
the Lower Nile (northern) emptying into the
Mediterranean sea.
 3 Kingdoms or periods
• Ancient Egyptian history is divided into three
periods called the Old Kingdom, the Middle
Kingdom and the New Kingdom.
• Old Kingdom-2613-2128 B.C.
• Middle Kingdom-2040-1782 B.C.
• New Kingdom 1570-1069 B.C.
Following these periods of dominance by other
empires, still a formidable culture and nation.

Also, the periods between the Kingdoms were

often significant.
 Writing
• Egyptian writing uses symbols of recognizable
figures to represent ideas. This is called
hieroglyphics. This form of writing began in
use prior to the Old Kingdom, before 3200 B.C.
• Way of representing may have influenced, or
been influenced by Sumerian Cuneiform
 Rosette Stone
• Discovered in Egypt by French troops in 1799,
a degree written in 194 B.C. in three
languages: Greek, Demotic and Ancient
Hieroglyphic. Finally translated in 1822, began
tool for understanding the hieroglyphic
language of ancient Egypt.
• Held in British Museum since 1802
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt
• Early Dynastic Egypt begins with King Menes
from Lower taking control of both kingdoms
uniting Upper and Lower into one Kingdom
around 3150 B.C.
• Lasted until 2613 B.C.
• Capital at Memphis
 Old Kingdom 2613-2128 B.C.
Pyramids and Sphinx at Giza were built during
first few hundred years of Old Kingdom
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Cairo,_Gizeh,_Sphinx_an
d_Pyramid_of_Khufu,_Egypt,_Oct_2004.jpg
 Middle Kingdom 2040-1782 B.C.
• First Kingdom ends with division again
between Lower and Upper Egypt, but united
by King Mentuhotep II in 2055 B.C. Capital
moved to the city of Thebes in Upper Egypt.
• Middle Kingdom time of cultural flourishing—
”Classical Egypt”.
• Biblical person, Joseph? 1900-1700 B.C.?
End of Middle Kingdom related to rise of
Hyksos group in Lower (Delta) Egypt.
 Hyksos: 1782-1570 B.C.
• Ca 1800 B.C., invaders? Refugees? From Syria?
• Little is known, related perhaps to migrations
near end of Bronze age…gained control of
Delta, city of Avaris.
• Nubian Kingdom in South, Hyksos in North,
overcame Thebes.
• Technical advances: horses, wheeled chariot,
improved bow, crop rotation, improved bronze
• Connection to the Biblical stories of Joseph?
• Around 1570, Ahmose I—Thebean, regains
control and unites Upper and Lower Egypt—
New Kingdom.
 New Kingdom 1570-1069 B.C.
• Pharaoh—title of the King
• Many building projects…Valley of the Kings,
Luxor
• International expansion—conflicts with
Mesopotamia powers under Tuthmosis I-late
1500’s B.C.
• Queen Hapshepsut—early 1400’s B.C.---ruled
for 20 years
• https://pixabay.com/static/uploads/photo/2
014/09/11/09/53/valley-of-the-kings-
441544_960_720.jpg
 Moses
• Birth is generally dated around 1530 B.C.
• Tuthmosis I
• Exodus around 1450 B.C.
• Tuthmosis III
 New Kingdom cont.
• Akhenaten and Nefertiti, 1353-1336 B.C.
monothesism –god Aten. Both political
reasons—lessen power of the priests—also
theological…devoted to Aten. Moved capital
to Armana
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/f7/Pharaoh_Akhenaten.jpg
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Nefertiti_berlin.jpg
Son-heir-Tutankhamun---restored
polythesim, god Amun as the chief
god…tomb found in 1922 A.D.
• https://pixabay.com/static/uploads/photo/2014/10/30/21/41/tutankh
amun-509752_960_720.jpg
 Ramses II 1279-1213 B.C.
• Warrior—constant conflict with powers in East
and North (Hittite Empire in Anatolia)
• First “Peace Treaty”….Cut a Treaty, or Cut a
Covenant….includes divine retribution if
broken…..
Curses and Blessings for this Treaty
Curses and Blessings for this Treaty
“As for these words which are on this tablet of
silver of the land of Hatti and of the land of
Egypt--as for him who shall not keep them, a
thousand gods of the land of Hatti, together
with a thousand gods of the land of Egypt, shall
destroy his house, his land, and his servants.
• But, as for him who shall keep these words which
are this tablet of silver, whether they are Hatti or
whether they are Egyptians, and they are not
neglectful of them, a thousand gods of the land of
Hatti, together with a thousand gods of the land of
Egypt, shall cause that he be well, shall cause that
he live, together with his houses and his (land) and
his servants.”
Similar pattern in OT covenants/treaties/contracts—Meredith Kline’s work
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/KadeshTreaty.JPG/450px-KadeshTreaty.JPG
 Coming of the Sea-People to Egypt
1276-1178 B.C.
• READING ASSIGNMENT Joshua J. Mark’s
article on The Sea People;
http://www.ancient.eu/Sea_Peoples/
Late Bronze age Upheaval
• Origins unknown—refugees from early Greek
cultures…Mycenaean?---unemployed
mercenary troops from Greek city states?---
Central Europeans? refugees from fallen Troy?
• Not unified group, but effective army and navy
force---sometimes travelling with families---
• Various allies—Lybia
• Technically advanced, used iron weapons,
navy power
• Relationship with Phoenicians?
• Phoenicians: Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, (Lebanon,
Syria)….major merchants…
• Hiram—Jezebel---chief god--Baal
• Carthage in North Africa
• Alphabet (vowels)—Phoenician to Greeks
 Merneptah Stele
• Assigned Reading:
• http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/anci
ent/Misc/Merneptah_Stele/Merneptah_Stele.
htm
• Merneptah Stele records Merneptah’s victory
over the sea peoples and the Lybians mostly in
terms of a victory of the Egyptian gods over
the invaders gods…ca. 1200 B.C.
• Also makes reference to group in Canaan
named, Israel as well as a couple of Philistine
cities.
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Merneptah_Israel_Stele_Cairo.JPG/159px-Merneptah_Israel_Stele_Cairo.JPG
 Post New Kingdom---
• Around 1000 B.C.---some period of return to
unified kingdom---but in 7th cent B.C—until
20th Cent A.D..…series of invasions and
occupations—Assyrians, Persians, Greeks,
Romans, Arab/Muslim--- English, French,
English..etc.
 Ancient Egyptian Religion
• Reading Assignment: Article by Mark Millmore
on Egyptians gods and goddesses found at
http://discoveringegypt.com/ancient-
egyptian-gods-and-goddesses/

• Gods and goddesses relate to stages of Nile

and desert life
• Providing for a well provisioned afterlife, a
chief duty to others
• Many Egyptian gods and goddesses, influence
later Greek/Roman cultures—esp. Isis.
• Rulers and family— considered direct
descendents of gods, goddesses—ruled by
divine right….
End of Session Five
Ancient Egypt
Definition

by Joshua J. Mark
published on 02 September 2009

Listen to this article, narrated by Jonathan Bailey

Egypt is a country in North Africa, on the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to one of
the oldest civilizations on earth. The name 'Egypt' comes from the Greek Aegyptos
which was the Greek pronunciation of the ancient Egyptian name 'Hwt-Ka-Ptah'
("Mansion of the Spirit of Ptah"), originally the name of the city of Memphis.
Memphis was the first capital of Egypt and a famous religious and trade centre; its
high status is attested to by the Greeks alluding to the entire country by that name.

To the ancient Egyptians themselves, their country was simply known as Kemet
which means 'Black Land' so named for the rich, dark soil along the Nile River where
the first settlements began. Later, the country was known as Misr which means
'country', a name still in use by Egyptians for their nation in the present day. Egypt
thrived for thousands of years (from c. 8000 BCE to c. 30 BCE) as an independent
nation whose culture was famous for great cultural advances in every area of human
knowledge, from the arts to science to technology and religion. The great monuments
which ancient Egypt is still celebrated for reflect the depth and grandeur of Egyptian
culture which influenced so many ancient civilizations, among them Greece and
Rome.

One of the reasons for the enduring popularity of Egyptian culture is its emphasis on
the grandeur of the human experience. Their great monuments, tombs, temples, and
art work all celebrate life and stand as reminders of what once was and what human
beings, at their best, are capable of achieving. Although ancient Egypt in popular
culture is often associated with death and mortuary rites, something even in these
speaks to people across the ages of what it means to be a human being and the power
and purpose of remembrance.

To the Egyptians, life on earth was only one aspect of an eternal journey. The soul
was immortal and was only inhabiting a body on this physical plane for a short time.
At death, one would meet with judgment in the Hall of Truth and, if justified, would
move on to an eternal paradise known as The Field of Reeds which was a mirror
image of one's life on earth. Once one had reached paradise one could live peacefully
in the company of those one had loved while on earth, including one's pets, in the
same neighborhood by the same steam, beneath the very same trees one thought had
been lost at death. This eternal life, however, was only available to those who had
lived well and in accordance with the will of the gods in the most perfect place
conducive to such a goal: the land of Egypt.

Egypt has a long history which goes back far beyond the written word, the stories of
the gods, or the monuments which have made the culture famous. Evidence of
overgrazing of cattle, on the land which is now the Sahara Desert, has been dated to
about 8000 BCE. This evidence, along with artifacts discovered, points to a thriving
agricultural civilization in the region at that time. As the land was mostly arid even
then, hunter-gathering nomads sought the cool of the water source of the Nile River
Valley and began to settle there sometime prior to 6000 BCE.

Organized farming began in the region c. 6000 BCE and communities known as the
Badarian Culture began to flourish alongside the river. Industry developed at about
this same time as evidenced by faience workshops discovered at Abydos dating to c.
5500 BCE. The Badarian were followed by the Amratian, the Gerzean, and the
Naqada cultures (also known as Naqada I, Naqada II, and Naqada III), all of which
contributed significantly to the development of what became Egyptian
civilization. The written history of the land begins at some point between 3400 and
3200 BCE when hieroglyphic script is developed by the Naqada Culture III. By 3500
BCE mummification of the dead was in practice at the city of Hierakonpolis and large
stone tombs built at Abydos. The city of Xois is recorded as being already ancient by
3100-2181 BCE as inscribed on the famous Palermo Stone. As in other cultures
world-wide, the small agrarian communities became centralized and grew into larger
urban centers.

Prosperity led to, among other things, an increase in the brewing of beer,
more leisure time for sports, and advances in medicine.

Early History of Egypt

The Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150-c. 2613 BCE) saw the unification of the north and
south kingdoms of Egypt under the king Menes ( also known as Meni or Manes) of
Upper Egypt who conquered Lower Egypt in c. 3118 BCE or c. 3150 BCE. This
version of the early history comes from the Aegyptica (History of Egypt) by the
ancient historian Manetho who lived in the 3rd century BCE under the Ptolemaic
Dynasty (323-30 BCE). Although his chronology has been disputed by later historians,
it is still regularly consulted on dynastic succession and the early history of ancient
Egypt.

Manetho’s work is the only source which cites Menes and the conquest and it is now
thought that the man referred to by Manetho as `Menes’ was the king Narmer who
peacefully united Upper and Lower Egypt under one rule. Identification of Menes
with Narmer is far from universally accepted, however, and Menes has been as
credibly linked to the king Hor-Aha (c. 3100-3050 BCE)who succeeded him. An
explanation for Menes' association with his predecessor and successor is that `Menes'
is an honorific title meaning "he who endures" and not a personal name and so could
have been used to refer to more than one king. The claim that the land was unified by
military campaign is also disputed as the famous Narmer Palette, depicting a military
victory, is considered by some scholars to be royal propaganda. The country may
have first been united peacefully but this seems unlikely.

Geographical designation in ancient Egypt follows the direction of the Nile River and
so Upper Egypt is the southern region and Lower Egypt the northern area closer to the
Mediterranean Sea. Narmer ruled from the city of Heirakonopolis and then from
Memphis and Abydos. Trade increased significantly under the rulers of the Early
Dynastic Period and elaborate mastaba tombs, precursors to the later pyramids,
developed in ritual burial practices which included increasingly elaborate
mummification techniques.

The Gods

From the Pre-Dynastic Period (c. 6000-c.3150 BCE) a belief in the gods defined the
Egyptian culture. An early Egyptian creation myth tells of the god Atum who stood in
the midst of swirling chaos before the beginning of time and spoke creation into
existence. Atum was accompanied by the eternal force of heka (magic), personified in
the god Heka and by other spiritual forces which would animate the world. Heka was
the primal force which infused the universe and caused all things to operate as they
did; it also allowed for the central value of the Egyptian culture: ma'at, harmony and
balance.
All of the gods and all of their responsibilties went back to ma'at and heka. The sun
rose and set as it did and the moon traveled its course across the sky and the seasons
came and went in accordance with balance and order which was possible because of
these two agencies. Ma'at was also personified as a deity, the goddess of the ostrich
feather, to whom every king promised his full abilities and devotion. The king was
associated with the god Horus in life and Osiris in death based upon a myth which
became the most popular in Egyptian history.

Osiris and his sister-wife Isis were the original monarchs who governed the world and
gave the people the gifts of civilization. Osiris' brother, Set, grew jealous of him and
murdered him but he was brought back to life by Isis who then bore his son Horus.
Osiris was incomplete, however, and so descended to rule the underworld while
Horus, once he had matured, avenged his father and defeated Set. This myth
illustrated how order triumphed over chaos and would become a persistent motif in
mortuary rituals and religious texts and art. There was no period in which the gods did
not play an integral role in the daily lives of the Egyptians and this is clearly seen
from the earliest times in the country's history.

The
Pyramids

The Old Kingdom

During the period known as the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE), architecture
honoring the gods developed at an increased rate and some of the most famous
monuments in Egypt, such as the pyramids and the Great Sphinx at Giza, were
constructed. The king Djoser, who reigned c. 2670 BCE, built the first Step Pyramid
at Saqqara c. 2670, designed by his chief architect and physician Imhotep (c.
2667-2600 BCE) who also wrote one of the first medical texts describing the
treatment of over 200 different diseases and arguing that the cause of disease could be
natural, not the will of the gods. The Great Pyramid of Khufu (last of the seven
wonders of the ancient world) was constructed during his reign (2589-2566 BCE)
with the pyramids of Khafre (2558-2532 BCE) and Menkaure (2532-2503 BCE)
following.

The grandeur of the pyramids on the Giza plateau, as they originally would have
appeared, sheathed in gleaming white limestone, is a testament to the power and
wealth of the rulers during this period. Many theories abound regarding how these
monuments and tombs were constructed but modern architects and scholars are far
from agreement on any single one. Considering the technology of the day, some have
argued, a monument such as the Great Pyramid of Giza should not exist. Others claim,
however, that the existence of such buildings and tombs suggest superior technology
which has been lost to time.

There is absolutely no evidence that the monuments of the Giza plateau - or any
others in Egypt - were built by slave labor nor is there any evidence to support a
historical reading of the biblical Book of Exodus. Most reputable scholars today reject
the claim that the pyramids and other monuments were built by slave labor although
slaves of different nationalities certainly did exist in Egypt and were employed
regularly in the mines. Egyptian monuments were considered public works created for
the state and used both skilled and unskilled Egyptian workers in construction, all of
whom were paid for their labor. Workers at the Giza site, which was only one of
many, were given a ration of beer three times a day and their housing, tools, and even
their level of health care have all been clearly established.

The First Intermediate Period & the Hyksos

The era known as The First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) saw a decline in
the power of the central government following its collapse. Largely independent
districts with their own governors developed throughout Egypt until two great centers
emerged: Hierakonpolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt. These centers
founded their own dynasties which ruled their regions independently and
intermittently fought with each other for supreme control until c. 2040 BCE when the
Theban king Mentuhotep II (c. 2061-2010 BCE) defeated the forces of Hierakonpolis
and united Egypt under the rule of Thebes.

The stability provided by Theban rule allowed for the flourishing of what is known as
the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE). The Middle Kingdom is considered Egypt’s
`Classical Age’ when art and culture reached great heights and Thebes became the
most important and wealthiest city in the country. According to the historians Oakes
and Gahlin, “the Twelfth Dynasty kings were strong rulers who established control
not only over the whole of Egypt but also over Nubia to the south, where several
fortresses were built to protect Egyptian trading interests” (11). The first standing
army was created during the Middle Kingdom by the king Amenemhat I (c.
1991-1962 BCE) the temple of Karnak was begun under Senruset I (c. 1971-1926
BCE), and some of the greatest art and literature of the civilization was produced. The
13th Dynasty, however, was weaker than the 12th and distracted by internal problems
which allowed for a foriegn people known as the Hyksos to gain power in Lower
Egypt around the Nile Delta.

The Hyksos are a mysterious people, most likely from the area of Syria/Palestine,
who first appeared in Egypt c. 1800 and settled in the town of Avaris. While the
names of the Hyksos kings are Semitic in origin, no definite ethnicity has been
established for them. The Hyksos grew in power until they were able to take control
of a significant portion of Lower Egypt by c. 1720 BCE, rendering the Theban
Dynasty of Upper Egypt almsot a vassal state.

This era is known as The Second Intermediate Period (c.1782-c.1570 BCE). While
the Hyksos (whose name simply means `foreign rulers’) were hated by the Egyptians,
they introduced a great many improvements to the culture such as the composite bow,
the horse, and the chariot along with crop rotation and developments in bronze and
ceramic works. At the same time the Hyksos controlled the ports of Lower Egypt, by
1700 BCE the Kingdom of Kush had risen to the south of Thebes in Nubia and now
held that border. The Egyptians mounted a number of campaigns to drive the Hyksos
out and subdue the Nubians but all failed until prince Ahmose I of Thebes
(c.1570-1544 BCE) succeeded and unified the country under Theban rule.

The New Kingdom & the Amarna Period

Ahmose I initiated what is known as the period of the New Kingdom (c.1570- c.1069
BCE) which again saw great prosperity in the land under a strong central government.
The title of pharaoh for the ruler of Egypt comes from the period of the New
Kingdom; earlier monarchs were simply known as kings. Many of the Egyptian
sovereigns best known today ruled during this period and the majority of the great
structures of antiquity such as the Ramesseum, Abu Simbel, the temples of Karnak
and Luxor, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens were
either created or greatly enhanced during this time.

Between 1504-1492 BCE the pharaoh Tuthmosis I consolidated his power and
expanded the boundaries of Egypt to the Euphrates River in the north, Syria and
Palestine to the west, and Nubia to the south. His reign was followed by Queen
Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) who greatly expanded trade with other nations, most
notably the Land of Punt. Her 22-year reign was one of peace and prosperity for
Egypt.
 Portrait of Queen
Hatshepsut

Her successor, Tuthmosis III, carried on her policies (although he tried to eradicate all
memory of her as, it is thought, he did not want her to serve as a role model for other
women since only males were considered worthy to rule) and, by the time of his death
in 1425 BCE, Egypt was a great and powerful nation. The prosperity led to, among
other things, an increase in the brewing of beer in many different varieties and more
leisure time for sports. Advances in medicine led to improvements in health.

Bathing had long been an important part of the daily Egyptian’s regimen as it was
encouraged by their religion and modeled by their clergy. At this time, however, more
elaborate baths were produced, presumably more for leisure than simply hygiene. The
Kahun Gynecological Papyrus, concerning women’s health and contraceptives, had
been written c. 1800 BCE and, during this period, seems to have been made extensive
use of by doctors. Surgery and dentistry were both practiced widely and with great
skill, and beer was prescribed by physicians for ease of symptoms of over 200
different maladies.
In 1353 BCE the pharaoh Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne and, shortly after,
changed his name to Akhenaten (`living spirit of Aten’) to reflect his belief in a single
god, Aten. The Egyptians, as noted above, traditionally believed in many gods whose
importance influenced every aspect of their daily lives. Among the most popular of
these deities were Amun, Osiris, Isis, and Hathor. The cult of Amun, at this time, had
grown so wealthy that the priests were almost as powerful as the pharaoh. Akhenaten
and his queen, Nefertiti, renounced the traditional religious beliefs and customs of
Egypt and instituted a new religion based upon the recognition of one god.

His religious reforms effectively cut the power of the priests of Amun and placed it in
his hands. He moved the capital from Thebes to Amarna to further distance his rule
from that of his predecessors. This is known as The Amarna Period (1353-1336 BCE)
during which Amarna grew as the capital of the country and polytheistic religious
customs were banned.

Among his many accomplishments, Akhenaten was the first ruler to decree statuary
and a temple in honor of his queen instead of only for himself or the gods and used
the money which once went to the temples for public works and parks. The power of
the clergy declined sharply as that of the central government grew, which seemed to
be Akhenaten's goal, but he failed to use his power for the best interest of his people.
The Amarna Letters make clear that he was more concerned with his religious
reforms than with foreign policy or the needs of the people of Egypt.
 Death Mask of
Tutankhamun

His reign was followed by his son, the most recognizable Egyptian ruler in the
modern day, Tutankhamun, who reigned from c.1336- c.1327 BCE. He was originally
named `Tutankhaten’ to reflect the religious beliefs of his father but, upon assuming
the throne, changed his name to `Tutankhamun’ to honor the ancient god Amun. He
restored the ancient temples, removed all references to his father’s single deity, and
returned the capital to Thebes. His reign was cut short by his death and, today, he is
most famous for the intact grandeur of his tomb, discovered in 1922 CE, which
became an international sensation at the time.

The greatest ruler of the New Kingdom, however, was Ramesses II (also known as
Ramesses the Great, 1279-1213 BCE) who commenced the most elaborate building
projects of any Egyptian ruler and who reigned so efficiently that he had the means to
do so. Although the famous Battle of Kadesh of 1274 (between Ramesses II of Egypt
and Muwatalli II of the Hitties) is today regarded as a draw, Ramesses considered it a
great Egyptian victory and celebrated himself as a champion of the people, and finally
as a god, in his many public works.

His temple of Abu Simbel (built for his queen Nefertari) depicts the battle of Kadesh
and the smaller temple at the site, following Akhenaten’s example, is dedicated to
Ramesses favorite queen Nefertari. Under the reign of Ramesses II the first peace
treaty in the world (The Treaty of Kadesh) was signed in 1258 BCE and Egypt
enjoyed almost unprecedented affluence as evidenced by the number of monuments
built or restored during his reign.

Ramesses II's fourth son, Khaemweset (c.1281-c.1225 BCE), is known as the "First
Egyptologist" for his efforts in preserving and recording old monuments, temples, and
their original owner's names. It is largely due to Khaemweset's initiative that
Ramesses II's name is so prominent at so many ancient sites in Egypt. Khaemweset
left a record of his own efforts, the original builder/owner of the monument or temple,
and his father's name as well.

Ramesses II became known to later generations as `The Great Ancestor’ and reigned
for so long that he out-lived most of his children and his wives. In time, all of his
subjects had been born knowing only Ramesses II as their ruler and had no memory
of another. He enjoyed an exceptionally long life of 96 years, over double the average
life-span of an ancient Egyptian. Upon his death, it is recorded that many feared the
end of the world had come as they had known no other pharaoh and no other kind of
Egypt.
 Ramesses II Statue

The Decline of Egypt & the Coming of Alexander the Great

One of his successors, Ramesses III (1186-1155 BCE), followed his policies but, by
this time, Egypt’s great wealth had attracted the attention of the Sea Peoples who
began to make regular incursions along the coast. The Sea Peoples, like the Hyksos,
are of unknown origin but are thought to have come from the southern Aegean area.
Between 1276-1178 BCE the Sea Peoples were a threat to Egyptian security.
Ramesses II had defeated them in a naval battle early in his reign as had his successor
Merenptah (1213-1203 BCE). After Merenptah's death, however, they increased their
efforts, sacking Kadesh, which was then under Egyptian control, and ravaging the
coast. Between 1180-1178 BCE Ramesses III fought them off, finally defeating them
at the Battle of Xois in 1178 BCE.

Following the reign of Ramesses III, his successors attempted to maintain his policies
but increasingly met with resistance from the people of Egypt, those in the conquered
territories, and, especially, the priestly class. In the years after Tutankhamun had
restored the old religion of Amun, and especially during the great time of prosperity
under Ramesses II, the priests of Amun had acquired large tracts of land and amassed
great wealth which now threatened the central government and disrupted the unity of
Egypt. By the time of Ramesses XI (1107-1077 BCE), the end of the 20th Dynasty,
the government had become so weakened by the power and corruption of the clergy
that the country again fractured and central administration collapsed, initiating the
so-called Third Intermediate Period of c.1069-525 BCE.

Map of the Third Intermediate

Period

Under the Kushite King Piye (752-722 BCE), Egypt was again unified and the culture
flourished, but beginning in 671 BCE, the Assyrians under Esarhaddon began their
invasion of Egypt, conquering it by 666 BCE under his successor Ashurbanipal.
Having made no long-term plans for control of the country, the Assyrians left it in
ruin in the hands of local rulers and abandoned Egypt to its fate. Egypt rebuilt and
re-fortified, however, and this is the state the country was in when Cambyses II of
Persia struck at the city of Pelusium in 525 BCE. Knowing the reverence the
Egyptians held for cats (who were thought living representations of the popular
goddess Bastet) Cambyses II ordered his men to paint cats on their shields and to
drive cats, and other animals sacred to the Egyptians, in front of the army toward
Pelusium. The Egyptian forces surrendered and the country fell to the Persians. It
would remain under Persian occupation until the coming of Alexander the Great in
332 BCE.

Alexander was welcomed as a liberator and conquered Egypt without a fight. He

established the city of Alexandria and moved on to conquer Phoenicia and the rest of
the Persian Empire. After his death in 323 BCE his general, Ptolemy, brought his
body back to Alexandria and founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE). The last
of the Ptolemies was Cleopatra VII who committed suicide in 30 BCE after the defeat
of her forces (and those of her consort Mark Antony) by the Romans under Octavian
Caesar at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Egypt then became a province of Rome (30
BCE-476 CE) then of the Byzantine Empire (c. 527-646 CE) until it was conquered
by the Arab Muslims under Caliph Umar in 646 CE and fell under Islamic Rule. The
glory of Egypt's past, however, was re-discovered during the 18th and 19th centuries
CE and has had a profound impact on the present day's understanding of ancient
history and the world. Historian Will Durant expresses a sentiment felt by many:

The effect or remembrance of what Egypt accomplished at the

very dawn of history has influence in every nation and every
age. ‘It is even possible', as Faure has said, 'that Egypt,
through the solidarity, the unity, and the disciplined
variety of its artistic products, through the enormous
duration and the sustained power of its effort, offers the
spectacle of the greatest civilization that has yet appeared
on the earth.' We shall do well to equal it. (217)

Egyptian Culture and history has long held a universal fascination for people; whether
through the work of early archeologists in the 19th century CE (such as Champollion
who deciphered the Rosetta Stone in 1822 CE) or the famous discovery of the Tomb
of Tutankhamun by Howard Carter in 1922 CE. The ancient Egyptian belief in life as
an eternal journey, created and maintained by divine magic, inspired later cultures and
later religious beliefs. Much of the iconography and the beliefs of Egyptian religion
found their way into the new religion of Christianity and many of their symbols are
recognizable today with largely the same meaning. It is an important testimony to the
power of the Egyptian civilization that so many works of the imagination, from films
to books to paintings even to religious belief, have been and continue to be inspired
by its elevating and profound vision of the universe and humanity's place in it.

The Merneptah Stele

The Merneptah Stele — also known as the Israel Stele or Victory Stele
of Merneptah — is an inscription by the Ancient Egyptian king Merneptah
(reign:1213 to 1203 BC), which appears on the reverse side of a granite
stele erected by the king Amenhotep III. It was discovered by Flinders
Petrie in 1896 at Thebes.

The black granite stela primarily commemorates a victory in a campaign against the
Libu and Meshwesh Libyans and their Sea People allies, but its final two lines refer to
a prior military campaign in Canaan in which Merneptah states that he defeated
Ashkelon, Gezer, Yanoam and Israel among others. The stele has gained much fame
and notoriety for being the only Ancient Egyptian document generally accepted as
mentioning "Isrir" or "Israel". It is also, by far, the earliest known attestation of the
demonym Israel. For this reason, many scholars refer to it as the "Israel stele".
 Merneptah Stele translation
Year 5, 3rd month of summer, day 3, under the Majesty of Horus: Mighty B
in Maat; the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Banere-meramun; the Son of
Content with Maat, magnified by the power, exalted by the strength of Horu
who smites the Nine Bows, whose name is given to eternity forever.

Recital of his victories in all lands, to let all lands together know, to let the g
deeds be seen: the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Banere-meramun; the S
Merneptah, Content with Maat; the Bull, lord of strength who slays his foes
the field of valour when his attack is made:

Shu who dispelled the cloud that was over Egypt,

letting Egypt see the rays of the sun disk.
Who removed the mountain of copper from the people's neck,
that he might give breath to the imprisoned folk.
Who let Hut-ka-Ptah exult over its foes,
letting Tjenen triumph over his opponents.
Opener of Memphis' gates that were barred,
who allowed the temples to receive their foods.
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Banere-meramun,
the Son of Re, Merneptah, Content with Maat.
The Sole One who steadied the hearts of hundred thousands,
breath entered their nostrils at the sight of him.
Who destroyed the land of the Tjemeh in his lifetime,
cast abiding terror in the heart of the Meshwesh.
He turned back the Libyans who trod Egypt,
great is dread of Egypt in their hearts.

Their leading troops were left behind,

Their legs made no stand except to flee,
Their archers abandoned their bows,
The hearts of their runners grew weak as they sped,
They loosened their water-skins, cast them down,
Their packs were untied, thrown away.
The vile chief, the Libyan foe,
Fled in the deep of night alone,
No plume on his head, his feet unshod,
His wives were carried off from his presence,
His food supplies were snatched away,
He had no drinking water to sustain him.
The gaze of his brothers was fierce to slay him,
His officers fought among each other,
Their tents were fired, burnt to ashes,
All his goods were food for the troops.
When he reached his country he was in mourning
those left in his land were loath to receive him
"A chief, ill-fated, evil-plumed",
All said of him, those of his town.
"He is in the power of the gods,
the lords of Memphis The Lord of Egypt has made his name accursed;
Merey is the abomination of Memphis,
So is son after son of his kin forever.
Banere-meramun will be after his children,
Merneptah, Content with Maat is given him as fate.
He has become a [proverbial saying] for Libya,
Generation says to generation of his victories:
It was never done to us since the time of Re;"
So says every old man speaking to his son.

Woe to Libyans, they have ceased to live

In the good manner of roaming the field;
In a single day their stride was halted
In a single year were the Tjehenu burned!
Seth turned his back upon their chief,
By his word their villages were ruined;
There's no work of carrying [loads] these days.
Hiding is useful, it's safe in the cave.
The great Lord of Egypt, might and strength are his,
Who will combat, knowing how he strides?
A witless fool is he who takes him on,
He knows no tomorrow who attacks his border!
As for Egypt, "Since the gods," they say,
"She is the only daughter of Pre;
His son is he who's on the throne of Shu,
None who attacks her people will succeed.
The eye of every god is after her despoiler,
It will make an end of all its foes",
So say they who gaze toward their stars,
And know all their spells by looking to the winds.

A great wonder has occurred for Egypt,

Her attacker was placed captive (in) her hand,
Through the counsels of the godly king,
Who prevailed against his foes before Pre.
Merey who stealthily did evil
To all the gods who are in Memphis,
He was contended with in On,
The Ennead found him guilty of his crimes.
Said the Lord-of-all: "Give the sword to my son,
The right-hearted, kind, gracious Banere-meramun,
Who cared for Memphis, who avenged On,
Who opened the quarters that were barred.
He has freed the many shut up in all districts,
He has given the offerings to the temples,
He has let incense be brought to the gods,
He has let the nobles retain their possessions,
He has let the humble frequent their towns".
Then spoke the lords of On in behalf of their son,
Merneptah, Content with Maat:
"Grant him a lifetime like that of Re,
To avenge those injured by any land;
Egypt has been assigned him as portion,
He owns it forever to protect its people".
Lo, when one dwells in the time of the mighty,
The breath of life comes readily.
The brave bestows wealth on the just,
The cheat cannot retain his plunder;
[What a man has of ill-gotten wealth
Falls to others, not (his) children.]

This (too) shall be said:

Merey the vile foe, the Libyan foe
Had come to attack the walls of Ta-tenen,
Whose lord had made his son arise in his place,
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Banere-meramun,
Son of Re, Merneptah, Content with Maat.
Then said Ptah concerning the vile Libyan foe:
"His crimes are all gathered upon his head.
Give him into the hand of Merneptah, Content with Maat,
He shall make him spew what he gorged like a crocodile.
Lo, the swift will catch the swift,
The lord who knows his strength will snare him;
It is Amun who curbs him with his hand,
He will deliver him to his ka in Southern On,
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Banere-meramun,
Son of Re, Merneptah, Content with Maat".

Great joy has arisen in Egypt,

Shouts go up from Egypt's towns;
They relate the Libyan victories
Of Merneptah, Content with Maat:
"How beloved is he, the victorious ruler!
How exalted is he, the King among the gods!
How splendid is he, the lord of command!
O how sweet it is to sit and babble!"
One walks free-striding on the road,
For there's no fear in people's hearts;
Fortresses are left to themselves,
Wells are open for the messengers' use.
Bastioned ramparts are becalmed,
Sunlight only wakes the watchmen;
Medjai are stretched out asleep,
Nau and Tekten are in the fields they love.
The cattle of the field are left to roam,
No herdsmen cross the river's flood;
There's no calling out at night:
"Wait, I come," in a stranger's voice.
Going and coming are with song,
 People don't [lament] and mourn;
Towns are settled once again,
He who tends his crop will eat it.
Re has turned around to Egypt,
The Son is ordained as her protector,
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Banere-meramun,
Son of Re, Merneptah, Content with Maat

The princes are prostrate saying: "Shalom!"

Not one of the Nine Bows lifts his head:
Tjehenu is vanquished, Khatti at peace,
Canaan is captive with all woe.
Ashkelon is conquered, Gezer seized,
Yanoam made nonexistent;
Israel is wasted, bare of seed,
Khor is become a widow for Egypt.
All who roamed have been subdued.
By the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Banere-meramun,
Son of Re, Merneptah, Content with Maat,
Given life like Re every day.

Translation by Miriam Lichtheim

From Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II (Berkeley: U of CA Press, 19

Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

17.8K
Egyptian Gods

Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

For all ancient people, the world was filled with mystery. Much of what they
experienced in the world around them was unknowable and frightening. The ancient
Egyptian gods and goddesses represented aspects of the Egyptians’ natural and
“supernatural” surroundings and helped them understand its many aspects.

Ammut
Demons

Demons were more powerful than human beings but not as powerful as gods. They
were usually immortal, could be in more than one place at a time, and could affect the
world as well as people in supernatural ways. But there were certain limits to their
powers and they were neither all-powerful nor all knowing. Among demons the most
important figure was Ammut – the Devourer of the Dead – part crocodile, part
lioness, and part hippopotamus. She was often shown near the scales on which the
hearts of the dead were weighed against the feather of Truth. She devoured the hearts
of those whose wicked deeds in life made them unfit to enter the afterlife. Apepi,
another important demon, (sometimes called Apophis) was the enemy of the sun god
in his daily cycle through the cosmos, and is depicted as a colossal snake.

Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

Most Egyptian gods represented one principle aspect of the world: Ra was the sun god,
for example, and Nut was goddess of the sky. The characters of the gods were not
clearly defined. Most were generally benevolent but their favor could not be counted
on. Some gods were spiteful and had to be placated. Some, such as Neith, Sekhmet,
and Mut, had changeable characters. The god Seth, who murdered his brother Osiris,
embodied the malevolent and disordered aspects of the world.

The physical form taken on by the various Egyptian gods was usually a combination
of human and animal, and many were associated with one or more animal species.
And an animal could express a deity’s mood. When a god was angry, she might be
portrayed as a ferocious lioness; when gentle, a cat. The convention was to depict the
animal gods with a human body and an animal head. The opposite convention was
sometimes used for representations of a king, who might be portrayed with a human
head and a lion’s body, as in the case of the Sphinx. Sphinxes might also appear with
other heads, particularly those of rams or falcons.

Many deities were represented only in human form. Among these were such very
ancient figures as the cosmic gods Shu of the air, Geb of the earth, the fertility god
Min, and the craftsman Ptah. There were a number of minor gods that took on
grotesque forms, including Bes, a dwarf with a mask-like face, and Taurt, a goddess
whose physical form combined the features of a hippopotamus and a crocodile.
 Nut, Shu and Geb

Nut, Shu and Geb

Nut was the mother of Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephythys, Nut is usually shown in
human form; her elongated body symbolizing the sky. Each limb represents a cardinal
point as her body stretches over the earth. Nut swallowed the setting sun (Ra) each
evening and gave birth to him each morning. She is often depicted on the ceilings of
tombs, on the inside lid of coffins, and on the ceilings of temples.

Shu was the husband of Tefnut and the father of Nut and Geb. He and his wife were
the first gods created by Atum. Shu was the god of the air and sunlight or, more
precisely, dry air and his wife represented moisture. He was normally depicted as a
man wearing a headdress in the form of a plume, which is also the hieroglyph for his
name.

Shu’s function was to hold up the body of the goddess Nun and separate the sky from
the earth. He was not a solar deity but his role in providing sunlight connected him to
Ra. Indeed, he was one of the few gods who escaped persecution under the heretic
king Akhenaten.

Geb was the father of Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephythys, and was a god without a cult.
As an Earth god he was associated with fertility and it was believed that earthquakes
were the laughter of Geb. He is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts as imprisoning the
buried dead within his body.
 Amun
Also Known as Amen, Amun, Ammon
Amun was the chief Theban deity whose power grew as the city of Thebes grew from
an unimportant village, in the old Kingdom, to a powerful metropolis in the Middle
and New Kingdoms. He rose to become the patron of the Theban pharaohs and was
eventually combined with sun god, Ra who had been the dominant deity of the Old
Kingdom to become Amun-Ra, King of the Gods and ruler of the Great Ennead.

Amun’s name means “Hidden One, Mysterious of Form,” and although he is most
often represented as a human wearing a double plumed crown, he is sometimes
depicted as a ram or a goose. The implication is that his true identity can never be
revealed.

Karnak was Amun’s chief temple, but his fame extended well beyond the boundaries
of Egypt. His cult spread to Ethiopia, Nubia, Libya, and through much of Palestine.
The Greeks thought he was an Egyptian manifestation of their god Zeus. Even
Alexander the Great thought it worthwhile consulting the oracle of Amun.
Anubis
Protector of the Dead
Anubis is shown as a jackal-headed man, or as a jackal. His father was Seth and his
mother Nephythys. His cult center was Cynopolis, now known as El Kes. He was
closely associated with mummification and as protector of the dead. It was Anubis
who conducted the deceased to the hall of judgment.

Egyptian Hieroglyphs for Windows and MAC

Bastet
Bastet is depicted as a woman with a cat’s head or simply as a cat. Originally an
avenging lioness deity, she evolved into a goddess of pleasure.
Her cult center was in the town of Bubastis in the Western delta. Many cats lived at
her temple and were mummified when they died. An immense cemetery of
mummified cats has been discovered in the area.

Bes
Unlike the other gods, Bes is represented full face rather than in profile, as a
grotesque, bandy-legged, dwarf with his tongue sticking out. He was associated with
good times and entertainment, but was also considered a
guardian god of childbirth. Bes chased away demons of the night and guarded people
from dangerous animals.

Hapi
Hapi was not the god of the river Nile but of its inundation. He is represented as a
pot-bellied man with breasts and a headdress made of aquatic plants. He was thought
to live in the caves of the first cataract, and his cult center was at Aswan.
 Hathor
Hathor was the daughter of Ra and the patron goddess of women, love, beauty,
pleasure, and music. She is depicted in three forms; as a cow, as a woman with the
ears of a cow, and as a woman wearing the headdress of a cow’s horns. In this last
manifestation, she holds the solar disc between her horns. She was the consort of
Horus, and her name actually means “House of Horus.” She had many temples the
most famous of which is at Dendara.

There was a dark side to Hathor. It was believed that Ra sent her to punish the human
race for its wickedness, but Hathor wreaked such bloody havoc on earth that Ra was
horrified and determined to bring her back. He tricked her by preparing vast quantities
of beer mixed with mandrake and the blood of the slain. Murdering mankind was
thirsty work, and when Hathor drank the beer she became so intoxicated that she
could not continue her slaughter.

Each year the goddess Hathor visited her husband the god Horus at Edfu temple to
celebrate the feast of the Divine Union
 Horus
Horus was the son of Osiris and Isis and the enemy of the wicked God Seth. He is
depicted as a hawk or as a man with the head of a hawk. Sometimes he is shown as a
youth with a side lock, seated on his mother’s lap. He was the god of the sky and the
divine protector of kings.

Horus was worshipped throughout Egypt and was particularly associated with Edfu,
the site of the ancient city of Mesen, where his temple can still be seen.
There are many stories of his wars against his uncle Seth, who murdered his father
and usurped the throne. Eventually Horus defeated Seth and became the king of
Egypt.

Isis
A very important figure in the ancient world, Isis was the wife of Osiris and mother of
Horus. She was associated with funeral rites and said to have made the first mummy
from the dismembered parts of Osiris. As the enchantress who resurrected Osiris and
gave birth to Horus, she was also the giver of life, a healer and protector of kings.
Isis is represented with a throne on her head and sometimes shown breastfeeding the
infant Horus. In this manifestation she was known as “Mother of God.” To the
Egyptians she represented the ideal wife and mother; loving, devoted, and caring.

Her most famous temple is at Philae though her cult spread throughout the
Medi-terranean world and, during the Roman period, extended as far as northern
Europe. There was even a temple dedicated to her in
London.

Khepre
Also known as, Khepri, Khepra, Khepera, Khepre was a creator god depicted as a
Scarab beetle or as a man with a scarab for a head. The Egyptians observed young
scarab beetles emerging spontaneously from balls of dung and associated them with
the process of creation. Khepre was one of the first gods, self-created, and his name
means “he who has come into being,” Atum took his form as he rose out of the
chaotic waters of the Nun in a creation myth. It was thought that Khepre rolled the
sun across the sky in the same way a dung beetle rolls balls of dung across the ground.
 Khnum
Khnum, was depicted as a ram-headed man. He was a god of the cataracts, a potter,
and a creator god who guarded the source of the Nile,. His sanctuary was on
Elephantine Island but his best-preserved temple is at Esna. The “Famine Stele”,
which is a carved stone tablet, contains appeals to Khnum during a famine caused by
a low inundation of the Nile.

Khonsu
Also known as Khons Khensu, Khuns
Khonsu was the son of Amun and Mut, with whom he formed the Theban triad. He
was a moon god depicted as a man with a falcon-head wearing a crescent moon
headdress surmounted by the full lunar disc. Like Thoth, who was also a lunar deity,
he is sometimes represented as a baboon. Khonsu was believed to have the ability to
drive out evil spirits. Rameses II sent a statue of Khonsu to a friendly Syrian king in
order to cure his daughter of an illness.

His temple was within the precincts of Karnak.

 Ma’at
Ma’at was the goddess of truth and justice, embodying the essential harmony of the
universe. She was depicted as a seated woman wearing an ostrich feather, or
sometimes just as the feather itself. Her power regulated the seasons and the
movement of the stars. Ma’at was the patron of justice and the symbol of ancient
Egyptian ethics, so the Vizier who was in charge of the Law Courts went by the title
Priest of Maat.

Ma’at was the ultimate judge in the afterlife, and the heart of the newly deceased was
weighed against her feather in the Hall of Two Truths. Ammut, devourer of the dead,
ate those who failed her test.

Montu
Montu was a warrior god who rose to become the state god during the 11th dynasty.
He was associated with king Montuhotep I (“Montu is satisfied”), who reunited Upper
and Lower Egypt after the chaos of the First Intermediate Period.
During the Twelfth Dynasty Montu was displaced by the rise of Amun, but he took on
the true attributes of a war god when warrior kings such as Thutmose III and Rameses
II identified themselves with him.

Mut
Mut formed part of the Theban Triad. She was one of the daughters of Ra, the wife of
Amun, and mother of Khonsu. She was the Vulture goddess and is often depicted as a
woman with a long, brightly colored dress and a vulture headdress surmounted by the
double crown. In her more aggressive aspect she is shown as a lion-headed goddess.

Like Isis and Hathor, Mut played the role of divine mother to the king. Her amulets,
which depict her as a seated woman suckling a child, are sometime confused with
those of Isis.

Nephythys
Daughter of Geb and Nut, sister of Isis, wife of Seth and mother of Anubis,
Nephythys is depicted as a woman with the hieroglyphs for a palace and ‘Neb’ (a
basket) on her head. She is thus known as “Lady of the Mansions” or “Palace.”
Nephythys was disgusted by Seth’s murder of Osiris and helped her sister, Isis,
against her husband, Seth. Together with Isis she was a protector of the dead, and they
are often shown together on coffin cases, with winged arms. She seems to have had
no temple or cult center of her own.

Osiris
Osiris was originally a vegetation god linked with the growth of crops. He was the
mythological first king of Egypt and one of the most important of the gods. It was
thought that he brought civilization to the race of mankind. He was murdered by his
brother Seth, brought back to life by his wife Isis, and went on to become the ruler of
the underworld and judge of the dead.

He is usually depicted as a mummy holding the crook and flail of kingship. On his
head he wears the white crown of Upper Egypt flanked by two plumes of feathers.
Sometimes he is shown with the horns of a ram. His skin is depicted as blue, the color
of the dead; black, the color of the fertile earth; or green, representing resurrection.

Osiris’s
head was thought to have been buried at Abydos, his main cult center. Each year,
during his festival, there was a procession and a reenactment of his story in the form
of a mystery play.
 Ptah
Ptah was a creator god, said to have made the world from the thoughts in his heart and
his words. He was depicted as a mummy with his hands protruding from the
wrappings and holding a staff. His head was shaven and he wore a scull cap. Ptah was
associated with craftsmen, and the High Priest of his temple at Memphis held the title
Great Leader of Craftsmen.

Ra
Also known as Re
The supreme sun god was represented as a man with the head of a hawk, crowned
with a solar disk and the sacred serpent. However, in the underworld through which
he passes each night, he is depicted as ram-headed.
Each day Ra traveled across the sky in the form of the sun, riding in his solar boat,
and each night he journeyed through the underworld where he defeated the allies of
chaos. He was reborn each morning in the form of the sunrise. His influence on the
other gods was so strong that he subsumed many of their identities. Thus Amun
became Amun-Ra, Montu became Montu-Ra and Horus became Ra-Horakhty.
Pharoah Akenaten’s god, the Aten, was another form of Ra, the solar disk.

The Egyptian kings claimed to be descended from Ra, and called themselves “The
Son of Ra.” His cult was very powerful during the period of the Old Kingdom,when
Sun Temples were built in his honor. His cult center was at Heliopolis, which
nowadays is covered by the northern suburbs of Cairo.

Sobek
Sobek was a crocodile god, depicted as a crocodile on an altar or as a man with a
crocodile head wearing a headdress in the form of the sun disk with upright feathers
and horns. Sobek’s main cult centers were at Medinet el Fayum and at the temple of
Kom Ombo, which he shared with Horus and which still exists today. There was a
pool at Kom Ombo containing sacred crocodiles and it is still possible to see original
mummified crocodiles at the temple.

Seth
Also known as Set, Setekh, Suty and Sutekh
Seth was the son of Geb and Nut, and the evil brother of Osiris. He was the god of
darkness, chaos, and confusion, and is represented as a man with an unknown animal
head, often described as a Typhonian by the Greeks who associated him with the god
Typhon. He is sometimes depicted as a hippopotamus, a pig, or a donkey. Seth
murdered his brother and usurped the throne of Egypt and most of the other gods
despised him.

Horus eventually defeated Seth, but it was thought that their battle was an eternal
struggle between good and evil. Although Seth failed to keep the throne of Egypt he
continued to be a companion of Ra. He sometimes accompanied Ra across the sky in
his solar boat, causing storms and bad weather.

Seth was venerated by some, and his main cult center was at Naqada. Some kings
would liken themselves to Seth in battle, but for the most part the people loathed him
and his defeat by Horus was regularly celebrated.

Tefnut
Tefnut was the wife of Shu and mother of Nut and Geb. She and her husband were the
first gods created by Atum. She was the goddess of moisture or damp, corrosive air,
and was depicted either as a lioness or as a woman with a lioness’s head.
 Thoth
Thoth was the god of writing and knowledge, and was depicted as a man with the
head of an ibis holding a scribe’s pen and palette, or as a baboon. The Greeks
associated him with Hermes and ascribed to him the invention of all the sciences as
well as the invention of writing. He is often portrayed writing or making calculations.

Thoth stands apart from most of the other gods. He was as old as the oldest gods and
often acted as an intermediately between gods. He was associated with the moon, and
is sometimes shown wearing a moon disk and crescent headdress. One of his most
important roles was to record the deeds of the dead at the day of their judgment and is
often seen doing this in the Book of the Dead. His main temple was at Hermopolis in
Middle Egypt.

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Sea Peoples
Definition

by Joshua J. Mark
published on 02 September 2009

The Sea Peoples were a confederacy of naval raiders who harried the coastal towns
and cities of the Mediterranean region between c. 1276-1178 BCE, concentrating their
efforts especially on Egypt. The nationality of the Sea Peoples remains a mystery as
the existing records of their activities are mainly Egyptian sources who only describe
them in terms of battle such as the record from the Stele at Tanis which reads, in part,
“They came from the sea in their war ships and none could stand against them." This
description is typical of Egyptian references to these mysterious invaders.

Names of the tribes which comprised the Sea Peoples have been given in Egyptian
records as the Sherden, the Sheklesh, Lukka, Tursha and Akawasha. Outside Egypt,
they also assaulted the regions of the Hittite Empire, the Levant, and other areas
around the Mediterranean coast. Their origin and identity has been suggested (and
debated) to be Etruscan/Trojan to Italian, Philistine, Mycenaen and even Minoan but,
as no accounts discovered thus far shed any more light on the question than what is
presently known, any such claims must remain mere conjecture.

No ancient inscription names the coalition as "Sea Peoples" - this is a modern-day

designation first coined by the French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero in c. 1881 CE.
Maspero came up with the term because the ancient reports claim that these tribes
came "from the sea" or from "the islands" but they never say which sea or which
islands and so the Sea Peoples' origin remains unknown.

The three great pharaohs who record their conflicts and victories over the Sea Peoples
are Ramesses II (The Great, 1279-1213 BCE), his son and successor Merenptah
(1213-1203 BCE), and Ramesses III (1186-1155 BCE). All three claimed great
victories over their adversaries and their inscriptions provide the most detailed
evidence of the Sea Peoples.

The Sea Peoples & Ramesses II

Ramesses the Great was one of the most effective rulers in the history of ancient
Egypt and among his many accomplishments was securing the borders against
invasion by nomadic tribes and securing the trade routes vital to the country's
economy. Early in his reign, the Hittites seized the important trade center of Kadesh
(in modern-day Syria) and in 1274 BCE Ramesses led his army to drive them out.
Ramesses claimed a great victory and had the story inscribed in detail and read to the
people.

In Ramesses the Great's account, the Sea Peoples are mentioned as allies
of the Hittites but also as serving in his own army as mercenaries.

His claim of total victory is disputed by the Hittite account claiming their own but the
inscription is important for many other reasons than Ramesses would have had in
mind and, among them, what it says about the Sea Peoples. In his account, the Sea
Peoples are mentioned as allies of the Hittites but also as serving in his own army as
mercenaries. No mention is made of where they came from or who they were which
suggests to scholars that the audience would have already had this information; the
Sea Peoples needed no introduction.

Ramesses also relates how, in the second year of his reign, he defeated these people in
a naval battle off the coast of Egypt. Ramesses allowed the Sea Peoples' war ships and
their supply and cargo vessels to approach the mouth of the Nile where he had a small
Egyptian fleet positioned in a defensive formation. He then waited in the wings for
the Sea Peoples to attack what seemed to be an insignificant force before launching
his full attack upon them from their flanks and sinking their ships. This battle seems
to have involved only the Sherdan Sea Peoples or, at least, they are the only ones
mentioned because, after the battle, many were pressed into Ramesses’ army and
some served as his elite body guard. Ramesses, always very confident in his
inscriptions, gives the impression that he had neutralized the threat of the Sea Peoples
but his successors' inscriptions tell another story.
 Ramesses II Seated
Statue, Thebes

Merenptah's Inscription

Merenptah continued to be troubled by the Sea Peoples who allied themselves with
the Libyans to invade the Nile Delta. Merenptah writes how, in the fifth year of his
reign (1209 BCE) Mereye, the chief of the Libyans, allied with the Sea Peoples to
invade Egypt. He refers to the Libyan allies as coming "from the seas to the north"
and names the territories as Ekwesh, Teresh, Lukka, Sherden, and Shekelesh. Scholars
have since tried to identify where these lands were and what names they came to be
known by but without success. There are as many theories surrounding who the Sea
Peoples were as there are scholars to refute them. Whoever they were, Merenptah
describes them as formidable adversaries and, in his inscription on the walls of the
Temple of Karnak and on the stele from his funerary temple, takes great pride in
defeating them.
At this point in their history it seems the Sea Peoples were seeking to establish
permanent settlements in Egypt as the invading force brought with them scores of
household goods and building tools. Merenptah, after praying, fasting, and consulting
the gods in the matter of strategy, met the Sea Peoples on the field at Pi-yer where the
combined Egyptian force of infantry, cavalry, and archers slew over 6,000 of their
opponents and took captive members of the royal Libyan family. Merenptah claimed
complete victory and Egypt's borders were again secure. To celebrate his
accomplishment, he had the story immortalized in the Karnak inscription and also on
the famous Merenptah Stele found in his funerary temple at Thebes. The Merenptah
Stele's conclusion reads, in part:

The princes prostrate themselves, saying, "Peace!" Not one

of Nine Bows dares raise his head; Tehenu is plundered while
Hatti is peaceful, Canaan is seized by every evil, Ashkelon
is carried off and Gezer is seized, Yenoam is made as that
which never existed, Israel is wasted without seed, Khor is
made a widow of Egypt, All the lands are at peace. Everyone
who travels has been subdued by the King of Upper and Lower
Egypt.

The "Nine Bows" mentioned is the customary term the Egyptians gave their enemies
and Tehenu is the name for Libya. The inscription is announcing how Merenptah has
defeated all the contentious regions who rose against Egypt and subdued them,
bringing peace. The Merenptah Stele is the first mention of Israel in recorded history
but, interestingly, refers not to a country or region but to a people. Scholars still do
not know what this reference means. Like the Sea Peoples, this reference to Israel
continues to intrigue historians and researchers in the present day. Merenptah himself
was not concerned with Israel or with any of the other countries he lists; he was
satisfied that the Sea Peoples had been defeated and Egypt secured for the future. Like
his predecessor, however, Merenptah would be wrong and the Sea Peoples would
return.
 Ramesses II at The Battle of
Kadesh

Ramesses III & The Battle of Xois

During the reign of the Pharaoh Ramesses III the Sea Peoples attacked and destroyed
the Egyptian trading center at Kadesh and then again attempted an invasion of Egypt.
They began their activities with quick raids along the coast (as they had done in the
time of Ramesses II) before driving for the Delta. Ramesses III defeated them in 1180
BCE but they returned in force. In his own victory inscription, Ramesses III describes
the invasion:

The foreign countries conspired in their islands. All at once

the lands were removed and scattered in the fray. No land
could resist their arms, from Hatti, Kode, Carchemish, Arzawa,
and Alashiya on - being cut off at one time. A camp was set
up in Amurru. They desolated its people and its land was like
that which had never existed. They were coming forward toward
Egypt, while the flame was prepared for them. Their
confederation was the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denen, and
Weshesh, lands united. They laid their hands upon the lands
as far as the circuit of the earth, their hearts were
confident and trusting as they said "Our plans will succeed!"

The countries mentioned in the confederation of Sea Peoples might be the regions of
Palestine (Peleset) or Syria (Tjeker) but this is uncertain. It is clear, though, that these
are the same people - with some additions - who attacked Egypt with the Libyans in
the time of Merenptah. In this invasion, as in the earlier one, the Sea Peoples were
allied with Libyans and, as Ramesses III notes, they were confident of victory. They
had already destroyed the Hittite state (referred to in the inscription as Hatti) in c.
1200 BCE and when Ramesses III writes, "they were coming forward toward Egypt"
he would most likely be saying they were advancing steadily without opposition.

Ramesses III would have known of his predecessors' clashes with these people and
that they were to be taken very seriously. He decided against a field engagement and
chose guerilla tactics as a strategy instead. He set up ambushes along the coast and
down the Nile Delta and made especially effective use of his archers, positioning
them hidden along the shoreline to rain down arrows on the ships at his signal. Once
the ships' crew was dead or drowning the vessels were set on fire with flaming arrows.
The attack by sea had been crushed and Ramesses III then turned his attention to what
was left of the invading force on land. He employed the same tactics as before and the
Sea Peoples were finally defeated off the city of Xois in 1178 BCE. Egyptian records,
again, detail a glorious victory in which many of the Sea Peoples were slain and
others taken captive and pressed into the Egyptian army and navy or sold as slaves.

Although Ramesses III had saved Egypt from conquest, the war was so expensive it
drained the Royal Treasury and the tomb builders at the village of Set Maat (modern
Deir el-Medina) could not be paid. This led to the first labor strike in recorded history
where the workers walked off the job and refused to return until they were fully
compensated.

After their defeat by Ramesses III the Sea Peoples vanish from history, the survivors
of the battle perhaps being assimilated into Egyptian culture. No records indicate
where they came from and there are no accounts of them after 1178 BCE but, for
almost one hundred years, they were the most feared sea raiders in the Mediterranean
region and a constant challenge to the might and prosperity of Egypt.

The Enduring Mystery

As noted above, there is no agreement on who the Sea Peoples were even though one
will find plenty of scholars and would-be scholars arguing heatedly for their particular
claim. The Egyptian inscriptions discussed here provide almost all there is to know of
these people outside of references in letters from the Hittites and Assyrians which
shed no more light on the subject. That they were well known to the Egyptians is clear
from the fact that they are never introduced as a foreign people and the possibility
they were friends, or even allies, of Egypt is suggested by their presence in the army
of Ramesses the Great and the sense of surprise expressed at the invasions. Historian
Marc van de Mieroop writes:

Both Merenptah and Ramesses III present [the attacks] as

sudden events, unforeseen and with massive numbers of people
involved. Ramesses III's reliefs even show carts loaded with
women, children, and household goods, as if a population
movement was involved. His account of the Sea Peoples'
appearance in the north of the eastern Mediterranean suggests
that it was unexpected, very sudden, and highly destructive.
But Merenptah had reported occurrences of the same type
thirty years earlier. Nor were the names of the members of
 the Sea Peoples new in the Egyptian record. Several of them
appeared decades earlier (251-252).

The Sea Peoples are also mentioned in the literature of Egypt - in The Tale of
Wenamun most notably - where they appear as familiar figures in the Mediterranean
landscape. Why these people rose up so regularly against Egypt - if, in fact, they did -
continues to mystify historians and scholars. Historians such as Marc van de Mieroop
believe the question of the Sea Peoples' identity will never be known and there is no
longer a point in trying to discover it. He writes, "One can wonder why the Sea
Peoples have engendered so much passion" and states, "Why they still appear in every
textbook on world history remains to be explained" (259). The explanation is simple
though: the Sea Peoples' actual identity remains a mystery and human beings have
always been drawn to the mysterious - and always will be.