Gabion units stractures

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT ON

GABION STRACTURES

Submitted by,

NAVEENKUMAR M N

1RV17CV418

Under the guidance of

VENUGOPAL G
Assistant Professor
Dept of Civil
Engineering RV College
of Engineering

In partial fulfilment for the award of degree

of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
CIVIL
ENGINEERING
2019-2020
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019- Page 1

20
 Gabion units
stractures

RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING®, BENGALURU-

59
(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the technical report work titled ‘Gabions stractures is

carried out by Naveenkumar M.N 1RV17CV418 who are bonafide students
of RV College of Engineering, Bengaluru, in partial fulfilment for the award
of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil of R V college of
engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
during the year 2018-2019. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions
indicated for the Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the
major project report deposited in the departmental library. The major
project report has been approved as it satisfies the academic
requirements in respect of project work prescribed by the institution
for the said degree.

Signature of Guide Signature of Head of the Department Signature

of Principal
Dr. ------------------
Dr.K.N.Subramanya ExternalViva

Name of Examiners Signature with Date

 CONTENTS

Chapter 1

Introduction

1. Introduction

2. Objective of study

3. Material

4. Types of gabian

5. Construction of gabion

6. Advantages of gabion

7. Applications of gabion

8. Design analysis

9. Case study

10. References
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Slope stability is one of the most important and delicate problems in civil
engineering, particularly encountered in large and important projects
such as dams, highways and tunnels. Many methods exist for stabilizing
the slopes, such as nailing, sheet pile, diaphragm wall, gabion, tieback and
etc. Gabion walls and tiebacks can be known as the most flexible
methods of slope stabilization methods, because of this reason, if
they can be combined with each other, it should show very good
results in front of dynamic and even static forces. In this study at first,
the gabion wall will be analyzed in different loading conditions, and
then to deal with earthquake dynamic forces the tiebacks will be used
to increase the gabion walls stability.

Gabion are wire-stone element in the shape of hexagonal or cuboids made

of wire mesh with double or triple twisting, filled with local stone
or quarry using for retaining wall, sea walls, mechanically stabalized
earth MSE walls, hydraulic works and channels lining or revetments.
The primary purpose of gabion retaining wall is to provide lateral
movement of soil or rock in order to control the active earth pressure and
also resist the transverse load in case of gravity.

retaining wall which are settled and stabilized by their weight.

Gabion walls are GI wire mesh tested by laboratory to verify their
galvanizing and gauge properties having hexagonal and certainly may
be rectangular in structure with double or triple twisting should be
given in order to enhance strength property. The wire mesh containers
or mattresses are properly filled by local boulders or stones approved
from different quarries sources depending upon the size and shape.
They are placed upon each other and tied securely in order to form
monolithic massive structure for low height gravity walls. The stability
is achieved by their self weight and reunion by the apron which is
spread widely in the form of rectangular crates having proposed
dimensions. The gabion mesh boxes
or crates provide stability and rigidity to the structure on the backfill.
The GI wire mesh also superimpose reinforcement to the structure
which gives additional stability, these type of structure is
called earth reinforcement retaining wall. Gabion retaining wall occupy
good ratio with respect to cost and effectiveness and also have low
environmental impact conditions because the ease of placement,
casting is easy to be handle and foundations work can easily carry out
and somehow good aesthetics.

1. Objective of study:
The main objective of gabion walls is to control land sliding on road sides,
erosion and scouring on the rivers banks during flood and high velocity
river streams and prevent the water logged areas from further damaging.
They also support the moment of the soil and rock laterally in hilly
areas by providing the function of breast walls. Our main goal is to
enlighten the gabion wall as retaining structure as well load bearing
member by determining its dual behaves in order to provide the
strength, efficiency and structural stability by decreasing the total
estimating cost

GABION WALL
A gabion is simply a wire mesh cage or basket filled with stones. Gabions
are quite useful in construction works. Some examples are, to
protect earth embankments, to line channels, to protect bridge
abutments. A gabion is like a wire mesh cage or basket filled with stones
or any other suitable material. Gabions are useful in diverting a river
and to protect river banks. . Th standard gabion basket consists of a
single piece of wire mesh that can be assembled to form a rectangular box
with a lid. The term gabion is defined as: a container made of wire mesh
filled with rock, stone or crushed concrete, that is used for structural
purposes. In hydraulic engineering gabions are used to protect banks,
dikes, slopes and other structures against erosive forces of currents
and waves. Gabions are used in a wide field of structures and can be
found in many forms and sizes. Different gabion forms are: box,
mattress, cylindrical or sack
gabions.

Materials Used In Gabion

The materials used for the construction of gabion are coarse aggregates,
red soil, sand, quarry dust, steel mesh and other materials

.1. Steel Wire Mesh: Gabion boxes are made with double twist or
tripple twist hexagonal wire mesh. Tensile strength of mesh can be
obtained by conducting tension test on steel mesh using universal testing
machine (UTM).Tensile strength is of the order of 25 kN/m, with breaking
load of 1.75 kN.

2. Coarse Aggregate: The coarse aggregates of size 20 cm–30 cm

are commonly used .Coarse aggregate for this purpose is collected
from a stone quarry. Properties of these aggregates are
evaluated using different test in the laboratory according to IS
specifications

3. Fill Materials: For model studies river sand and Quarry dust are
used as filler material. However, quarry can be used alone or in
combination with coarse aggregates.

4. Geotextile: In case of gabion retaining walls we need special type of

materials on the fill side to prevent entry of back fill soil into gabion
basket, these materials are called geotextile filters. These
geotextiles also prevent out flow of quarry dust. The properties of
geotextile material approximately are: Tensile strength = 8-10 kgN/m,
Elongation = 27%, Pore Size = 145-150 μm, Mass per Unit Area = 1.25
N/m2, Permeability =90- 100mm/s
1.1 Literature Survey
Ferriolo F., Vicari, M., Kulkarni, T. P. And Gharpure, A. D. (1997) (1)Gabion
wall protects landslides and river training works by The applications and
significance of flexible gabion wall for landslides incase of road
construction and river training works was explored by Ferriolo F in the
year 1997. The gabion mattresses or crates plays vital role in flooding
areas as well as in land sliding areas due to its flexibility property. The
scope of study in this paper is to use gabion structures in road
construction due to its stability and control erosion and scouring by its
main characteristics such as high resisting weight and permeability. The
resisting property is usually control by the gathering effect of hexagonal
wire mesh and stone filling. The soil under road and backfilling or
landslides incase of breast wall is supported by gabion wire mesh.
Authors also mentioned the internal details of various properties such as
diameter of wire gauge, galvanizing extent, mesh size and opening,
double or triple twisting, hexagonal shape etc also plays important role
during implementing gabion structure.

Ivan Nešović, Stepa Paunović, Milan Petrović and Ninoslav Ćiric (2) IThe
stability of Gravity retaining structure by Ivan Nesovic paper investigates
the probable characteristics of gabion retaining structure for those
freezing and snow fall areas, where landslides occurrence is high due to
which soils and obstructions occurs in roads sides, so in these cases the
implementation of gabion retaining structure is widely spread by which
road ways and routes again brought into original state to efficient and
effective way. To avoid such hurdles of transportation, large gabion walls
having several rows and steps filled with several crush stones and
boulders are implemented in order to avoid big consolidation of
landslides. For this purpose large gabion wall having five setback rows
were originated in the city of Alekinsac to control land sliding performing
its duty on huge weight.
Daniel G. Neary and Karen A. Koestner. USDA Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2500 Pine Knoll Drive, Flagstaff,
Arizona 86001
(3) Rock filled gabion treatment for erosion control: by According to
given paper of Daniel which observes the effectiveness of Rock filled
gabion along with Rip-Rap and culverts treatment for erosion control
during post-fire erosion mitigation in 2010 monsoon, Schultz
fire. Other treatments such as removal of culvert at elevation in the
forest of north- central Arizona were implemented along with sixteen
rock-filled wire gabion cages in channel crossing to reduce the incision
of erosion in alluvial sediments. The rock gabions were placed in equal
distance in ditch. The individual gabion cages were about 60x60 in cross
section and 2 to 3 m long, the drainage was constructed in straight fall
line with gradient of 4%. The lines were buried in soil on both sides of
ditches while the wing walls of gabion were not properly crossing the
ditches slope

Der-Guey Lin, Bor-shun Haung, Shin-Hewi Lin (4) Peryas et al in 1992

proposed a scale model test of stepped gabion spillways introducing into
different type of loads. The test represented the prediction of flood
in excess of 1.5 /sec/m. the opening of mesh should be binded tightly
where gabion spillways can hold flows up to 3 /sec/m without excessive
failure. The test also disclose some deformation of gabion due to inside
movement of stone filling. For this reason some suggestion were given
by Les ouvrages en gabions (1992) on avoiding gabion deformation.
He examines the stone quality and packing at the top layers of gabion
courses, as the stone size were 1.5 times larger than the usual.

Types of gabian:
There are number of gabion configurations that can be selected based
on their cost and function. Common types of Gabion are as follows;

1. Gabion baskets
 It is a net wire mesh that produced in box-shaped and in different
sizes.
 Used in highway and railway works.
  It would be economical unless filling material availble from from

quarries near the project site.

Figure 1

2. Gabion mattresses
 Gabion mattresses, also known as reno mattresses.
 Gabion mattresses height is shorter than the other types of
measurements as it might be observed from the Fig. 3.
 It is employed in the channel coating for preventing erosion. So, it
tackles wave and erosion induced velocity.
 Common size, 6 m long by 2 m wide by 0,3 m high.

Figure :2
3. Gabion sacks

 This type of gabions is formed quickly.

 It has a porous and flexible structure.
 Gabion sacks are usually used in hydraulic works in emergency
conditions.

Figure 3

4. Gabion wire mesh

 It is utilized to keep the possible rock and stone fall on the highway
and railway surfaces.
 Gabion wire mesh maintains stability of the slope close to highway
and railways.
 It is applied for anti-erosion to slope.
 It enhances embankment soil strength in combination with geogrid
reinforcement.

Figure 4

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019- Page 10

20
5.Decorative Gabion Elements
 It is used indoor and outdoor decoration, garden design and
landscaping.
 Gabion elements offer suitable environment for the growth of
plant roots

Figure 5

CONSTRUCTION OF GABION:
The following requirements shall be met when constructing with gabions:

 Gabion baskets shall be wired together to manufacturer’s

specifications.
 •The bed on which gabion cages are to be laid before they are
filled with rock shall be so leveled as to present an even surface
at the depth shown on the drawings or as directed.
 The lower gabion basket will be excavated into the channel bottom
a minimum of 1/3 the height of the gabion.
 The gabion will be stretched to remove any kinks and to gain a
straight alignment and carefully filled with rock that is larger than
the wire openings (smaller stone may be used in the interior of the
basket); ensuring that a compact mass of rock with minimal void
 spaces is installed within the basket.
 The baskets shall be filled in layers and in stages so that the depth
of stone placed in any cell does not exceed the depth of the stone in
an adjacent cell by more than 30 centimeters
 . Stacked gabion baskets used for bank stability shall be tilted
towards the soil they are protecting by a minimum of 6 degrees
from vertical.
 Stones placed against the outside mesh of the basket must be
larger than the basket openings.

 Internal connecting cross-tie wires shall be placed in each gabion.

Step 1: Measure and Purchase Materials :

Once you’ve measured out your fence and purchased the required wire
mesh panels, rocks, and other materials you’re ready to begin. Also, be
aware that you may need a council permit to build a gabion wall, but that
will depend on the size of the wall and your particular local council
requirements.

Step 2: Choose Correct Wire Mesh Aperture:

Obviously, you need to choose wire mesh apertures that are smaller
than your chosen stones otherwise the rocks will fall out.

Step 3: Ensure Footings Are Level :

Level concrete footings provide a solid base for a gabion wall where the
soil is eally soft clay or sand.

Step 4: Consider Drainage:

However, concrete foundations can interfere with drainage and so may
be counter-indicated in the case of retaining walls.

Step 5: Construct Wall by Joining Wire Panel Sections :

Join your galvanised wire panels together with wire to form the base
and
sides of the boxes. Hold each box in place by inserting wire down each
corner of the box. This will hold the box shape while you fill the box with
rocks.

Applications of gabions:

Gabions are used in several engineering projects and serve various

purposes. common applications of gabions are as follows:

1. Retaining structures such as retaining walls (Fig. 7), revetment and

toe walls to embankments and cuttings.
2. Corrosion prevention structures for instance sea walls, river bank
defenses, canal banks (Fig. 8), dams, weirs, groynes and for
the protection of reservoirs and lakesides.
3. cylindrical metal gabion is used for dams or in foundation
construction.
4. It is employed as a noise barrier.
5. Gabions are also used as a temporary flood walls.
6. It is utilized to change the direction of the force of flood water
around weak structure
7. Stepped gabions improve energy dissipation in channels.
8. Finally, it is used for aesthetic purposes

Advantages of gabions

1. Durability

Gabion has a very high resistance to atmospheric corrosion

because of the well bonded zinc coating on the wire and their ability
to support vegetation growth.

2. Flexibility

This feature permits the gabion to settle and deform without failure
and loss of efficiency. Specifically, when unstable ground and
 moving water are encountered.

3. Permeability

It provides automatic and easy drainage which eliminates the need

for the installation of drainage pipes.

4. Strength

Gabions are satisfactory strong that is it is capable of resisting flood

force, torrential force, and ice and

earth pressure.

5.Economical

It is more economical in terms of both material and labor in

comparison with other gabion alternatives.

6.Environmentally friendly

Recycled materials can be placed into the gabion cage. The gaps in
the soil between filling materials allow the plantation to grow over

time. Gabion elements are not affected by natural phenomena.

GABION STRUCTURES ARE EMPLOYED

As a retaining wall

Gabion structure used as retaining wall is called as gabion retaining

wall. Uses Unstable condition Constructed to any height and shape

As a spur:

For controlling stream bank erosion.Depth of spur’s foundation should be

kept deeper towards upstream side

.As a drop structure

Gabion structure used as a drop structure are called as gabion drop
structure.Reduces gully gradient. to serve as silt trip.It is used where the
drop height is more than 1 m. 5 cm thick concrete should be furnished
after settlement

Gabion structure as revetment

Its main function is to provide the blanket type protection to the affected
surface.

.Gabion structure for lining

The gabion also employed for lining the beds and banks of the water
coresMaximum slope for the channel lining is1:1 or 1.5:15.

As a flexible apron

Gabion aprons are extensively used as flexible apron to act as a

revetment , retaining wall to protect the existing structure

Gabion Walls Design Guide

Gravity Wall Design

Gabion Walls are generally analyzed as gravity retaining walls, that

is, walls which use their own weight to resist the lateral earth
pressures. The use of horizontal layers of welded wire mesh (Anchor
Mesh) as horizontal tie-backs for soilreinforcement (MSE Walls) is
discussed separately. Thismaterial is presented for the use of a
qualified engineer familiar with traditional procedures for retaining wall
design.Gabion walls may be stepped on either the front or the back
(soil side) face as illustrated in Figure 1. The design of both types is
based on the same principles.Design begins with the selection of trail
dimensions for a typical vertical cross section through the wall.
Four main steps must then be followed:

1. Determine the forces acting on the wall.

2. Check that resisting moment exceeds the overturning moment by a

suitable safety factor.

3. Check that sliding resistance exceeds the active horizontal force by a

suitable safety factor.

4. Check that the resultant force falls within the middle third of the
wall’s base, and that the maximum bearing pressure is within the
allowable limit.

These steps are repeated iteratively until a suitable design that meets all
criteria is achieved. The wall stability must be checked at the base and at
each course. Pertinent equations are given below, and an application is
illustrated in Example 1.

Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE ) Walls Soil Reinforcement

When required, flat layers of welded wire mesh (Anchor Mesh) are
specified as soil reinforcement to secure the gabion wall into the
backfill. In such cases, the Anchor Mesh must be joined securely to the
gabion wall facing with spirals or tie wire at the specified elevations as
layers of backfill are placed and compacted

Forces Acting on the Wall

the main forces acting on gabion walls are the vertical forces from the
weight of the gabions and the lateral earth pressure acting on the back
face. These forces are used herein to illustrate the main design
principles. If other forces are encountered, such as vehicular loads or
seismic loads,
they must also be included in the analysis.The weight of a unit length (one
foot) of wall is simply the product of the wall cross section and the
density of the gabion fill. The latter value may be conservatively taken
as 100 lb/ft3for typical material (Wg).The lateral earth pressure is
usually calculated by the Coulomb equation. Although based on granular
material, it is conservative for cohesive material. According to Coulomb
theory, the total active force of the triangular pressure distribution
acting on the wall is:Where ws is the soil density, H is the wall
height, and Ka is the coefficient of active soil pressure. The soil
density is often taken as 120 lb/ft3 where a specific value is not
available. If a uniformly distributed surcharge pressure (q) is present
on top of the backfill surface, it may be treated as an equivalent layer of
soil that creates a uniform pressure over the entire height of the wall.
Equation 1 is modified

Overturning Moment Check

The active soil pressure forces tend to overturn the wall, and this must
be properly balanced by the resisting moment developed from the weight
of the wall and other forces. Using basic principles of statics, moments
are taken about the toe of the wall to check overturning.

Sliding Resistance Check

The tendency of the active earth pressure to cause the wall to slide
horizontally must be opposed by the frictional resistance at the base of
the wall. This may be expressed as

Check Bearing Pressure

First check to determine if the resultant vertical force lies within the
middle third of the base. If B denotes the width of the base, the
eccentricity, e, of the vertical force from the midwidth of the base .
Case study

1. MATLA RIVER GABION WEIRS

We supplied the first gabions and mattresses to a site near Delmas in

Mpumalanga recently for a series of gabion weirs to be built along a
river diversion channel. The average width was 5-10m and height to top
of the berm was 4.8m. The weirs controlled the flow of water in the
channel to reduced water velocities.

Gabion Baskets assisted the design engineer with a detail for the
gabion weirs and mattresses to be installed during late 2007. The
contractor AWA Shabugwane Construction is almost complete with the
works now, the channel was a length of 11km and was to control the
water flow, as a new mine technique had been adopted to mine the
coal underground and once complete to implode the tunnels and have
the roof fall in to close the mine. This could have caused water flow
problems in the valley, thus the reason that the water diversion channel
was constructed.

Many gabion weirs have been installed and many more are still to be
completed, the works are to be completed by the end of June. All rock
and labour was sourced locally and great gabion structures became a
reality.
Figure 1
2. GOTHIC CONSTRUCTION CRASH BARRIER

Because trucks often crash into the wall of Gothic Construction’s

head office site located on the corner of William Nicol and
Kingfisher, they decided to replace the brick wall with an architectural
gabion wall. This wall, installed by Petron Engineering’s Mr Ronnie
Dagnin, is made up of 22 separate sections so that only the affected
section would need to be repaired if a truck was to drive into the wall
again – this would reduce the overall repair cost. Apart from the implied
cost efficiency, this structure also adds an aesthetic appeal to the
intersection, attracting a lot of admiration from passers-by!

Dimensions:

Height: 3.6m

Length:

13.24m

Width: Varies between 1.5 and 1.6m

Figure 2
3. SABIE RETAINING WALLS

The gabion walls along the road near Sabie in Mpumalanga are now almost
complete, there are four walls in total with various lengths. The
first retaining wall is 4 metres high and is used to retain the cut slope-
embankment, reduce water velocities off the tailings slope and act as a
rock catch wall for silt and rock/debris coming off the cut slope,
thus preventing this material falling onto the roadway.

The second gabion wall below the roadway(halfway up the fill slope)
will prevent lateral movement of soils from next to and below the
roadway. Thus reducing the risk of roadway settlement and failure,
we assisted with the supply of gabion materials, geotextile and
toolsets to the site. When the work started we assisted the contractor
with the on-site gabion training during initial erections which went off
well in the end and made for rapid erection and skills transfer on site.
This gabion project should be complete by end October 2009.

Please view the rock spoil photo below and note the reason that most
gabion contractors allow for about 30% waste or fines in the rock
costing calculation, as this finer material generally cannot be used
inside the gabion container as the rock size is too small or consists
predominantly of finer material.

We suggest the use of gabions tool sets to improve gabion installations on

sites, our gabion frames shown in the photo below allow for better
basket shape once filled correctly. The baskets should be tensioned
horizontally or vertically before the filling process takes place, the
tension direction is dependant on whether you have an external
horizontal or vertical mesh direction. Please contact us for further
explanation regarding this interesting concept. All gabion walls
generally use a geotextile behind and below the wall to reduce fine soil

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019- Page 20

20
leaching through the gabion wall.

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019- Page 21

20
Gabions are a common application in the world and we try to help
wherever we can to show how easy they are to be installed on sites
using a local unskilled labour force.

Figure 3

MAINTENANCE :

Gabions should be inspected on a regular basis and after every large

storm event.All temporary and permanent erosion and sediment control
practices shall be maintained and repaired as needed to assure continued
performance of their intended function. All maintenance and repair shall
be conducted in accordance with an approved manual.

CONCLUSIONS
Failures observed in site investigation are buldging, corrosion, erosion of
filled stone, backfill crack, and foundation erosion. Most these failures are
due to improper stones and improper filling of stones in Gabion box. Use
of alternative material like concrete block instead of irregular,
improper shaped stone will be the one of solution to above failures.
Alternative material like Recycled concrete blocks will be cost effective
and
ecofriendly solution.

REFERENCES
i. P.M. Kandaris, “Use of gabions for localized slope stabilization in
difficult terrain”, The 37th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics
(USRMS), pp 1221-1227, Vail, Colarado, 1999.
ii. C.W. Chen, A. Tang, “Evaluation of connection strength of geogrid to
gabion wall”, Geotechnical Special Publication No.220, pp 231-
238,
ASCE, 2011
iii. Ferriolo F., Vicari, M., Kulkarni, T. P. And Gharpure, A. D. (1997):
Landslide Road Protection and River Training Works with Gabion
Structures, Proceedings of Geosynthetics Asia '97, Bangalore, India,
Pp. 11.13 - 11.20.
iv. Elton, David J., and PE James E. Whitbeck. "Tieback wall design and
construction." Final Report to Alabama Highway Research
Center (1997): 1-4.
v. Gabion wall protects landslides and river training works by Ferriolo F.,
Vicari, M., Kulkarni, T. P. And Gharpure, A. D. (1997)
vi. Rock filled gabion treatment for erosion control, Daniel G. Neary
and Karen A. Koestner. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
Research Station, 2500 Pine Knoll Drive, Flagstaff, Arizona 86001
vii. Chinnarasri, C., Donjadee, S., & Israngkura, U., 2008.
Hydraulic Characteristics of Gabion-Stepped Weirs, J Hydraulic
Engineering 134, 1147–
viii. Dhinakaran, G., Sundar, V., Sundaravadivelu, R., & Graw, K. U., 2009.
Effect of perforations and rubble mound height on wave
transformation
ix. characteristics of surface piercing semicircular breakwaters. J
Ocean Engineering, 36(15-16), 1182–1198.
x. Firth, L. B., Thompson, R. C., Bohn, K., Abbiati, M., Airoldi, L., Bouma, T.
J., … Hawkins, S. J., 2014. Between a rock and a hard place:
xi. Environmental and engineering considerations when designing
coastal defence structures. J Coastal Engineering, 87, 122–135.
 xii. John P. Ahrens and Edward T. Fulford .,1989. Wave
energy dissipation by reef breakwaters. 1244 – 1249. Tech. Rept.
CERC-87- 17, U.S.
xiii. Army Coast. Engrg. Res. Ctr., Vicksburg, Miss.
xiv. Kerry Black and Shaw Mead., 2001. Design of the Gold Coast Reef
for Surfing, Public Amenity and Coastal Protection: Surfing
Aspects, J
xv. Coastal Research ,29, 115-130.
xvi. Peyras, L., Royet, P., and Degoutte G., 1992. Flow and Energy
Dissipation over Stepped Gabion Weirs, J Hydraulic Engineering 118,
707 –717.
xvii. Pilarczyk, W. Krystian.(2003), Design of low-crested
(submerged) structures – an overview, 6th International
Conference on Coastal and Port
xviii. Engineering in Developing Countries, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2003.
xix. Sumer, B. M., Whitehouse, R. J. ., & Tørum, A., 2001. Scour
around coastal structures: a summary of recent research. J
Coastal Engineering, 44(2), 153–190.