Chapter 14

Highway Surveys and Location

14-1
Describe the three categories of information gathered, in the office prior to any field
survey activity, about the characteristics of the area of a proposed highway location.

The information gathered in an office study of existing information can be divided

into three categories: engineering, environmental, and economic. Engineering
includes topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes, and social and
demographic, including land use and zoning patterns. Environmental includes
types of wildlife; location of recreational, historic, and archeological sites; and the
possible effects of air, noise, and water pollution. Economic includes unit costs
for construction and the trend of agricultural, commercial, and industrial activities
in the proposed location area.

14-2
Briefly discuss factors that are of specific importance in the location of scenic routes.

The following factors are of specific importance in the location of scenic routes:
• Special provisions should be provided to discourage fast driving as design
speeds are usually low (e.g. provide narrow road bed).
• Conflict between driver's attention on the road and the need to enjoy the
scenic view should be minimized. This is achieved by providing turn-outs
with wide shoulders and adequate turning space at regular intervals, or by
providing only straight alignment when the view is exceptional.
• Only minimum disruption to the area should be caused as a result of the
scenic route construction.

14-3
Describe the factors that significantly influence the location of highways in urban
areas.

Connection to local streets is primarily a factor with design of freeways and

expressways such that traffic flow is made as efficient as possible. Right-of-way
acquisition, particularly in commercial and industrial areas, is substantial expense;
such costs often dictate the available corridor width and the ultimate design. The
interaction between the many travel modes available in urban areas requires
coordination of the highway system with other transportation systems. Adequate
provisions for pedestrians and bicycles is important as increased use of these
modes can reduce energy use and traffic congestion.
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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

14-4
What are three elements that highway surveys usually involve?

Highway surveys usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and

vertical angles, vertical heights (elevation), and horizontal distances. The surveys
are then used to prepare base maps with contour lines and longitudinal cross
sections.

14-5
Briefly describe the use of each of the following instruments in conventional ground
surveys:
(a) total station
(b) level
(c) measuring tapes
(d) electronic distance measuring devices

(a) The total station is an electronic theodolite and distance measuring device. It
is used for measuring angles in both the vertical and horizontal plane as well
as distances.
(b) A level is used in conjunction with a graduated leveling rod to measure
changes in elevation .
(c) Measuring tapes are used for the direct measurement of horizontal distances.
(d) An electronic distance measuring device (EDM) is used to measure distances.
When an EDM is used in conjunction with a slope reduction calculator, it can
also measure slope and height distances. These devices allow for distances
and direction to be determined from a single instrument setup.

14-6
Briefly compare the factors that should be considered in locating an urban freeway
with those for a rural highway.

Factors that are similar when considering the location for both urban freeways and
rural freeways include:
• Social and demographic characteristics of the area in which the freeway is
to be located (including land use and zoning patterns).
• Environmental impacts (including recreation and historic sites, plant and
animal life, wetlands, and air, noise, and water pollution).
• Serviceability of the route (to industrial and residential areas).
• Crossing of other transportation facilities.
• Terrain and soil conditions.
• Economic feasibility of the location.
• Directness of route.

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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

Factors that are considered for urban freeways and not usually considered for
rural freeways include:
• Connection to local streets.
• Cost of right-of-way acquisition.
• Coordination of the urban freeway and other urban transportation systems.
• Adequate provisions for pedestrians.

14-7
Describe how each of the following could be used in highway survey location:
(a) aerial photogrammetry
(b) computer graphics
(c) conventional survey techniques

(a) Aerial Photogrammetry: Aerial photogrammetry is used in identifying

suitable highway locations and in preparing contour maps suitable for cross
sections. This involves obtaining the aerial photographs and determining
distances and elevations from these photographs.
(b) Computer Graphics: Computer graphics are used in identifying suitable
highway locations by combining photogrammetry and computer techniques. The
procedure also involves the use of aerial photographs to determine distances and
elevations. In addition, the horizontal and vertical alignment of a proposed
centerline can be obtained and displayed on a monitor. This enables the designer
to make alignment changes and to immediately see the effect of these changes.
(c) Conventional Survey Techniques: Conventional surveys are used in
identifying suitable locations by determining distances and elevations for all
natural and man-made land features. Contour maps are then obtained which can
be used to identify alternative locations. Profiles, showing the change in elevation
along a proposed centerline, and cross sections at selected stations along the
proposed centerline can also be developed.

14-8
A photograph is to be obtained at a scale of 1:10,000 by aerial photogrammetry. If
the focal length of the camera to be used is 6.5", determine the height at which the
aircraft should be flown if the average elevation of the terrain is 950 ft.

Use Equation 14.1 and solve for H.

f
S=
H −h
(1 / 10,000) = ((6.5 in)/(ft/12in)) / (H – 950 ft)
H - 950 = 5417
H = 6367 feet
Therefore, the plane should fly at 6,367 feet.

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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

14-9
The distance in the x direction between two control points on a vertical aerial
photograph is 4.5". If the distance between these same two points is 3.6" on another
photograph having a scale of 1:24,000, determine the scale of the first vertical
aerial photograph. If the focal length of the camera is 6"and the average elevation at
these points is 100 ft, determine the flying height from which each photograph was
taken.

Let the actual distance between the points MN be x feet

M'N' = 3.6 in = 0.3 ft

(M'N') / (MN) = (ON') / (ON) = Scale 1:24,000
1 / 24000 = 0.3 / x
x = 7200 feet

Now solve for the scale of the second photo.

M'N = 4.5 in = 0.375 ft

Scale = 0.375 / 7200
Scale = 1:19,200

Now determine the height from which the first photo was
taken (H1).

1 / 19,200 = (6.0/12) / (H1 - 100)

H1 = 9,700 feet

Now determine the height from which the second photo was taken (H2).

1 / 24,000 = (6.0/12) / (H2 - 100)

H2 = 12,100 feet

Therefore, the scale of the first photograph is 1:19,200, the elevation it was taken
from is 9,700 feet, and the second photograph was taken at an elevation of 12,100
feet.

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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

14-10
The scale at the image of a well-defined object on an aerial photograph is 1:24,000,
and the elevation of the object is 1500 ft. The focal length of the camera lens is 6.5".
If the air base (B) is 250 ft, determine the elevation of the two points A and C and
the distance between them if the coordinates of A and C are as given below.

First determine the flying height, H, using Equation 14.1.

f
S=
H −h

(1 / 24000) = (6.5/12) / (H - 1500)

H - 1500 = 13000
H = 14,500 feet

Now determine the elevation of point A, ha, using Equation 15.1.

(1 / 13000) = (6.5/12) / (14500 - ha)
14500 - ha = 7042
ha = 7,458 feet

Now determine the elevation of point B, hb, using Equation 15.1.

(1 / 17,400) = (6.5/12) / (14500 - hb)
14500 - hb = 9425
hb = 5,075 feet

Now determine the distance between points A and C.

Use Equations 14.4 and 14.5 to solve for the X and Y coordinates, respectively.
XA = (5.5 / 12) / (1 / 13000)
XA = 5958 ft
XB = (6.5 / 12) / (1 / 17400)
XB = 9425 ft
YA = (3.5 / 12) / (1 / 13000)
YA = 3792 ft
YB = (5.0 / 12) / (1/ 17400)
YB = 7250 ft

Now use Equation 14.6 to solve for the distance between these points.

D = ( X A − X B ) 2 + (Y A − YB ) 2
D = (5958 − 9425) 2 + (3792 − 7250) 2
D = 4,897 ft.

Therefore, the elevation at point A is 7,458 ft; point B is 5,075 ft and the distance
between the two points is 4,897 ft.

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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

14-11
A vertical photo has an air base of 2400 ft. Stereoscopic measurements of parallax at
a point representing the top of a 200 ft tower is 0.278". The camera focal length is
6.5". Photos were taken at an elevation of 7500 ft. Determine the elevation of the
base of the tower.

Use Equation 14.2 to determine the elevation of the base of the tower.
H −h B
=
f p
7500 − h 200
=
(6.5 / 12) (0.278 / 12)
7500 – h = 4676
h = 2824 ft

Since the elevation of the top of the tower is 2824 ft, the elevation at its base is
2624 ft (200 ft below the top of the tower).

14-12
The length of a runway at a national airport is 7500 ft long and at elevation 1500 ft
above sea level. The airport was recently expanded to include another runway used
primarily for corporate aircraft. It is desired to determine the length of this runway
whose elevation is 1800 ft. An aerial photograph was taken of the airport.
Measurements on the photograph for the national airport runway are 4.80" and for
the corporate runway, are 3.4". The camera focal length is 6". Determine the length
of the corporate runway.

To calculate the length of the corporate runway, the scale of the

photograph at the elevation of the corporate runway must be determined. To
calculate the scale at any point on the photograph, the flying height from which
the photograph was taken must be determined. The scale at the elevation of the
national runway is:
S(1500 ft) = (4.8 in)(1 ft / 12 in) / 7500 ft = 1/18750
Use Equation 14.1 to solve for the flying height,
f (6 / 12) 1
S= = =
H − h H − 1500 18750
H – 1500 = 9375
H = 10,875 ft
Use Equation 14.1 to solve for the scale at the elevation of the corporate runway,
f (6 / 12) 1
S= = =
H − h 10875 − 1800 18150
The length of the corporate runway can then be found,
L = (3.4/12)(18150)
L = 5,143 ft

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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

14-13
Using an appropriate diagram, discuss the importance of side and forward overlaps
in aerial photography.

Side and forward overlaps are critical for stereoscopic viewing of aerial
photographs. In order for the aerial photographs to be viewed in three
dimensions, an object should be viewed by the observer’s left eye on the left
photograph and the same object viewed by the observer’s right eye on the right
photograph on a set of stereopairs. This requires that each object in the area be on
at least two aerial photographs. This is achieved through the side overlap which
provides for approximately 60 percent overlap in the direction of flight, and the
overlap in the direction perpendicular to flight which provides for about 25
percent overlap as shown in Figure 14.3 in the text.

14-14
Under what conditions would the borrowing of new material from a borrow pit for
a highway embankment be preferred over using material excavated from an
adjacent section of the road?

The conditions under which the borrowing of new material from a borrow pit is
preferable to using excavated material from an adjacent section of highway might
include the following:
• The engineering properties of the material from the adjacent section are
not satisfactory.
• Excavation of this material may result in serious negative environmental
impacts.
• Excavation of this material might result in serious drainage problems for
the highway.
• Excavation of the material might be cost prohibitive.

14-15
Using the data given in Table 14.1, determine the total overhaul cost if the free haul
is 700 ft and the overhaul cost is $7.50 per cubic yard station. Stations of the free
haul lines are 1 + 80 and 8 + 80 and 10 + 20 and 17 + 20.

The first step is to construct the mass diagram shown in Figure 14.17 from the
data in Table 14.1. The data required to solve this problem using the method of
moments are shown below. Note that the ordinate is zero at station 9+63, and
other ordinates as given in Table 14.1 are shown.

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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

First, find the moments and overhaul distances about stations 1+80 and 8+80.
About sta. 1+80: [(100/2+80)/100](130) + [(80/2)/100](374-130) = 266.6
yd3-sta
Overhaul distance: (266.6 yd3-sta) / 374 yd3 = 0.713 sta
About sta. 8+80: [(63/2+20)/100](299) + [(20/2)/100](374-299) = 161.5
yd3-sta
Overhaul distance: (161.5 yd3-sta) / 374 yd3 = 0.432 sta

The overhaul cost for the first section (between sta. 0+00 and sta. 9+63) can be
calculated as:
Overhaul cost = (0.713 sta + 0.432 sta)(374 yd3)($7.50/yd3-sta) = $3210

Then, find the moments and overhaul distances about stations 10+20 and 17+20.
About sta. 10+20: [(37/2+20)/100](201) + [(20/2)/100](255-201) = 86.2
yd3-sta
Overhaul distance: (86.2 yd3-sta) / 255 yd3 = 0.338 sta
About sta. 17+20: [(49/2)/100](255) = 62.5 yd3-sta
Overhaul distance: (62.5 yd3-sta) / 255 yd3 = 0.245 sta

The overhaul cost for the second section (between sta. 10+20 and sta. 17+20) can
be calculated as:
Overhaul cost = (0.338 sta + 0.245 sta)(255 yd3)($7.50/yd3-sta) = $1115

Total overhaul cost = $3210 + $1115 = $4325.

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 Chapter 14: Highway Surveys and Location

14-16
The following table shows the stations and ordinates for a mass diagram. The free-
haul distance is 600 ft. Overhaul cost is $15 per station yard.
Station Ordinate (yd3)

0 + 00 0
1 + 00 45
2 + 00 60
2 + 20 90
4 + 00 120
6 + 00 140
7 + 00 110
8 + 20 90
9 + 00 82
10 + 00 60
10 + 30 0
(a) Use the method of movements to compute the additional cost that must
be paid to the contractor.
(b) Sketch the ground profile if the finished grade of this roadway section is
level (0%).

First, find the moments and overhaul distances about stations 2+20 and 8+20.
About sta. 2+20: [(100/2+100+20)/100](45) + [(100/2+20)/100](60-45) +
[(20/2)/100](90-60) = 90 yd3-sta
Overhaul distance: (90 yd3-sta) / 90 yd3 = 1.00 sta
About sta. 8+20: [(80/2)/100](90-82) + [(100/2+80)/100](82-60) +
[(30/2+100+80)/100](60) = 148.8 yd3-sta
Overhaul distance: (148.8 yd3-sta) / 90 yd3 = 1.653 sta

The overhaul cost can be calculated as:

Overhaul cost = (1.000 sta + 1.653 sta)(90 yd3)($15/yd3-sta) = $3582.

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