Vol1 Gaps

Journal
of
Network Theory
Spring 2006
INSTITUTE OF MEDIA & RE/PRESENTATION

FACULTY OF ARTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF UTRECHT
UTRECHT, NETHERLANDS
Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 1

The Journal of Network Theory is a
publication of the Institute of Media
and Re/presentation of the Faculty of
Arts of the University of Utrecht.
Copyright ©2006 Journal of Network

Theory
All rights reserved. Printed in the

Netherlands on acid-free paper.
ISSN: 2109-1109
www.networkjournal.nl
The Journal of Network Theory

wishes to thank Professor
Marianne van den Boomen for
her contribution.
EDITORIAL BOARD
Thomas Nachreiner Monica Negri
F040923 F050157
Shane Pulmano Loes Vollenbroek

0313912 0112828

GAPS, DIVISIONS AND BOUNDARIES
Table of Contents
1. Introduction: Gaps, Divisions and Boundaries .......................................................4

Shifting Referentiality in the Use of Spatial Metaphors .................................................4
Introduction...............................................................................................................4
Why gaps, divisions and boundaries?.......................................................................5
Invisibility ..................................................................................................................6
Oscillation .................................................................................................................8
Simultaneously metaphoric and material...................................................................9
Concluding remarks................................................................................................10
2. Finding or Choosing Boundaries?.........................................................................12

Exploring the position of the researcher in ANT and SNA ..........................................12
3. Continuity on the Web ............................................................................................13

Beyond Cinematographic Boundaries ........................................................................13
From the Matrix to the Network...............................................................................14
The Continuity.........................................................................................................14
The Boundary .........................................................................................................16
The Gap..................................................................................................................17
The Network requires the Matrix .............................................................................19
4. Domain Name System.............................................................................................21

Protocol, Governance and Divisions ..........................................................................21
Introduction.............................................................................................................21
Protocol, Governance and Divisions .......................................................................22
Protocological Reality on the Net ............................................................................23
Internet Governance: Political Conflicts and Technological Means .........................27
Conclusion..............................................................................................................30
Bibliography............................................................................................................31
5. The Last Day of Mankind ........................................................................................35

Or an evening with the network society......................................................................35

1. Introduction: Gaps, Divisions and Boundaries
Shifting Referentiality in the Use of Spatial Metaphors
By Shane Pulmano
Abstract:
In this article functions as an introduction to this issue’s theme and the subsequent
articles. The importance of making place for the discussion of the spatial constructs
gaps, divis33ns and boundaries is argued. The article portrays how these concepts are
marginal in the discussion of networks. It is argued that these concepts are either explicit
or implicit in network themed articles, but that their function remains invisible and un-
debated. Also, their referentiality poses a particular problem, namely that writers are
often unconcise whether the concepts are utilized as metaphors or that they refer to
some substantive material reality. In some cases, a certain oscillation of the reference
takes place; the reference shifts from a metaphoric to a substantive function and vice
versa. In other cases, the reference is both a metaphoric and material.
network theory - look at the network’s

Introduction ‘core’ and its expansions, rather than
In 1995 sociologist Ilana Silber the peripheral areas. This journal issue
commented that “within the last decade, will explore the conceptual outskirts,
specifically, sociological theory has focusing mainly on the concepts of gap,
been marked by the increasing currency divisions and boundaries which are
of spatial (quasi-geographical) images argued marginal concepts within
and metaphors – such as, most network theory. This article introduces
commonly, “field(s), “space”, “action- this issue’s theme and argues the
space”, “boundaries” (1995, 1). This importance of making place for the
development, she states, “has remained discussion of the spatial constructs
a rather implicit and under gaps, divisions and boundaries. It will be
conceptualized feature of contemporary made clear that these concepts are
sociological thinking” (Silber,1995, 1). either explicit or implicit in network
More than a decade later, as sociology themed articles, but that their function
has adopted a new metaphor for remains invisible and un-debated. Also,
analysing society, the omnipotent their referentiality poses a particular
“network”, this marginalization of spatial problem, namely that writers are often
metaphors is still an issue. Sociology, unconcise whether the concepts are
however, is not the only approach that utilized as metaphors or that they refer
has opened its arms to the new to some substantive material reality. In
metaphor. Contemporary media studies, some cases, a certain oscillation of the
feminist theory and information studies reference takes place; the reference
are also among those applying this new shifts from a metaphoric to a substantive
term. In general, writers from these function and vice versa. In other cases,
approaches advocate the use of the the reference is both a metaphoric and
notion “network” to explain certain material.
processes or phenomena – the sum of In the following paragraphs, the
which from hence will be referred to as marginalization of and the function of a

discussion of these concepts within the use. First they are rendered invisible
academic approach will be presented. and in most cases taken for granted.
Next, the invisibility of these concepts This is the prime reason why are they
will be discussed followed by a not discussed or reflected upon.
description of the ossilation of Second, their reference is of unclear
referentiality. To make these statements nature. Are these concepts used as
concrete, some paragraphs will be conceptual metaphors or do they refer
devoted to analysis of four different to more substantial objects or
approaches to network analysis. situations?
Physicist Albert Lazslo Barabasi’s scale In the first case, invisibility means
free network and his notion of continents unnoticed penetration, which in turn
and islands represent the computational gives the concept a pervasive character.
approach towards analyzing networks Invisibility allows these concepts to seep
and will a function as an example of the into everything and shape current
invisibility of these concepts. Lilia thought without being questioned. Silber
Efimova and Stephanie Hendrick’s on explains this as follows:
their observations on weblog boundaries
employ social network analysis act as “…on the one hand, they tend to
an example of how the concepts are be much more abstract than such
explicit but whose reference seem to master metaphors as organism,
slip from one meaning to another. text, theater or even various
Alexander Galloway’s approach of economic metaphors such as
analyzing networks via codes and market or capital; on the other
topology will also be an example of this hand, they are deeply intwined
oscillation, while the work of sociologist with and thus harder to distinguish
Manuel Castells and Dutch from their equivalents in ordinary
communication researcher Jan Van Dijk language (for example, one’s
will be examined for the posibilty of “fields” of interest, giving “space”
simultaneous function in their use of to someone, respecting one’s
these concepts. These examples will be “territory”, transgressing
followed by an introduction of the boundaries, and so forth) and from
articles in this issue. The function and the many spatial and orientational
the contribution of each article will be categories (for example, high/low;
briefly examined. But first, an horizontal/vertical; open/closed;
explanation of the spatial concepts is internal/external; and so on) that
needed. inform our taken-for-granted, daily
lexicon. Spatial metaphors, as a
result, are less “visible” and catchy
Why gaps, divisions and boundaries? but also potentially more pervasive
This relevance of discussing these than most metaphors hitherto
concepts lies in the fact that many allowed to shape sociological
authors advocating the use of concept writing”
“network” in their works indicate or Silber, 1995, 2
loosely refer to them but hardly really
discuss them. If a network is a concept These concepts shape the path of
of systems within systems (Van Dijk, academic discussion without being
2005, 2), then there must be some acknowledged. For the case of a “good
divisions made by researchers textual account” in the Latourian sense,
somewhere in order to observe that all relations it must be taken in
there are different systems. Two things consideration. For, to truly understand
are happening to these metaphors in what we are claiming, we must be able

to explain how we got to that point. No two meanings simultaneously? For,
reflection on the use of these concepts “one major feature of spatial metaphors
means leaving out part of the journey. is simply that they do ultimately allude to
This invisibility refers in this case some concrete, material “reality”, be it in
to two particular instances. The first is ordinary physical space or
that the writer does not explicitly commonsensical understandings of
mention the specific spatial concepts social proximity or distance between
(i.e. gaps, division or boundaries) but individuals” (Silber, 1995,10). Like two
are nonetheless logically present. When sides to one coin, metaphorical and
Albert Lazslo Barabasi speaks of the symbolic use may go hand in hand with
core or concentration of a network, a reference to “real life”. For Silber it is
readers may conclude that this core clear that ”there are cases, as we shall
ends somewhere. The same is the case see, where both tendencies deeply
when he uses the spatial notion of intertwine, and where the boundary
continents and islands to visualize the between “metaphorical”and
relational structures of Internet websites. “substantive” use of spatial constructs
These geographical terms have remains inexplicit and permeable”
boundaries (continents have coast lines (Silber, 1995, 3).
for example) and divisions (islands are
separated from a continent by a body of
water). Barabasi does not give specific Invisibility
attention to the nature of these ends. As mentioned above, invisibility takes
The second instance is when the spatial place in two ways. The first is when
constructs are explicitly mentioned as concepts are implicit and the second is
for example Lilia Efimovia and when concepts are explicit. An example
Stephanie Hendrick’s work of exploring of implicity may be found in the
the boundaries of weblog communities computational work of Albert Barabasi in
(2005). which the concepts are logically present
In reference to the second but never receive explicit attention.
development, a seemingly ambiguous Barabasi’s main tenet is that most
oscillation is taking place. In many networks work according to a powerlaw,
cases, the reference of these concepts which results in expansion and
are unclear. Are they being used as preferential attachment during this
metaphors in the symbolic sense or do expansion (Barabasi, 1999, 2002,
they refer to more material and 2003). For the Internet, this means that
substantial matters? Do they refer to a websites with already many links to and
fact that is tangible or perhaps the from other websites are central cores or
concept merely refers to a frame of hubs (the dot to which all lines of wheel
thought. The point is that most writers lead to and leave from). Expansion
are unspecific about the function of occurs when new nodes or websites are
these concepts. In many cases, writers built. Barabasi argues that new nodes
start with one reference and slip into connect themselves to hubs. The result
another without being noticed: a shift of this, is that nodes that are not or are
from the metaphorical meaning or less connected to these hubs are less
reference to the substantive material accessible. A notion of core obviously
meaning takes place and vice versa. It also alludes to a periphery. Barabasi
is key to be aware slipping from one to takes this idea even further by arguing
another happens. However, a critical that the structure of hubs and nodes on
note to be made is, to what extent could the Internet are like continents and
we really speak of a shift? Is it possible islands (2002,166). See also the figure 1
that the concepts could also refer to the in the following page.

The spatial concepts of gaps, boundaries and divisions, there would
divisions and boundaries are implicit in be no difference in whether a piece of
his work. In his reference to cores (or land is a continent or an island. There
hubs) alludes to the presence of a would merely be one vast land. The
periphery and outskirts. For something notion of continent and island would not
to be seen as a core, it must be different have even existed if there was nothing
from to its surroundings, i.e. it has a to separate these two pieces of land.
concentration of nodes and connections The same is the case with a core. A
that are far higher. This immediately central core is not a core if there is
puts the surrounding nodes in peripheral nothing surrounding it. But vice versa, a
or border position. This notion, that the periphery only emerges with a center in
further away from the core, the less the position. This particular issue is what
nodes and the less the connection, makes reflection on the functions of
alludes to the idea that at some point or these spatial constructs necessary.
place the connections end and nodes Academic discussion focusing mainly on
are no more. This same idea is echoed concepts such as “core” or “continent”
in his notion of continents and islands. without giving proper attention to the
Real life continents and islands have outskirts is like viewing holiday pictures
boundaries, i.e. the point where land with an apparatus that only allows a one
stops and water starts. Also, continents dimensional view. Reflection on “border”
and islands are separated from each concepts gives extra dimension to the
other by a body of water. Without these discussion.
Figure 1. Barabasi’s continents and islands. Source: Barabasi, 2002, 2
An example of an explicit mentioning of locating a community when there is no

spatial concepts is the work of Lilia single shared space to start an analysis
Efimova and Stephanie Hendrick. The from” (Efimova & Hendrick, 2005, 3).
purpose of that particular paper is to They argue that while some blogger
gain “insight into methods of finding “life communal spaces may have visible
between buildings”: virtual settlements boundaries more often indicators of a
where weblog communities may reside” community are more difficult to
and to “address research challenges to distinguish (2005, 3). They note that

“community participation in weblog
networks is not located in one place, but The journey itself, although short, from
distributed both on individual weblogs, one weblog to another is that what
as well as in the space between the divides or separates one weblog to
personal weblogs. (Efimova & Hendrick, another. For although many things are
2005, 3). happening when the weblog moves from
Efimova and Hendrick speak of on weblog to another via links, these are
communal practices they refer to hidden to the user and actually say
reprocipal linking from one blog to nothing about communal practices.
another. From this reprocipal linking Because nothing is visible to the
does the space between the weblogs blogger, it may even be argued that this
emerge which they see like the the short time space between weblogs are
space between buildings full of action experiental gaps because nothing
because “blogging is similar to life occurs for the blogger (aside from the
between buildings in a real city”, i.e. blinking loading balk at the bottom of the
passing vehicles manned by individuals, screen). This use of spatial constructs
pedestrians walking, shopping etc as argued above is symbolic. It is not
(Efimova & Hendrick, 2005, 7). like the weblogs are actually “sitting” or
The space between weblogs (the “standing” beside each other in virtual
divisions: that what separates but also community. The link, that is purely
connects weblogs) seems to refer to a technical not only acts as the connecting
substantive development that is entity, but also refers to the division
occuring on the Internet. With it the between the weblogs. The technical
writers wanted to indicate that aspect is what strange enough, makes
communal life on the Net emerges from this use of spatial concepts substantive.
reprocipal linking. However, unlike The materiality in this case consists of
activity happening in the space between protocols and codes that active before,
real buildings, where people walk, talk during and after the journey from one
public transport, etc, which are visible weblog to another. These codes and
between buildings, the interactions protocol that jump into place once the
between weblogs are not. All results of weblog user clicks on a link. The
the reprocipal linking is found on the reference of the metaphor spatial
weblogs and not in between. For, unlike divisions in this case is a conceptual
life between real buildings, actions image, the relations that the researchers
outside the weblogs is made invisible to are refering to are observed via
the weblog user. One does not see the substantial means, i.e. technical links
actions by the computer nor the made in codes and protocol. This is a
software. Since, it is the nature of the strange development, because without
medium to hide the processes that reflected upon, the observations have
occur when links between websites are shifted from substantial material
made, “life” signs then, are only visible observation to metaphorical use.
ON the websites. The list of artifacts
made by the researchers on page 8 and
9, about the meme paths, reading Oscillation
patterns, linking patterns, weblog This slipping is also visible in Barabasi’s
conversations, tribe marks etc, are work is starting point of material links
generated by those elements visible on made by technical hubs and nodes,
the weblog. The “road” or space in terms which he uses as metaphors to
between is not visible. This means that describe the processes occuring. The
results of these “life signs” refer to a use of continents and islands are
conclusion taking place outside the Net. metaphorical also and thus so is the
The spatial construction here refers to implicit presence of boundaries and
something mainly metaphorical.

divisions. This metaphoric use becomes distributed network that he proposes to
problematic when asked to specify what adapt in the first place. Unlike in a
does the metaporic gap or void that centralized network, in a distributed
separates these continents from islands network even if one portion is
(see figure 1). Although Barabasi dislocated, other parts may continue to
himself does not make this clear, one thrive because the power or energy is
can conclude that this gap or division distributed among the nodes. Belief in a
between continent and islands is the hierarchical structure does not support
absence of electronic connections this thought, because arguing that one
between nodes. The hubs and nodes of root server has the power to sustain all
one center do not or are limitedly else, is turning the root server into a
connected substantively to the other. central hub, thus a centralized network
What results is a seeming slipping from is the result. Secondly, a critical reaction
one frame of reference to another. may be made concerning the all-
Alexander Galloway’s work on important role that Galloway owns to
topology and protocol also displays this root servers. From the local PC to the
oscillation. For Galloway, the core of root servers, a great many local servers
networked computing is the concept of help carry the load. Although these
protocol. A computer protocol is a set of servers do not have all codal records of
recommendations and rules that outline websites and are dependent on the root
specific technical standards (Galloway, servers for new code content, they are
2004, 6). Shared protocols are what capable of copying frequently requested
defines the landscape of the network. websites and offering them even if the
Without a shared protocol, there is not root server would break down.
network (Galloway, 2004, 12). The interesting thing about
Galloway’s account studies the “material Galloway is that although his main tenet
substrate of media” (Galloway, 2004, is that the Internet relies on material
16). His focus on substantive elements codes and protocols in order to function
of the medium the Internet leads the properly, he implements metaphor use
observer to conclude that in relation to to explain certain processes, such as
the concepts of gaps, divisions and when he states that “to help understand
boundaries, he sees them as very much the concept of computer protocols,
material. For Galloway, the Internet is consider the analogy of the highway
clearly not a free and uncontrollable system” (Galloway, 2004, 6-7). Thus,
environment. He argues that once root himself explicitly makes clear that he
servers are taken out, that whole departs from a metaphoric stance, but
portions of the Internet immediately his own work only points to the material
cease to exist (Galloway, 2004, 10). substantive reference.
“Since the root servers are at the top,
they have ultimate control over the
existence (but not necessarily the Simultaneously metaphoric and
content) of each lesser branch. Without material
the foundational support of the root An example of a simultaneous
servers, all lesser branches of the DNS metaphoric and material reference of
network become unusable. Such a spatial concept use, is the work of Jan
reality should shatter our image of the Van Dijk. His starting point is a
Internet as a vast, uncontrollable metaphoric use of the terms, systems
meshwork (Galloway, 2004, 10). and networks functioning like neural
Obviously, some critical notes may be networks. He defines a network as “a
made about this hierarchical thinking. relatively open system linking at least
First of all, the idea that the Internet is three relatively closed systems” and “a
hierarchically manned seemingly system is a set of interdependent units
undermines the very notion of

working together to adapt to a changing the world, while fragmenting subordinate
environment” (Van Dijk, 2005, 3). But he functions, and people, in the multiple
notes that while, “networks carry the space of places, made of locales
image of being open and free”, “. they increasingly segregated and
posses these characteristics only in a disconnected from each other. (Castells,
particular way and are unable to be 1996, 476).
completely open and free anyway” (Van
Dijk, 2005, 11). For Van Dijk, the
Internet have very substantive borders, Concluding remarks
“networks of ICT in particular in require In this introduction, it was argued that
all kinds of programming, codes and the concepts of gaps, divisions and
access barriers” (2005, 11).These boundaries are generally marginal
technical regulation is what is concepts in network theory. As argued
responsible for making the network, “in above, these concepts are loosely or
the last ten years is has been closed, shortly referred to in different works. The
barred and regulated in a rapid way” concepts are invisibly present, on the
(2005, 11). That boundaries and one hand because they are not implicitly
divisions for Van Dijk are truly mentioned but are logically present and
substantive, is visible from the following on the other they are made explicit but it
statement: “We all know the phenomena is not made clear what reference they
of core members, nodes, bridges and make. While the conceptual use seems
isolates, intimates and outcasts, ‘spiders to slip from a metaphoric to a
and flies’ in networks. In all social and substantive and vice versa, there are
media networks there are more people also instances in which simultaneous
outside than inside” (Van Dijk, 2005, reference is possible.
12). And yet he employs “bridges and The articles in this issue pose to
isolates, intimates and outcasts, ‘spiders make visible the functions of the spatial
and flies’ “ as metaphors for those shut concepts. By discussion their position
out of the system. the writers contribute to the
Like Van Dijk, Manuel Castells demarginalisation of these spatial
also utilizes the metaphoric and constructs. Loes Vollenbroek’s work
substantive reference at the same time. compares Social Network Analysis and
While, his space of flows is the Actor Network Theory by focusing on
conceptual metaphoric reference, the position of the researcher. She
spaces of places refers to substantial argues that the very act of doing
“real life” situation (Castells, 1996, 423). research creates boundaries. Monica
While he argues that transactions in a Negri will explore the notion of gaps and
global level take place in a more boundaries in relation to continuity on
conceptual manner, “at a deeper level, the Web. Thomas Nachreiner will
the material foundations of society, discuss the position of divisions for the
space and time are being transformed, DNS protocol system. Nachreiner
organized around the space of flows employs the concept in a substantive
and timeless time. Beyond the technical manner, while Vollenbroek and
metaphorical value of these Negri both explore the oscillation of the
expressions, supported by a number of concepts. This issue ends with a short
analyze and illustrations in preceding and sweet narrative by Nachreiner that
chapters, a major hypothesis is put reflects on the role of the writer in
forward: dominant functions are relation to his or her textual creation.
organized in networks pertaining to a
space of flows that links them up around

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Barabási, A. & Bonabeau, E. Scale-Free Networks. Scientific American 288. 2003.

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Oxford University Press 2005 (pp.121-140)

2. Finding or Choosing Boundaries?
Exploring the position of the researcher in ANT and SNA
By Loes Vollenbroek
Abstract:
While in traditional sciences the researcher was positioned as an external objective
observer revealing facts, epistemological reflections have led to a revision of the position
of the researcher. In the analyses of networks, following one of its leading figures Bruno
Latour, Actor Network Theory (ANT), calls for reflexivity and acknowledgement and care
in the way the process of writing in itself is a method. ANT calls for no a priori notions
and an open minded researcher with no pre-set framework, this paper will explore the
methodology and researcher position in Actor Network Theory in comparison with Social
Network Analysis. First addressing the similarities and differences between the two
approaches in method and approach of networks. Following, while looking at examples
of studies where the two approaches have been used, an exploration of the position of
the researcher in theory and in practice. Concluding that in both approaches researchers
are in need of boundaries, because of the extensive amount of data that will otherwise
be generated. In ANT these boundaries are metaphorically called ‘black boxes’, while in
SNA boundaries are generally placed upon network. In both cases, we see that the
choices researchers have to make create boundaries in the analysis. The question is not
if researchers influence their research, but if science is better if researchers reflect upon
the process. The difference between science producing results, like SNA, or science
describing processes, like ANT.1
1
Due to personal circumstances the full article will be available in a couple of days and a new version of
this journal will be send.

3. Continuity on the Web
Beyond Cinematographic Boundaries
By Monica Negri
“Neo, The One: I know you're out there. I can feel you now. I know that you're afraid.
You're afraid of us. You're afraid of change. I don't know the future. I didn't come here to
tell you how this is going to end. I came here to tell you how it's going to begin. I'm going
to hang up this phone and then I'm going to show these people what you don't want
them to see. I'm going to show them a world without you, a world without rules and
controls, without borders or boundaries, a world where anything is possible. Where we
go from there is a choice I leave to you.”
From the screenplay of “The Matrix” - Wachowsky Br.,1999
Abstract:
This article reflects on boundaries as an embedded characteristic of the network
structure, considering two different levels of analysis: the physical plane where cables
and routers distribute bits along the net, and the content surface which allows the
transition of knowledge among the connected nodes. This distinction between a stage
where the linkage is established by mechanical support and the layer which allows the
passage of information directed to the user, implies a consideration of the possible
obstacles to the continuity of the process. Within this analytical perspective, a functional
association with the cinematographic concept of continuity will be introduced in order to
clarify which is the importance of an uninterrupted connection and what are the potential
boundaries or gaps that can occur. Similarly to Jones’s theory of virtual settlement
(Jones in Efimova & Hendrick, 2005), I will make use of meaningful movie such as “The
Matrix” (Wachowsky Br.,1999) to provide an analogical metaphor with the network
environment, considering the role of boundaries in this cinematographic subject.

to its strict relation with time slide. The
From the Matrix to the Network word “strict” is chosen since the task of
The image heading this article belongs assuring an uninterrupted flow of data is
to the last sequence of “Matrix”, perhaps a prerogative to which contemporary
one of the most well known movies cinema can not more renounce to,
dealing with new media and informatics. specially after the passage from silent
The story plot stresses on the main role movies to sound era.
acquired by network connections in The fact was that until the
contemporary society: it is centred on twenties, the need of dialogue inserts a
the metaphor of a matrix whose justified technical manipulation of the
unavoidable linkage kidnap users to a sequence connection in order to make
connected system, where the the story understandable, implies that
boundaries coincide with the limits of the continuity on the plot level was
social life itself. obtained through a discontinuity on the
With an allusion to Albert physical plane. In fact, the first
Barabasi’s (2003) perspective, in the distinction involved when dealing with
Matrix “people are nodes” connected to the cinematographic continuity relates to
a structure which provides to them the difference between a temporal and a
relations, communication and a role: physical level, which both take part in
once that a disconnection occurs, the the final process of the text fruition. The
missed-node gap is replaced by another temporal flow in a movie consists of the
subject whose function is to compensate logical and continuous stream of
the interrupted flow of energy which information which improve the plot: it
machines derive from the Matrix. can be experienced considering the
Referring to Scale-Free networks, whole narrative process and is based on
Barabasi suggests how “accidental the causal connection between the
failures” as the lost of a node connection events within the story. The physical
could be easily being compensated by plane relates instead to the material on
the system itself, which could send, which the data are conveyed, i.e. the
referring again to our metaphor of the very film and technical effects applied to
Matrix, clones of Agent Smith to solve obtain the product in a defined version.
the gap (Barabasi, 2003, 52). Instead, Between these two levels we have to
“coordinated attacks” as Neo and the consider the language used to
other aware nodes’ would threaten the communicate by cinema, made of units
stability of the system, undermining the as frames, scenes and sequences,
network in its most vulnerable points. which are structured by the process of
Many concepts so far have been montage, shot following the perception
introduced: not only the idea of rules and codified on causal
continuity and its related corollary or conventions.
boundary, but also the possible Considering the metaphor with
occurrence of a gap, all notions which which I have started this article, I will
necessitate a description before our now establish a parallel between cinema
discourse develops further. and web, considering the possible
analogies between their flows of data.
As Barabasi (2002) suggests, the units
The Continuity of connection inside a network can be
The concept of continuity has gained identified with nodes, that pragmatically
importance following the development of coincide with the cinematographic
the cinematographic medium, within turning points and catalyst events
which it covers an fundamental role, due characterising a story plot: both of them,
in fact, represent linking spots contained

by a system made of bits or photo maintenance, one more level of analysis
grams. Also in a net environment, it is can be implied: the whole set of
needed a division between a temporal connections can be conceived as a
and a physical level, since the first main Text including other sub-text (the
ensures a coherence in the passage of nodes) and their frameworks (links and
data involving two or more nodes, while configuration), underlining that in this
the latter support the concrete case the meaning of “frameworks” does
transmission of bits from the server to not coincides with Latour’s (2004)
the client. Focusing on the temporal connotation of theoretical background.
stage of a network, continuity is based The label of text applied to the
on a successful attainment of the network works in relation with the
pursued result within a single metaphor we have established with the
connection to the system, without cinematographic subject and it is
deviating from the linkage process or supported by the method of referring to
pausing it. Also a second meaning of a specific product belonging to this field,
continuity can be related to the network, i.e. “The Matrix”. If we consider in fact
i.e. the amount of time for which a link Genette’s (1997) analysis2 of the
remains active, allowing the relation structure of the text, the whole web
among those nodes which are related experiences the features of:
through it. Both of these definitions can - Ipertextuality, since it engages
be exemplified by our movie reference: contributions and influences from
if we think about the access of Neo to other media both on the level of
the Matrix as the activation of a node content and of method of dealing
inside the system, his temporal with it and, also, because the
continuity (1st meaning) will be contemporary cultural
represented by the sequence of actions background has added to the
he will be able to track since the web unexpected technological
moment of his connection (with the perspectives, which create a
cable in his body) until the call comes to connection with other main Texts
disconnect him. Instead, the duration of (ex. Cinema).
Neo’s ability in being an hot spot inside - Paratextuality, regarding the set
the Matrix, for the present and future of laws and material supports
entrances, has to be considered as the which guide its development.
temporal continuity (I defined) of 2nd - Intratextuality, due to the
level. involvement of different contents
Passing on to examine the (ex. Interfaces for money
physical side of the network, it is transitions, informative sites),
obviously necessary to refer to the kinds of languages (ex. XML,
technological supports which HTML), types of technologies
substantially create the connection for a (ex. Sever side: ASP, Client
net and provide a continuity when all the side: Javascript).
components are joined and turned on. The reciprocal influence of these levels
The language employed by nodes to implies a process of remediation, term
communicate between them is based on that, according to Bolter & Grusin
bits that, if coded, originate both the (1996), our culture has adopted to
content and the rules needed for its express the way in which one medium
transmission, i.e. the protocol which reforms or improves an other. This
Galloway (2002) labels instead “the characteristic of remediation is
management style” of computers
(Galloway, 2002, 3). Subsequently, in 2
For these classification I am following
considering the network subject and its Genette’s structure of text.

supported by its Latin meaning “to and Causal Blunders. To be more
restore”: each new medium is supposed accurate, the second circumstance
to justify itself from the statement that it properly refers to a taxonomy of errors,
is improving upon a predecessor and which can of course be planned, but not
since a new medium appears, a lack of in order to maintain the continuity, which
immediacy starts being associated to is instead the focus of our analysis.
the traditional media, that is also Following it necessitates an
considered inadequate (Bolter & Grusin, independent dealing which will
1996, 15). In this sense, the process of constitute the last section of my article.
continuity lays also on the practice of In order to explicate the above
remediation, that allows an improvement labelled as discontinuity planned
of the network system through reference occurrences (DPO), it is first necessary
to contemporary and previous media: to make a further distinction among
the case of similarity between web and what I am going to label Procedures and
cinema can be considered in reason of those I will refer to as Regulations. It is
their reciprocal influence but this is a required to delineate that, if the state of
different point of analysis, which continuity adopts a linear behaviour and
Manovich (2001) has exploited in a leaves a certain independency among
exhaustive book. the different levels, instead a condition
Finally, dealing with continuity as of discontinuity leads to an instability
a state of uninterrupted flow of with distributes itself on more than those
information means referring to Castell’s planes we have analysed before
(1996) space of flow which, due to the (Temporal & Physical, Intertext,
nature of its real-time interactions and Paratext, Intratext).
the material infrastructure that makes In fact, if we consider our movie
these interactions possible, has both reference, until Keanu Reeves is Mister
material and immaterial aspects, as Anderson, i.e. a passive programmer
temporal and physical level are implied with a common life and no rebel
in the network stability. From physics we attitudes, the Matrix has a continuity
learn that “for every force exerted, there which is maintained even if some
is an equal but oppositely directed one normal nodes die or any Oracle is
(Newton's third law). Therefore, if we hyperlinked. Instead, when Neo wakes
have a space we should also have a up from his sleep, a central node causes
limit (at least beyond which we cannot instability in the system and this
see) and if there is continuity, probably happens on more than one level. First
somewhere, we’ll find a discontinuity. Mister Anderson’s time of life recalls the
field of Temporality, since he virtually
dies while Neo is born as new conscious
The Boundary individual. Secondly, after his
Introducing the parallel with cinema, I detachment from the Matrix cable,
referred earlier to the early silent movies Mister Anderson’s body doesn’t give any
where the visual continuity was more his energy to the machines and
interrupted by inserts with dialogues this can be situated on the defined
which, if functional to the process of Physical level. Then, since Neo can
understanding, were at the same time pass from the Matrix text to Zion land,
embedded in an interruption of the route this allows him to change his
of flowing. The initial distinction between embodiment, metaphorically configuring
temporal and physical continuity needs a space of Intertextuality. Also, when
to be exploited also in the case of Neo fights Agent Smith, i.e. a cluster of
discontinuity events, which can be nodes arranged in defence of the
categorized in Planned Occurrences mainframe, he is involved in the process

of Intratextuality. Finally, Reeves is at belong to the paratext, control the use of
the same time Mister Anderson, as code and content, both on the form of a
Agent Smith calls him, and Neo, for temporal and physical level: according
Trinity and Morpheus and this to the Italian Law, the right of exclusive
contextualization is involved in the so- right can expires with time, while the
called Paratextuality. property can change owner following to
As we referred before and using detainment reasons.
Barabasi’s words: “just a few key hubs In the end, we consider
[…] splintered the system into tiny Machines on which the code runs, being
groups of hopelessly isolated routers” visualized as content or acting as
and this is exactly what happens with regulator: the physical support is always
Neo’s gained awareness, but also when implied as source, even in the case of
a boundary raises within the web. The Virtual Reality (which if doesn’t need a
categorization of DPO can literary follow cable to pass, at least both the sender
our cinematographic metaphor and, for and the receiver have to be provided
example, those twenties written with magnetic or electric interceptors. It
dialogues could belong to the Physical is important to underline how
level, act versus the Temporal continuity boundaries, due to their feature of being
and being included within the planned, have the pursue of ensuring
Intratextual ground. the temporal continuity which above I
Following, it becomes clear how defined of 2nd level, i.e. the stability of
both procedures and regulations can the system in a future perspective, even
originally being located on a single level, if this means that some nodes are
but spread their effect on more then one locally slowed down or turned off (ex
stage. For cinematographic texts virus nodes).
procedures coincides with techniques of Concluding, continuity is
montage (Physicality) that, creating a independent form discontinuity since a
discontinuity of reality, insert boundaries boundary can be a sufficient but not
of fades, cuts and effects, building on necessary condition to create a flow of
the continuity of the movie. Regulations information; instead continuity is a
are instead part of the paratext, since passage both necessary and sufficient
they influences the text without being to which DPO can follow.
embedded in it, with an effect
comparable to the Cascade Style
Sheets employed in web programming. The Gap
It is now effortless the passage When dealing with the interruption of the
to the network analysis, where we can data flow we regarded to the difference
retrieve a similar taxonomy for web between DPO and Errors, basing on the
boundaries. First we consider intentionality or causality of their
Subscription & Passwords, that can be happening. A Gap can be defined as a
included in the procedures group: they lack in the sequence of data, which can
are concretized in code sequences be perceived directly, through its visual
(Physical), but necessitate a temporal manifestation, or indirectly by its effects
effort to be exploited, which interrupts which differently relate to the space.
the continuity in the process (ex. of Also, if the concept of blunder is
buying) pursued by an user. Firewalls, denoted with an unplanned feature, this
Spy-ware, Antivirus strictly belong to the means that it can occur on each level at
category of software and, subsequently any time and, above all, that the
they are based on the code: their task is temporal continuity is, on principle,
associated with the concept of boundary excluded from each level by its
for antonomasia. Copyright Laws, which attendance.

Starting again with cinema, a in the coded directions causes errors to
gap can be retrieved both on the the structure. Leading on an error
physical and on the temporal level: in taxonomy, it is possible to start
the first case it regards a missing part in considering the required characteristics
the film (affecting the sound track or the of the node to get access inside the
video path or both) or, in the second network: focusing on the physical
possibility, it relates to the absence of implementation, a machine connected to
connection within the logical succession the system, necessitates of some
of the story plot. There is then a third features, which can also be run during
possibility in which a break takes place the connection.
between the public and the Trinity & Neo, before entering the
cinematographic text itself, when the Matrix are trained with Virtual Reality
paratext surrounding and basing the software then, once they are inside, the
movie is not shared by the community nodes they are linked in the real world
(by the way this reflection on temporal provide superior skills if needed: the
gap in more connotative than properly advise of downloading a Flashplayer, for
denotative). Going back to the example, could have the same value as
Wachowsky’s movie, it show how it is wearing 3D glasses at the cinema filling,
possible, when a rupture arises in the in this cases, the player/user gap. This
virtual world, to take awareness of the first kind of lack is sufficient to break up
presence of the Matrix: in the network the whole connection since the un-
environment it also happens that, just at satisfaction of physical requirements
the moment of inefficiency, the can compromise the same start-up of
knowledge of dealing with machines the network complex. Another situation,
becomes stronger. that can occur to destabilise the
However this is the same continuity, can be related to the so-
process involved for the called Error 404 File Not Found. In this
cinematographic montage: when it case a gap is affecting the structure and
becomes visible, on one side it reassess the destination node is no more present
the distance between the spectator and in the web: this lays on the Physical
the spectacle, but it can also being plane but can influence the 1st level
assumed as wanted and, for this Temporality, since the specific
reason, aesthetically appreciated. In the connection is lead towards a dead end
case of an error instead, the effect it street.
conveys it one of disappointment and The circumstance in which an
this is sufficient to undermine its status incorrect URL is pursued can be
of necessity. As in the Matrix a control associated to the wrong criteria of
exists to prevent kinds of boobs, the research applied during a linkage to the
correspondents of the Agent Smith in a system: since the interaction supports
network environment can be retrieved in allow the sender node to start the
sequences of code written against a connection, in both this cases the
tentative of software corruption, system human factor is relevant, being he
violation, or copyrighted data involved in augmenting the instability
downloading. within the flows of data. If, neither with
It is quite obvious we are just good performances of the machines nor
dealing with boundaries: this means mistakes in the communication with
that, beyond the boundaries, we are them, still the final result cannot be
starting to distinguish gaps, therefore a obtained, this means that an
gap can insinuate inside a boundary unavoidable gap is occurring and the
itself, since it is possible that a human continuity of the network is
fault or an autonomous malfunctioning compromised, both on a physical and on

a chronological basis. When a linkage reach, the first in order to defend, the
takes longer, it can be due to the latter resolute for its destruction.
mechanical features not enough Following, Neo is himself a gap: when
powerful for sustaining the connection, Mister Anderson node is awakened by
but it is also possible that the same Trinity and Morpheus, he leaves his
network is too busy to allow any further function in the system, whose error is
procedure. immediately perceived on the control
It has become clear how code level and the Agents are sent to repair it.
errors cover an important role in The purpose of a network
destabilizing the continuity in a related coincide actually with Mister Smith
system, while the levels implied have to himself, that chases a temporal
be considered strictly related by the continuity in the system permanence: if
effects of this gaps, since without a a gap occurs a resolutor is sent to solve
working code, the communication within the error. It is important to underline how
a network cannot take place. The most the set of solution that Mister Smith
perceivable consequence of gaps uses in order to re-establish the order in
occurrences leads to knowledge that the the Matrix primarily consist of
network has borders, which means also boundaries, which are useful to stop the
that is physical limited. Temporally, discontinuity created by the rebels’
instead, it is continuous due to its actions.
embedded characteristic of being scale- In the same way, the collection
free (Barabasi, 2003): the most powerful of Procedures and Regulations create
node needs to be targeted as in our for the web system a set of references
movie reference, until the main cluster that can provide stability, at least in
of Agent Smith is not defeated, Neo order to prevent a gap event: it seems
cannot complete his task and the Matrix that the network, being built on
will continue its existence. connection and nodes, cannot reach a
state of continuity without its matrix.
Concluding, we can reflect on the a
The Network requires the Matrix famous sentence by Jean Cocteau:
If so far the metaphor of the Matrix has “Cinema is Death’s working laboratory”
been useful to explain the abstract as the cinema is told to work on time to
connection within the network system, preserve it from the past, assuring a
looking forward to correlate theoretical continuity to those data it represents. At
concept with visual references, it is time the same way, a network bases its
to reveal the differences between the temporal continuity on physic
continuity of this cinematographic requirements, coded language and node
subject an the network environment. communication, in order to assure an
Foremost “The Matrix” movie is based uninterrupted flows of informations: in
on the necessity of overcoming the this sense, we could metaphorically
boundaries: the real world is conceived affirm that beyond the boundaries hides
as something beyond them which both the same goal of immortality affecting
Neo and Mister Smith are determined to the humankind.

Bibliography
Barabási, A.L. & Bonabeau E., Scale-Free Networks. Scientific American 288, 2003,
pp.60-69
Barabási A.L. & Albert R., Emergence of scaling in random networks. Science 286, 15
October 1999, pp.509-512
Barabási A.L., Linked: the new science of networks, Cambridge, Perseus Publishing
2002, pp. 143-197
Bolter G. & Grusin R., Remediation, in Configuration 4.3, 1996, p 311-358.
Efimova L. & Hendrick S., In search for a virtual settlement: An exploration of weblog
community boundaries. Paper presented at 2nd International Conference on
Communities and Technologies, Milano, Italy, June 2005
https://doc.telin.nl/dscgi/ds.py/Get/File-46041/weblog_community_boundaries.pdf
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Cambridge University Press, org. Seuils, 1987
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Online resources
Wachowsky Brothers, “The Matrix” screenplay, 1999
http://www.theforbiddenknowledge.com/the_matrix_script/index01.htm

4. Domain Name System
Protocol, Governance and Divisions
By Thomas Nachreiner
Abstract:
In the administration of the Internet technical notions merge with the political ones. This
is especially true for the implementation of the Domain Name System, which is regarded
as one of the central protocols structuring the Internet. This paper portrays the
protocological features of DNS in its technical and political dimensions. Starting from a
theoretical perspective the daily practice on the protocological layer of the Internet is
sketched out with the aim to sharpen the contrast between the notions of protocol and its
application in reality. Through this approach two issues are addressed: the assumed
universality of the DNS on the technical layer and the discussion about it on the political
layer. Showing that the first is no inherent property of the system, the second is
interpreted as a self-regulating process which is based on a wrong assumption. This
leads to the conclusion that divisions within DNS are contradicting the assumption of
universality, but that exactly these divisions enforce and reproduce this universality.
highlight the sharing of protocols as a

Introduction crucial feature for communication, and
Quite recently breaking news shocked furthermore the dangers of DNS’s
the Internet community: in the aftermath hierarchy as Galloway describes them.
of the World Summit on the Information This will be contrasted with a
Society (WSIS) China seemed to have more detailed picture of the DNS, how it
introduced their own root zone files works and its role in the daily
without coordination with the procedures of the Internet. The issues
International Corporation for Assigned adressed here are: the origin and
Names and Numbers (ICANN). This purpose of the DNS, the role of the root
was mainly received as anti-american servers in the system, and how
policy, and furthermore as a threat to counterprotocological features are
the universality of the Domain Name inherent to the system, pointing at the
System (DNS) and thus of the Internet consequences these might have.
in general. The triggered discussion In a last step I will discuss the
involved the structure and architecture political debate around ‘Internet
of the Internet and its protocols, as well Governance’: The struggle around
as Internet governance and its players. ICANN, and especially how
In my argument, I will start with technological issues enter the sphere of
Alexander Galloway’s notion of protocol: politics. I will especially highlight how
how the Transfer Control Protocol / complex matters are reduced to fit the
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and the DNS justification of political agendas.
shaped the Internet’s topology, imposing The purpose of this paper is
control through their on the one hand twofold: First, I want to show that the
“distributed”, and on the other hand universality suggested by many notions
“hierarchical” features. I will especially of DNS is already an illusion, and under

no respect a natural property of the among different devices while remaining
system, though it was its original indifferent towards the content of
intention. Second, I want to show how communication. The Internet, often
the fragile compromise making the perceived as a chaotic mass of data
system work is achieved through the lacking central control, is organized by
“distributed” character of the Internet, protocols that form “a distributed
and that the perception of threats is management system” (Galloway, 2004,
heavily shaped by political interest and 8). In this sense “protocol is how
hysteria. technological control exists after
4
This might help to answer the decentralisation” (Ibid.).
question to what extent there is a The idea that the Internet is not
division of the net on the protocological controllable is – according to Galloway –
layer of the DNS, and what the based on the properties of the TCP/IP
consequences of the recent protocol: its structure resembling a
developments might be. meshwork, the distributed technology of
TCP/IP facilitates peer-to-peer
communication (Galloway, 2004, 46). It
Protocol, Governance and Divisions allows Internetworking if the connected
hosts share it as a universal language
Protocols: The Governing Principles of while it is open to a theoretically
the Net unlimited number of hosts in different
locations. As the “result of the action of
Prior to the dawn of the digital age autonomous agents (computers)” (Ibid.),
‘protocol’ described “any type of correct the robust and flexible TCP/IP forms a
behaviour within a specific system of “system of distributed control” (Ibid.).
conventions” (Galloway, 2004, 7), The second protocol, which, in
required to “establish the essential Galloway’s terms, constitutes the
points necessary to enact an agreed- Internet’s mode of organization, is the
upon standard of action” (Ibid.). While DNS: responsible for the process called
the earlier protocols were supposed to resolution it translates Internet
govern social or political practices, addresses from names to numbers. Its
computer protocols now represent the structure is that of an “inverted tree”
standards for the implementation of (Galloway, 2004, 49), and on its top the
specific computer technologies. In so-called root servers are located. On
Galloway’s notion protocol “is a these in turn, the information is located
technique to achieve voluntary where the name servers for the different
regulation in a contingent environment” top-level domains (TLDs) are situated.
(Ibid.), yet, in the context of computer These again carry the information what
technology no longer “a question of exact name server on the branch below
consideration and sense” (Ibid.) but contains the information for a certain
rather one of “logic and physics” 3 (Ibid.). domain name. This server then can
Operating on the level of coding, resolve the asked domain name into the
protocols coordinate communication numerical address of the computer
3
For the sake of his argument Galloway is
confusing regulation with administration. See
4
also Becker et al. Note that ‘after’ in this context is used
(2002, 40), who see protocol rather as part of chronologically: when the decentralised diagram
the architecture and design of the technological was replaced
infrastructure by the distributed diagram as the mode of
than as a tool of regulation. organization.

asking for a certain domain.5 This Protocological Reality on the Net
means that a host’s query for a domain However, as plausible as Galloway’s
name has to be answered step by step, framework of a universal DNS and the
from the top to the bottom of the tree. If inherent control of the hierarchical
one server fails to give the authoritative structure might seem, it still raises the
answer about where to find the question of how accurate it is in
responsible server on the branch below, covering the reality of the DNS on the
communnication would collapse. While Internet. This shall be examined in the
delegated authority in the DNS follows following chapter, especially
the chain from top to bottom, each highlighting the origin of DNS, its
single server only is able to give underlying infrastructure and the recent
authoritative information about the trend towards ‘counterprotocols’, which
branch located immediately below it. seem to contest the universality of DNS.
That is why the DNS is on the one hand
hierarchical, and on the other Origin and Purpose of the DNS
decentralized (Galloway, 2004, 49).
There are two important notions In the early days of the Internet the DNS
Galloway connects with the DNS: first, was only a single file named “hosts.txt”,
the absolute control one branch exerts updated by computer scientist Jon
on its sub-branches. Seen from this Postel. Published via a FTP-server run
perspective, ultimate control over the by the non-profit organization Stanford
whole Internet lies on the root servers: Research Institute International (SRI), it
simply by changing the root server’s contained the information of all hosts
information or configuration, whole root connected to the ARPAnet and later the
zones – like for instance a countrycode Internet (Becker et al., 2002, 33). This
top-level domain (ccTLD), and thus a system, though working quite efficiently,
whole country – can be erased from the reached its administrative and technical
Internet’s surface (Galloway, 2004, 10). limits after several years due to the
And second, while it “rigidly organizes increasing size of the Net. Additionally,
control into a tree-like decentralized the system changed fundamentally
database” (Galloway, 2004, 53), DNS, when Paul Mockapetris developed a
like TCP/IP, presents a “universalizing new DNS architecture in 1984 (Ibid.).
system” (Galloway, 2004, 51) being “the Now all crucial information was spread
encyclopaedia of mankind” (Ibid.) and “a over the whole Internet, instead of being
single, exhaustive index for all things placed on one central computer. Every
[…] DNS is not simply a translation domain’s owner provided information
language, it is language” (Ibid.). Without about it on his own host, and a central
speaking the same language, the nodes corporation only maintained records
of a network cannot communicate, and about where this information was to be
thus “without a shared protocol, there is found (Ibid.). More than twenty years
no network” (Galloway, 2004, 12). In this after its introduction this is basically still
sense, incompatible protocols would the same system in use. What had
represent the ultimate separation of the changed were only the organizations
Internet. responsible for the administration of the
DNS and the distribution of the domain
names, but this development will be
discussed in detail in Chapter three.
In the course of time, DNS “has
5
For a more detailed explanation how DNS become the primary governor of traffic
works see for instance Tanenbaum 2003, 579- flows on the Internet. When the DNS
588. stops working, so do all applications: no

email, no web browsing, no instant “many aspects of TLD naming and
messaging, no FTP, no e-commerce” management are traditional rather than
(Vixie, [3]). The reasons for the essential” (Watson).
tremendous success of the system are However, the system still exists in
probably based on its ambitions which its original design, holding up its claim
“are mostly human goals, because and status of being the universal core of
naming systems are really for use by the Net. The following chapter shall
humans [sic.], who say them, hear present an attempt to get an idea of the
them, read them and type them” DNS’s myth of universality in examining
(Templeton, [2]). The DNS makes the its underlying infrastructure and the daily
navigation on the net much easier for functions it fulfills.
the user, because in the common
human perception remembering names Infrastructure and Procedures
is considered to be easier than
remembering numeric IP-addresses. Having in mind Galloway’s remark that
Presenting a registry of URLs (and their “the root servers […] have ultimate
numeric translation), the DNS can be control over the existence […] of each
understood as the address book of the lesser branch [of the DNS]” (Galloway,
Net. 2004, 10), it hardly surprises that most
Besides its usability the most myths in the political controversy about
important factor regarding the DNS is its ‘Internet Governance’ are grouped
reliability: due to the frequent use of the around them.
system – billions of times a day by Basically, the root level of the DNS
almost as many people – the user wants is structured as follows: there is one root
it to work quick, combined with the zone file for each of the approximately
certainty to get reliable results (Ibid.). In 260 TLDs7, consisting of a unique order
other words: to reach the same domains of numbers. The role of the root servers
from any host on the Net. This in the system is to enable the
universality is considered to be crucial communication between the different
property of the DNS, because it makes TLDs, thus if they do not contain the
the Internet not only accessible for a root zone file of a certain TLD or a
vast majority of people, but also wrong version of it, this TLD cannot be
facilitates the trustful usage by reached from another root zone
businesses and political institutions (Kleinwächter). Avoiding that and
(Dyson). granting the universality of the system,
Related to the DNS there are the 13 root servers8 of the authoritative
several other issues at stake, from root mirror the data on the so-called
discussions over the ownership of the hidden server several times day. And so
domains to the symbolic dimensions of do more than 60 other root servers, run
the names (see for instance Watson), by different organizations and
from the actual practice of domain distributed all over the world9.
distribution to phenomena like
cybersquatting (Becker et al., 2002, 34): the possibility of a DNS independent from the
the struggle over them triggers heavy hierarchical TLD naming.
7
disputes – thematizing not only the 243 ccTLDs and about 20 gTLDs
administration of DNS, but also the (Kleinwächter).
8
possibility of its replacement6 - because The original set of root servers, 10 of which are
located in the USA, two in Europe, one in Asia
(Becker et al.,
6
See for instance the proposals of Cornucopia 2002, 30)
9
(Watson) or DotDNS (Frankston). Lawrence Like for instance Frankfurt’s mirror of the K-
Lessig also stresses Root, run by RIPE NCC (see Rendek) or the

While providing universality, the server (or one of its mirrors) does not
system of mirroring one single master update the question is raised: how likely
copy offered by one single source is this total break-off when the whole
fosters an often expressed fear: the network is automatically updated
deletion of a ccTLD and thus the several times a day?
disappearance of a whole country from The dependence on one single
the virtual landscape. According to source of input is often perceived as a
Kleinwächter, this is only half of the potential threat, and the possibility of
truth: by no means would this be a several sources is a steadily recurring
communication blackout for the affected theme in the discussion over DNS. The
country. And it would only disappear if next chapter will explore DNS’s actual
all root servers would update the master level of universality while pointing at its
copy, but as long as one root server, inherent characteristics that can contest
that still contains the country’s root zone it.
file, exists, its domains would be still
reachable. Furthermore it has to be Splitting the Root?
added that by far not all connections on
the internet have to be established Due to the “strength of the system that
through a query to the root servers: the [root] servers are operated by a widely
computers along the path (of a diverse group of organisations”10
connection) remember the questions (Rendek), it is perfectly possible for
asked recently, thus the service of the anyone, who owns a root server, to
root servers is basically needed to introduce his own root zone files. Thus
establish new or rather uncommon “there’s no reason why you couldn’t
connections (Templeton, [1]). The have multiple root systems” (Lessig).
importance of this aspect is illustrated The question rather is: who wants to
by a study of the Cooperative have them? On the technical level the
Association for Internet Data Analysis Internet’s ISPs and backbones could
(CAIDA), which suggested that more easily configure their main routers with
than 98 % of the root server traffic are new routing tables addressing different
unnecessary, due to wrong root servers (see Templeton, [1]), but
configurations of some ISPs or to users due to the benefits of DNS’s universality
entering non-existent addresses – above all reliability – they usually have
(Unknown, [5]). no interest in doing so. Because
While, theoretically, such a “consistency is important so that the
network division would only occur with inter-operability that we have grown to
some delay, or even not at all, the expect from internet technology
particular case of Libya in 2004 presents remains” (Vixie, [1], Comment made by
things differently: on April 9th Libya’s Jonathan Frakes), one should be able to
ccTLD “.ly” stopped working. Whether or expect internationally operating
not this incident was the result of a organisations to have no interest in
manipulation by ICANN or rather an splitting root.
accident, Libya was cut off totally, at Seen from the technical
least from the perspective of the perspective one might also argue that
Western users (McCarthy). Regarding
Kleinwächter’s notion that a country 10
cannot disappear as long as one root The various root servers are run by various
kinds of organizations, among them: the US
military, commercial
system of root servers run by the European enterprises, non-profit organisations,
Open Root Server Network (see Vixie, [2] and universities, ISPs, and research institutes (Becker
Unknown, [1]). et al., 2002, 30).

“coherency was designed into the with exclusive content appear to be
system as a basic assumption” (Vixie, widespread and are often criticised for
[1]): rather than coherency – which is being shortsighted (Vixie, [2]). Other
basically an assumption of every examples are the ISPs that redirect root
programme – the essential postulation is server traffic to their own servers. Their
singularity, in the sense that DNS does purpose is more likely to deal with the
process addresses, but is not designed misconfigured DNS clients of their users
to ask in which namespace these than to make adjustments on the root
adresses are located. The dangers of zone files, but there would be the
alternative roots being introduced possibility to add or delete information
without central coordination might turn without the real domains’ consent or the
out as “some hell breaks loose and users’ knowledge (Levine).
you’ll see lots of extra network traffic, This strategy is, for instance, also
lots of false negative responses, and applied by Chinese or Arabic groups,
lots of junk in everybody’s syslog files” with the variation that their motivation
(Ibid.). differs: since their scripts contain
Statements like Paul Vixie’s would characters outside the traditional
suggest that there are no alternative English ASCII character set,
roots so far. However, “there are Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)
hundreds of variations of the root file in where introduced. In order to
use […] and the […] real root zone is not synchronize them with Unicode, a
exactly what the NTIA11 believes it is: scheme called Punycode was
there is a TLD pollution introducing new introduced by the IETF: it encodes
nameservers and even more :-)[sic.]” Unicode characters as ASCII strings
(Auerbach, Comment made by JFC starting with “xn--“ (Ibid.). However, the
Morfin). The question remains of who is problem with this easy technical solution
interested in splitting the root and appeared to be that the IDNs made
defining his own namespace? Basically possible to register different domain
there are two groups making policies names that look the same. The
towards alternative roots: on the one introduction of IDNs and Punycode
hand governments and private simply splitted the universal relation of
businesses on the other. domain names and Unicode. The
The latest example illustrating the consequence was the increasing
case of private businesses is the registration of Arabic or Chinese domain
announcement of Neustar and GSM names which had Unicode equivalents,
Association to provide private root- and thus the question which one of the
services for their members (Unknown, possibilities could be accessed became
[7]). Introducing the TLD “.gprs” for the question of which root zone files
roaming operators triggered the where used. The ISPs in the countries in
concerns of the Internet Engineering question realized that and set up their
Task Force (IETF): the spread of .gprs- own modified root zones and introduced
requests into the ‘official’ root zone, their own modified root zone files. This
which could severely affect the means that at least in parts of
performance of the root servers “Punycode countries” people can get
(Unknown, [6]). Such attempts of different content than people in Western
businesses to provide their customers countries, though they might type in the
same words (Ibid.).
11 This practice seemed to be taken
National Telecommunications and Information
Administration, a sub-department of the US
to its next level on February the 27th
Department of 2006 when People’s Daily mistakenly
Commerce. reported that China is launching a new

DNS. The introduction of Chinese- heterogeneous – organisations is as a
character TLDs for “.cn”, “.com” and matter of principle able to construct its
“.net” was first assumed to mean that own root zones while a certain degree of
“Internet users don't have to surf the universality is maintained by
Web via the servers under the compromise for the sake of usability, it
management of the Internet Corporation deems necessary to investigate how this
for Assigned Names and Numbers fragile compromise is achieved and
(ICANN) of the United States.” what role the notion of universality plays
(Unknown, [3]). First investigations soon in the negotiations over Internet
revised this assumption and spread the Governance.
message that China simply introduced
an alternative root, due to their use of
IDNs (MacKinnon, see especially the Internet Governance: Political
comments on it by Murdoch, Mueller, Conflicts and Technological Means
Morfin and Watson). Eventually on
March 3rd, the China Internet Network “There is nothing especially remarkable
Information Center (CNNIC) clarified the about them [domain names] from a
situation, stating that China did not set technical perspective, but from a social
up new TLDs (except “.mil.cn”), but only and political perspective they are all
continued a policy that had already sorts of fun. We can have arguments
started in 2002 (Unknown, [2]). over control of the DNS root, arguments
Furthermore, this policy never intended over whether names are property,
to break away from ICANN or the DNS arguments over innate rights to specific
because “CNNIC had committed itself to names, arguments over a registrar’s
maintain the stable operation of the right (or lack thereof) to exploit
DNS” (Ibid.). This made the DNS unregistered names for private gain, and
community wonder again: while the many more arguments besides.”
experience was that two different
systems were running in China, CNNIC Brett Watson
committed itself to the stable operation
of the DNS? The solution Murdoch and What can in ICANN?
Morfin finally came up with was that the
situation occurring was no root split, but As seen above, the universality of a
rather an Internet split (MacKinnon, see single authoritative root is a basic
especially the comments on it by assumption of its design and considered
Murdoch and Morfin). China was – and reasonable by most participants in the
still is – running at least two naming discussion, at least as long as the
systems: “One is for the externet12 replacement of DNS is not set for
internal users (resolving the Chinese discussion. But in practice, the
TLDs) and the other, as you universality becomes more and more
documented uses proximity machines contested, and the consciousness about
and plug-in to offer a good quality that fact is steadily increasing. The
service.” (Ibid.). Indeed, there is no DNS, carrying around Tim Berners-
violation of the ‘universal’ DNS root in Lee’s stigma of the “Achilles’ Heel” of
the case of China, yet the Net is divided the Internet, is often portrayed as the
along another line. tool for controlling the Internet, because
Given the described situation that of its image of being the only source of
a large variety of different – and centralized power in the virtual realm.
Quite consequently ICANN - in its role of
12
For a more detailed explanation of an the administrator of this single source of
“externet” see Morfin, 2006. control - is probably the internet-related

organisation which draws most supervision board is composed not only
attention, discussion and criticism on by representatives of the companies
itself. To understand Internet related to the technical aspects of the
Governance and the flexible Net, but also by so-called at-large-
compromise it presents we have to directors, who represent the interests of
understand the players involved. In and the Internet community on a
around ICANN is the site where they geographical basis (Becker et al., 2002,
meet, and for understanding the 37). Though ICANN is “trying to serve
conditions of the discussion over ICANN technical functions in the narrowest
and DNS it first deems necessary to possible way” (Lessig), every single
take a brief look at the history of ICANN. decision finally gains a political
Since 1992 crucial tasks in dimension, simply because it is related
administrating the internet were to an infrastructure of sensitive
performed by the Internet Assigned importance.
Numbers Authority (IANA)13, due to its While there are indeed
contract with the US government: the considerable concerns whether the
management of IP address space ICANN provides democratic
location, protocol parameter representation to the Internet community
assignment, DNS management, and and it is often denounced as a
root server system management were marionette of the big corporations to
executed under its authority while the shape the Net to serve their interests
administration of domain name (Becker et al. 38), the focus of this
registration was in the hands of the treatise shall lie on the struggle over
private company Network Soltuions Inc. ICANN by the political players in the
(NSI) (Castells, 2001, 31). This changed fore- and aftermath of the WSIS held
in 1998 when the Clinton administration 2005 in Tunis. The central point of the
called for the further development of the contestation of ICANN is its relationship
Internet as a “free trade zone” by private to the USA. While ICANN is officially
corporations and the NTIA expressed independent, it has agreed to cooperate
the need for more international with the country. This is neither special
competition regarding the administration nor intriguing since most of the world’s
of domain names (Becker et al., 2002, sovereign countries agreed more or less
35). For achieving this goal a to cooperate with ICANN. However, for
representative non-profit organisation two (für zwei was? reasons?) the role of
was meant to be created, and after long the US is indeed an extraordinary one:
negotiations between the different first, the organisation is located in the
groups of interest the ICANN was USA and most of its members are
founded (Ibid.). Americans. And second, though ICANN
Originally proposed by Jon Postel is responsible for the administration of
it would embody “the spirit of openness the DNS, still the NTIA has to authorize
of the Internet community, the introduction of any new TLD in the
decentralization, consensus-building, authoritative root list (Kleinwächter). At
and autonomy that characterized the ad least, this is what most people think:
hoc governance over thirty years, while according to John Crain, Chief
adding a global orientation to its Technology Officer (CTO) of ICANN,
membership” (Castells, 2001, 31): its this is only a merely formal procedure,
because the government official who
13 has to approve the new TLD has no
The organisation itself was under the
supervision of the Internet Architecture Board
competency to decide (Ibid.). Instead he
(IAB) of the Internet only has to check whether the formal
Society (IS). criteria to introduce the new TLD were

fulfilled. Thus, he is fulfilling an audit What we see in the case of DNS is
function rather than an authorization how an originally technical issue
function (Ibid). transcends into the political realm,
Still, a broad (and quite gaining its importance and meaning on
heterogeneous) coalition of countries a symbolical level. Technically, the DNS
from China over Europe to Egypt and is far from being a tool of total central
Brasil is uncomfortable with this control, because it can be applied and
situation. As EU commissioner Viviane shaped by everyone for his own
Reding asks whether “it is appropriate purpose. But in the practical situation
for one government alone to supervise and in its symbolical political importance
such an important part of the it is defined exactly that way.
infrastructure” (Reding) while other
countries can exercise influence only How Protocol is Controlled after
through the advisory committee to Decentralisation
ICANN, the USA have “the sole right to
decide when a new Top Level Domain This can be understood only against the
can be introduced into cyberspace, background of the increasing
whether it be a new country-code or a importance of the Internet in economy,
new so-called "generic” Top Level society and culture. While the USA had
Domain” (Ibid.). The USA on the other an online dominance in user numbers
hand insist to be “committed to taking no and infrastructure throughout the 1990s,
action that would have the potential to this dominance is eroding: there are
adversely impact the effective and already more root server mirrors outside
efficient operation of the DNS and will than inside the US (Rendek), and the
therefore maintain its historic role in number of Non-american users is
authorizing changes or modifications to growing steadily. This means that the
the authoritative root zone file” other countries’ dependence on the
(Unknown, [9]). In short, the struggle is Internet is increasing as well, and that
based on a binary opposition: on the their interests in shaping it are an
one side there are the USA, which expression of their assumed role as the
regard the Internet as their own major actors on the international terrain.
creation, and though their actual Due to this threefold importance
privilege in its administration is rather of the Internet, most actors involved are
limited, they do not want to give it up for verbatim spell-bound by the need for its
strategical reasons. A traditionally universality. The universality of the Net
negative attitude towards true – merely an illusion under many
international organisations like the respects (see Barabási, 2003) is clearly
United Nations (UN), combined with the identified with the universality of DNS.
fear that international competitors like The technical possibilities to dissolve it
China might instrumentalize it for their are not only a theoretical aspect, but
purposes makes them reluctant to already reality on the Internet, yet they
transfer functions to them. On the other are not used on a broader scale, but
side there is an assembly of various rather a side aspect in the daily routine
states which feel a general concern of the Internet. The decision to split
about the dominance of the USA, not away from the authoritative root is a
only in the issue of cyberspace. Though question of benefits: is it better to agree
the administration of TLDs is bound to on an uncomfortable administration of
negotiations on several levels involving the one and only root, or are there
many different actors, the central role of advantages deriving from controlling an
the USA represents an affront towards own root?
their own sovereignity.

The core of the dilemma might Conclusion
be described as follows: on the Internet, We can clearly see that protocols
everything is done by consensus. It indeed structure every action on the net.
might be possible to create an alternate Once implemented, they enact total
root server as a competitor – but if there control until they are replaced by
are few domains on that server, then another one. Regarding the DNS,
people are unlikely to ever access it. If Galloway is correct with his notion of
few people access it, then companies hierarchical control insofar as the
are not likely to register domains. The organization of the DNS-tree is one of
internet is full of tipping points where no totality from one branch to the next.
standard is legitimate in any form except However, the technical reality of
by the sheer weight of de facto numbers the Internet shows that his simplifiying
(Mueller, 2004, 266 f.). Basically a notion of the DNS is limited, because
division of the DNS does not occur as it hierarchical control is no universal
cannot be afforded, rather than the property of the DNS: First, not every
assumption that it would not be possible interaction does need to be submitted to
on the technical level. the total tree structure. Often used
Picking up and obscuring addressing paths are gaining stength
Galloway’s notion of meaning and cross the DNS's vertical structure
(Galloway, 2004, 52) we might say: the horizontally. This means that also the
protocol itself is indeed indifferent most rigid protocol can be, in a sense,
towards the content communicated interpreted.
within and it is a sheer fact that no Second, the implementation of
communication is possible within in the the DNS root zone lists is mainly
protocol if one does not follow it. centralized (from the A-root on) but it
However, it is possible to adopt the could be decentralised as well. Taken
protocol, to shape and use it, and thus into account the importance of the
establish another way to communicate. routing tables and the attached groups
In the case of DNS, this gives meaning of interest, the picture is becoming more
to the protocol itself: on the one hand it complicated: there are very different
is seen as an unavoidable central and modes of how DNS could be
centralized tool of domination, and on implemented, as several examples
the other hand its daily application show.
shows that it can be its exact opposite, a Thus the DNS’s hierarchy cannot only
way for anyone to establish his own be crossed horizontally, but also be split
alternative mode of organisation. along vertical lines.
Human agency adds a horizontal Yet, in the political discussion we
dimension to the vertical organisation of see that the DNS is indeed interpreted
DNS: reality undresses it from the notion in Galloway’s terms: mostly as a total
of a universal hierarchy, but at the same tool of control. In the eyes of the USA
time reality reproduces it again, finally this is the reason for not giving up their
expressed in the very human need to strong position in the protocol’s
establish and maintain communication. administration, and for its opponents this
Divisions are perfectly possible in DNS, is the reason why they are contesting
it can be interpreted to fit various the United States. However, political
purposes. But as long as it is the major and technological reality shows that
purpose to stay connected to the DNS is already splintered. Though the
majority, the divisions will not threaten core of the system is still built around
the general universal strand of the major the A-root, many groups or institutions
protocols. are providing their modifications of the

original root zone files. In this sense, to universality for several reasons, the
divisions on the protocological level are political players come to believe in the
reality, but by being a threat to the strict and rigid hierarchy of DNS, taking
universality of the Internet they force the it from a technological question into the
groups of interest to maintain it. Bound discussion about political power.
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5. The Last Day of Mankind
Or an evening with the network society
By Thomas Nachreiner
Dusk set in over Utrecht. The KPN suddenly, much calmer “By the way,
telecom tower remained just a dark who are you? Why don’t you have a
silhouette against the sky covered in face…?” suspicion glooming in his eyes
purple by the last sunbeams on this the anger started to return
calm spring evening. “What the heck I’m “Maybe…you…are…a…FASCIST, hm
doing here?”, Manuel Castells thought !?! You won’t tell me what I ought to do!”
by himself while he turning away from
the windows towards the table around Meanwhile Bruno Latour was standing
which the crowd was already waiting. next to him and put his hand on his
He knew them, somehow, from shoulder: “It’s enough, Manuel. We all
somewhere… there was Barabàsi, with know, you got the flow. Come on, have
a bottle of vodka, as always, and Latour, a sit and calm down. And you know
but… since when did he smoke pipe? these people, they are okay.” Pointing at
And the others…, he had the feeling he the other faceless persons: “That’s
should know them, but they looked so Galloway and this is Taylor. Maybe he is
similar, somehow faceless. right, you should tell us why we are
here.”
Suddenly one of them said, obviously
smiling: “Nice hat, Manuel.” Castells Castells looked at them, desperately
was confused. Immediately he touched trying to grasp a single thought. He felt
his head and realized that there indeed tired, time was dissolving into the room
was a hat, or, better, a barrett. like a sticky drop of syrup in a glass of
“Ju bettrr shuttup, Cilliers. Regarding his water. The flow was gone, the place
her Castells is a bit sensitive”, Barabàsi returned. He took a deep breath and
uttered, taking another sip from his answered honestly: “I don’t know.”
bottle. He remembered, complexity,
postmodernism and all that crap:”Dear Eventually it was Galloway who broke
Paul, you don’t even have a Wikipedia the suffocating silence which had
entry. Get yourself a face first before embraced them: “Does anyone of you
you start talking to me”. He had not know why he’s here? And furthermore:
known that he could be so harsh. how he came here?” The sheer panic in
the eyes of his fellows told him that this
The faceless guy to Cilliers’ right stood was not the case.
up and made a placating gesture:
“Come on, boys, everybody calm down Before anyone could answer the room
a bit, maybe you should…” This was too started to move. Loosing balance,
much, what arrogance! He screamed Castells tried to catch the table, but he
sheer rage: “I’m no boy. Not for you. Do missed it. During an eternal second,
you know what I did as a boy? I will tell waiting to hit the ground, he got a
ya: I fought the fascists, them fucking glimpse of the windows and what he
faceless fascists! They took everything, saw finally scared his breath away.
can you imagine? No you can’t…” and Which returned immediately when he

kissed the concrete floor and the suddenly smoking pipe! And not the
stinging pain of his breaking nose was least my strange behaviour” Castells
covered with the rare tasteless taste of exclaimed, still covering his nose with a
his own blood. piece of cloth, he had ripped of his
carefully ironed shirt earlier.
The others’ eyes followed his finger
pointing towards the windows, widened “Off courrrz.” Barabàsi blushed angrily
by bewilderment: outside a huge hand while taking a big sip of vodka “I mean
put down an even huger glass on I’m not a drrrunkarrd, and I’ff nefferr bin
appearently endless desk, on which the wan!” He fastened his grip on the bottle
hugest notebook was standing they had and emptied it in one breathless take.
ever seen. The room was shaken once
again with a gargling sound, then they Galloway grinned, at least it looked like
heard the clicks of the keyboard while a grin on his faceless face.
the following words appeared:
Barabàsi grinned back and with
“then they heard the clicks of the unhidden amusement in his voice he
keyboard while the following words said: “ Someone drrresst in a pinck
appeared: ““then they heard the clicks of skirrrt should be karrful what he laufs
the keyboard while the following words aboutt.” Galloway’s face turned red
appeared: “”“then they heard the clicks when he realized his predicament. The
of the keyboard while the following others broke out in laughter, the
words appeared: “””“then they heard the amusement about their situation’s
clicks of the keyboard while the absurdity had replaced the tensed
following words appeared: “”””“then they confusion.
heard the clicks of the keyboard while
the following words appeared: “””””“then After while, in which only some foggy
they heard the clicks of the keyboard clouds were passing the windows and
while the following words appeared: the smell of cigarettes was noticeable,
“””””””then they heard the clicks of the Cilliers took the word again: “Does this
keyboard while the following words mean that we can do nothing about this
appeared: “””””””“then they heard the shit and are solely determined by some
clicks of the keyboard while the freak?” Castells smirked through the
following words appeared:……”””””””” bloody cloth on his face: “Now:…No! But
you could have put your picture on
A tremendous scream woke them from Wikipedia, then you wouldn’t be
their trance: Taylor was kneeling in the faceless in here.” He hesitated: “Ah,
corner, banging his head against the obviously it’s enough if Google can find
wall. Ignoring him completely Cilliers fell it, but maybe you should it online in
in a chair sighing: “Ha, he got it. At least better quality, your face is still a bit
we have one to put the blame on.” fuzzy.”
Galloway looked puzzled: “What the
fuck…!?!” Weighing their heads in disbelief they
admired Cilliers newfound face. “And”,
“Look”, Latour said with a calm voice, Galloway asked, “what’s next now?”
“Obviously we are in this person’s head.
Or better: we are just a product of his “Whatever this weirdo comes up with!”
imagination.” replied Cillier.
“This would explain my ridiculous Che

Guevara barrett, and also why you are

“Look!” the recovered Taylor shouted,
“There comes the next loop in our little
rollercoaster! He has taken a mirror!”
“What for?”, Castells asked.
“He just got something completely

wrong: to think about himself thinking
about us there is no point in watching
himself in the mirror. What an idiot!” In
the very moment his words were
spoken, Taylor disappeared. Without
going into detail: it looked painful.
“This guy should really get his weights

adjusted…” Cilliers uttered while in the
same second he came to share Taylor’s
fate.
“Maybe”, Galloway whispered, “this guy

is not so stupid after all. Look, were
moving closer and closer to the mirror,
we can already see our own reflection.
He’s trying to create a loop in his eyes!”
“And his eyes are really beautiful!”,

Latour murmured with a lost smile.
“Arrr ju gay, orrr what !?!”, was the last

thing Barabàsi could say before the
lights turned
qwertyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
yyyyyyyyyyy

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Journal

INSTITUTE OF MEDIA & RE/PRESENTATION

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 1

Copyright ©2006 Journal of Network

All rights reserved. Printed in the

The Journal of Network Theory

Shane Pulmano Loes Vollenbroek

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 2

1. Introduction: Gaps, Divisions and Boundaries .......................................................4

2. Finding or Choosing Boundaries?.........................................................................12

3. Continuity on the Web ............................................................................................13

4. Domain Name System.............................................................................................21

5. The Last Day of Mankind ........................................................................................35

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 3

network theory - look at the network’s

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 4

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 5

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 6

Figure 1. Barabasi’s continents and islands. Source: Barabasi, 2002, 2

An example of an explicit mentioning of locating a community when there is no

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 7

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 8

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 9

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 10

Barabási, A. & Albert, R. Emergence of scaling in random networks. Science 286 15

Barabási, A. & Bonabeau, E. Scale-Free Networks. Scientific American 288. 2003.

Barabási, A. The new science of networks. Cambridge: Perseus Publishing 2002.

Galloway, A. R. “Protocol: How control exists after decentralization.” Cambridge:

Latour, B. “Reassembling the social: An introduction to actor-network-theory”. Oxford:

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 11

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 12

From the screenplay of “The Matrix” - Wachowsky Br.,1999

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 13

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 14

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 15

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 16

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 17

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 18

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 19

Bolter G. & Grusin R., Remediation, in Configuration 4.3, 1996, p 311-358.

Manovich L., The Language of New Media, MIT Press, 2001

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 20

highlight the sharing of protocols as a

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 21

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 22

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 23

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 24

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 25

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 26

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 27

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 28

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 29

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 30

Barabási, Albert-László. Linked: The new science of networks. Perseus

Auerbach, Karl. About those root servers. CircleID. 01-08-2005.

Frankston, Bob. Ye olde DNS. CircleID. 26-08-2006.

Journal of Network Theory Spring 2006 31

Morfin, Jean-Francois.Notes on the Root Name Principle. Personal Website. 02-03-

Mueller, Milton. Internet Governance. CircleID. 01-03-2006.