o Independent Variable: manipulated  Illusory correlation – belief of

History and Approaches by the researcher correlation that doesn’t exist (old
(2-4%)  Experimental Group: received the man predicts rain from arthritis)
 Psychology is derived from physiology treatment (part of the IV)  CASE STUDY: Adv. Studies ONE
(biology) and philosophy  Control Group: placebo, baseline person (usually) in great detail – lots of
 EARLY APPROACHES (part of the IV) info Disadv: No cause and effect
o Structuralism – used INTROSPECTION  Placebo Effect: show behaviors  DESCRIPTIVE STATS:shape of the data
(act of looking inward to examine associated with the exp. group o Measures of Central Tendency:
mental experience) to determine the when having received placebo  Mean: Average (use in normal
underlying STRUCTURES of the mind  Double-Blind: Exp. where neither distribution)
o Functionalism – need to analyze the the participant or the experimenter  Median: Middle # (use in skewed
PURPOSE of behavior are aware of which condition distribution)
 APPROACHES KEY WORDS people are assigned to (drug  Mode: occurs most often
o Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, studies)
childhood  Single-Blind: only participant
o Behavioral – learned, reinforced blind – used if experimenter can’t
o Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, be blind (gender, age, etc)
actualization o Dependent Variable: measured
o Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts variable (is DEPENDENT on the
o Evolutionary – Genes independent variable)
o Biological – Brain, NTs  Operational Definition: clear, precise,
o Sociocultural – society typically quantifiable definition of your
o Biopsychosocial – combo of above variables – allows replication
 PEOPLE:  Confound: error/ flaw in study
o Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA  Random Assignment: assigns
o Charles Darwin: Natural selection & participants to either control or
evolution experimental group at random –
o Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental minimizes bias, increase chance of equal
institutions in U.S. representation
o Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA1st journal  Random Sample: method for choosing
o William James: Father of American participants – minimizes bias
Psychology – functionalist o Assignment and sampling can be
o Wilhem Wundt: Father of Modern done via names in a hat, computer  INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:
Psychology – structuralist generation establishes significance (meaningfulness)
o Margaret Floy Washburn–1st fem. PhD  Validity: accurate results  STATISTICAL SIGNIFANCE = results
o Christine Ladd Franklin – 1st fem.  Reliability: same results every time not due to chance
 RANDOM TERMS  NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:  ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA)
o Basic research – purpose is to increase Adv: real world validity (observe people o Confidentiality
knowledge (rats) in their own setting) Disadv: No cause o Informed Consent
o Applied research – purpose is to help and effect o Debriefing
people  CORRELATION: Adv: identify o Deception must be warranted
o Psychologist – research or counseling –
MS or PhD
relationship between two variables Biological Basis
Disadv: No cause and effect
o Psychiatrist – prescribe medications and (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL (8-10%)
diagnose – M.D. CAUSATION)
Research Methods o Positive Correlation – variables
increase & decrease together
(8-10%) o Negative Correlation – as one
 EXPERIMENT : Adv: researcher variable increases the other decreases
controls variables to establish cause and
effect Disadv: difficult to generalize

 NEURON: Basic cell of the NS

o The stronger the # the stronger the o Dendrites: Receive incoming signal
relationship REGARDLESS of the o Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus)
pos/neg sign o Axon: AP travels down this
 3rd variable problem – diff. o Myelin Sheath: speeds up signal
variable is responsible for down axon, protects axon
relationship (breast implants & o Terminals: release NTs – send signal
suicide) onto next neuron
o Synapse: gap b/w neurons
 Action Potential: movement of sodium  Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a  ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends
and potassium ions across a membrane hippo on campus you’d remember it!) hormones throughout the body
sends an electrical charge down the axon  Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by
o All or none law: stimulus must trigger center, eating behaviors – link to hypothalamus. release growth hormones
the AP past its threshold, but does not endocrine system o Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic
increase the intensity of the response o Thalamus: relay center for all but smell NS: releases adrenaline
(flush the toilet) (you MUST (thalaMUST) use your  BRAIN IMAGING:
o Refractory period: neuron must rest thalamus, unless its MUSTY – smell) o EEG: brain activity – not specific
and reset before it can send another o Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the o XRAY: not useful, doesn’t show tissues
AP (toilet resets) brain – higher order thought processes o CT / MRI: shows structures
 Occipital Lobe: located in the back of o PET: glucose shows brain activity (when
 Sensory neurons – receive signals the head – vision – mom’s eyes! in doubt pick this one)
 Afferent neurons – Accept signals  Frontal Lobe: decision making, o fMRI: glucose shows activity in real
planning, judgment, movement, time
 Motor neurons – send signals personality o lesion – brain damage
 Efferent neurons – signal Exits  Parietal Lobe: located on the top of the
 Interneurons – cells in spinal cord head - sensations Sensation & Perception
responsible for reflex loop  Temporal Lobe: located on the sides (6 – 8%)
 CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord of the head (temples) – hearing and  ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of
 PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS face recognition signal 50% of time (is it there)
o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement  Somatosensory Cortex: map of our  DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also
o Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, sensory receptors –in parietal lobe called a just noticeable difference (JND)
lungs, etc)  Motor Cortex: map of our motor and follows WEBER’S LAW: two
 Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body receptors – located in frontal lobe stimuli must differ by a constant
for fight/flight (generally activates o Left hemisphere only – damage results minimum proportion. (Can you tell a
– sympathetic to you getting eaten in aphasia (damaged speech) change?)
 Broca’s Area: Inability to produce
by a tiger helps you run away)  SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
 Parasympathetic NS: established speech (Broca – Broken speech)
homeostasis after a sympathetic  Wernicke’s Area: Inability to
response (generally inhibits) comprehend speech (Wernicke’s
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT): what?)
Chemicals released in synaptic gap, o Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that
received by neurons connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes
o GABA: Major inhibitory NT severed in patients with severe seizures –
leads to “split-brain patients”
o GlutamatE: Major Excitatory NT
 Lateralization: the brain has some  Sensory Adaptation: diminished
(get excited when seeing your mates!
specialized features – language is sensitivity as a result of constant
o Dopamine: Reward & movement
processed in the L Hemisphere stimulation (can you feel your
o Serotonin: Moods and emotion
 Split-brain experiments: done by underwear?)
o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory
Sperry & Gazzanaga.  Perceptual Set: tendency to see
o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine:
 Images shown to the right something as part of a group – speeds up
sympathetic NS arousal
hemisphere will be processed in signal processing
o Endorphins: pain control
the left (& vice versa), patient can  Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice
o Oxytocin: love and bonding
verbally identify what they saw something b/c you’re so focused on
 Agonist: drug that mimics a NT
another task (gorilla video)
 Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT
 Cocktail party effect: notice your name
 Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up
across the room when its spoken, when
into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective
you weren’t previously paying attention
serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block
 VISUAL SYSTEM:
reuptake – treatment for depression
o Pathway of vision: light  cornea
 AREAS OF THE BRAIN:
pupil/iris  lens  retina 
 Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain rods/cones  bipolar cells  ganglion
o Cerebellum – movement (what does it  BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can “heal”
itself cells  optic nerve  optic chiasm 
take to ring a bell) occipital lobe
o Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP)  NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER
IS BOTH o Cornea – protects the eye
o Pons – sleep/arousal (Ponzzzzzz) o Pupil/iris – controls amount of light
 Midbrain o Twin Studies:
 Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ) entering eye
o Reticular formation: alertness (if you o Lens – focuses light on retina
can’t pay attention, You R F’d)  Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ)
o Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher o Fovea–area of best vision(cones here)
 Forebrain: higher thought processes o Rods – black/white, dim light
o Limbic System percentage of also developing a disease
o Environment: MZ twins raised in o Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue)
 Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da! o Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and
You’re so emotional!) different environments show differences
ganglion cells
 o Ganglion cells – opponent-processing o Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA o Altered States: produced through drugs,
occurs here (sounds 1st processed here) fatigue, hypnosis
o Blind spot – occurs where the optic  THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur o Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming
nerve leaves the eye in the cochlea o No awareness: Knocked out
o Feature detectors – specialized cells o Place theory – location where hair cells  METACOGNITION: Thinking about
that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. bends determines sound (high pitches) thinking
(experiments by Hubel & Weisel) o Frequency theory – rate at which action  SLEEP:
 THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: potentials are sent determines sound o Beta Waves: awake (you betta be awake
o Trichromatic – three cones for (low pitches) for the exam)
receiving color (blue, red, green)  OTHER SENSES: o Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy
 Explains color blindness - they are o Touch: Mechanoreceptors  spinal cord o NREM (non REM) stages-
missing a cone type  thalamus  somatosensory cortex o Stage 1: light sleep
o Opponent Process – complementary o Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a o Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles
colors are processed in ganglion cells – “gate” to control how much pain is o Stage 3 delta waves: Deep sleep
explains why we see an after image experienced o Stage 4: extremely deep sleep
 Visual Capture: Visual system o Kinesthetic: Sense of body position o Rapid Eye Movement (REM):
overwhelms all others (nauseous in an o Vestibular: Sense of balance dreaming, cognitive procesing
IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular) (semicircular canals in the inner ear Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM
 Constancies: recognize that objects do effect this) occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts
not physically change despite changes in o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: longer throughout the night
sensory input (size, shape, brightness) bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory)
 Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does
on/off in succession – looks like NOT route through the thalamus 1st.
movement (traffic signs with arrows) Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala
 Stroboscopic movement: motion  GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is
produced by a rapid succession of slightly greater than the sum of its parts
varying images (animations) o Gestalt Principles:
 MONOCULAR CUES (how we form a  Figure/ground: organize information
3D image from a 2D image) into figures objects (figures) that stand
o Interposition: overlapping images appear apart from surrounds (back ground)  CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour
closer biological clock
o Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually o Body temp and awareness change due
similar in size, the smaller one is further to this
away o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic
o Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear nucleus (SCN) in the brain
further away o Explains jet lag
o Texture Gradient: coarser objects are  Closure: mentally fill in gaps  SLEEP DISORDERS
closer  Proximity: group things together that o Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due
o Relative Height: things higher in our appear near each other to stress/anxiety)
field of vision look further away  Similarity: group things together o Sleep walking: (due to fatigue, drugs,
o Linear Perspective: parallel lines based off of looks alcohol)
converge with distance (think railroad  Continuity: tendency to mentally form o Night terrors: extreme nightmares –
tracks) a continuous line NOT in REM sleep – typical in
 BINOCULAR CUES: (how both eyes children
make up a 3D image) o Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere
Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly (due to deficiency in orexin)
different on each retina, location of o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly
image helps us determine depth while asleep (due to obesity usually)
Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking  DREAM THEORIES:
inward) as objects draw nearer o Freud’s Unconscious Wish
 TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole  Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification
smaller parts of unconscious desires and needs
 BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller  Latent Content: hidden meaning of
Parts  Whole dreams
 AUDITORY SYSTEM:  Manifest Content: obvious storyline
o Pathway of sound: sound  pinna  States of Consciousness of dream
auditory canal ear drum (tympanic  Activation Synthesis: Brain produces
(2 – 4%) random bursts of energy – stimulating
membrane)  hammer, anvil, stirrup
(HAS)  oval window  cochlea   STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS: lodged memories. Dreams start random
auditory nerve  temporal lobes o Higher-Level: controlled processes – then develop meaning
o Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal totally aware  HYPNOSIS
o Middle Ear: ear drum , HAS (bones o Lower-Level: automatic processing o It Can: Reduce pain, help you relax
vibrate to send signal) (daydreaming, phone numbers)
 o It CANNOT: give you superhuman  CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded
strength, make you regress, make you (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John after a random number of responses (slot
do things against your will Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow machine
 PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: classical conditioning to occur in one trial O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded
o Triggers dopamine release in the brain (food poisoning) after a random amount of time has
o Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates,  COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little passed (fishing)
tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics) Albert and John Watson (father of O Variable schedules are most resistant to
 Decrease sympathetic NS activation, behaviorism) – conditioned a fear in a extinction (how long will keep playing a
highly addictive baby (only to countercondition – remove slot machine before you think its
o Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, it- later on) broken?)
MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine  OPERANT CONDITIONING:  SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL)
 Increase sympathetic NS activation, SKINNER! LEARNING: BANDURA!
highly addictive O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike):  Modeling Behaviors: Children model
o Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo
 Causes hallucinations, not very are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken dolls to demonstrate the following
addictive a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) O Prosocial – helping behaviors
o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to  PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: O Antisocial – mean behaviors
achieve the same effects O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something  MISC LEARNING TYPES
o Dependence: Become addicted to the nice to increase a behavior (gold star for O Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is
drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal turning in HW) hidden until useful (rats in maze get
symptoms O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away reinforced half way through,
o Withdrawal: Psychological and something bad/annoying to increase a performance improved
physiological symptoms associated behavior (put on seatbelt to take away  Cognitive maps – mental
with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – annoying car signal) representation of an area, allows
can kill you. O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad navigation if blocked
Learning to decrease a behavior (spanking) O Insight learning (Kohler!) – some
O Neg. Punishment: Take away learning is through simple intuition
(7-9 %) something good to decrease a behavior (chimps with crates to get bananas)
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: (take away car keys) O Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no
PAVLOV! O Primary Reinforcers: innately matter what you do you never get a
o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings satisfying (food and water) positive outcome so you just give up
about response w/o needing to be O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (word scrambles)
learned (food)
o Unconditioned Response (UR):
(stickers, high-fives)
 Token Reinforcer: type of
Cognition
response that naturally occurs w/o secondary- can be exchanged for other (8 – 10%)
training (salivate) stuff (game tokens or money) ENCODING: Getting info into memory
o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that O Generalization: respond to similar  Automatic encoding – requires no effort
normally doesn’t evoke a response stimulus for reward (what did you have for breakfast?)
(bell) O Discrimination: stimulus signals when  Effortful encoding – requires attention
o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once behavior will or will not be reinforced (school work)
neutral stimulus that now brings about (light on means response are accepted)  Shallow, intermediate, deep processing:
a response (bell) O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: the more emphasis on MEANING the
o Conditioned Response (CR): response same as classical conditioning deeper the processing, and the better
that, after conditioning, follows a CS O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing remembered
(salivate) behaviors that are intrinsically  Imagery – attaching images to information
o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, motivating causes you to stop doing makes it easier to remember (shoe w/
NS/CS must be presented immediately them (give a child 5$ for reading when spaghetti laces)
BEFORE the US they already like to read – they stop  Self-referent encoding – we better
o Acquisition: process of learning the reading) remember what we’re interested in (you’d
response pairing O Shaping: use successive approximations remember someone’s phone number who
o Extinction: previously conditioned to train behavior (reward desired you found extremely attractive)
response dies out over time behaviors to teach a response – rat  Dual encoding – combining different
o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period basketball) types of encoding aids in memory
of time the CR comes back out of O Chaining: tie together several behaviors
 Chunking – break info into smaller units
nowhere O Continuous Reinforcement schedule:
to aid in memory (like a phone #)
o Generalization: CR to like stimuli Receive reward for every response
 Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us
(similar sounding bell) O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X
remember info easier
o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS number of response (every 10 envelopes
o Acronyms – using letter to remember
 CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & stuffed get $$)
something (PEMDAS)
Wagner – classical conditioning involves O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every
o Method of loci – using locations to
cognitive processes X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks
remember a list of items in order
get a paycheck)
  Context dependent memory – where  Recall: remember what you’ve been told  Overregularization: grammar
you learn the info you best remember w/o cues (essays) mistake where children over use
the info (scuba divers testing)  Recognition: remember what you’ve been certain morphemes (I go-ed to the
 State dependent memory – the told w/ cues (MC) park)
physical state you were in when  Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid o Operant conditioning: reinforced for
learning is the way you should be when memories for highly important events language use
testing (study high, test high) (9/11 attacks) o Inborn universal grammar: theory
STORAGE: Retaining info over time  Repressed memories: unconsciously comes from NOAM CHOMSKY –
 Information Processing Model – buried memories – are unreliable says that language is innate and we are
Sensory memory, short term memory,  Encoding failure: forget info b/c you predisposed to learn it
long term memory model never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the o Critical period: period of time where
 Sensory Memory – stores all incoming first place (which is the real penny) something must be learned or else it
stimuli that you receive (first you have  Encoding specificity principle: the more cannot ever happen (language must be
to a pay attention) closely retrieval cues match the way we learned young – Genie the Wild Child)
o Iconic Memory – visual memory, learned the info, the better we remember o Linguistic determinism: language
lasts 0.3 seconds the info (like state dependent memory) influences the way we think (Hopi
o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, people do not have words for the past,
 Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly
lasts 2-3 seconds thus cannot easily think about the past)
at first, then reaches a plateau after which
 Short Term Memory – info passes developed by WHORF
little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS)
from sensory memory to STM – lasts THINKING
30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items  Concepts: mental categories used to group
o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets objects, events, characteristics
the clock  Prototypes: all instances of a concept are
 Working Memory Model splits STM compared to an ideal example (what you
into 2 – visual spatial memory (from first think of)
iconic mem) and phonological loop  Algorithms: step by step strategies that
(from echoic mem). A “central guarantee a solution (formula)
executive” puts it together before  Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of
passing it to LTM  Proactive interference thumb)
 Long term memory – lasts a life time o Representative Heuristic: make
OLD blocks new inferences based on your experience
o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious
recollection  Retroactive interference (like a stereotype) – assume someone
 Episodic: events NEW blocks old must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet
 Semantic: facts  Misinformation effect: distortion of o Availability heuristic: relying on
o Implicit (Nondeclarative): memory by suggestion or misinformation availability to judge the frequency of
unconscious recollection (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land) something (over estimating death due to
 Classical conditioning  Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves plane crashes due to recent events)
 Priming: info that is seen earlier forward (forget new info – 50 first dates)  Functional Fixedness: keep using one
“primes” you to remember  Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves strategy – cannot think outside of the box
something later on (octopus, backwards (forget old info)  Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting
assassin, climate, bogeyman)  ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by beliefs to distort logical reasoning by
 Procedural: skills destruction of acetylcholine in making invalid conclusions
 Memory organization hippocampus  Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to
o Hierarchies: memory is stored LANGUAGE our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence
according to a hierarchy  Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch  Inductive reasoning: data driven
o Semantic networks: linked sound in chat) decisions, general  specific
memories are stored together  Morpheme: smallest unit that caries  Deductive reasoning: driven by logic,
o Schemas: preexisting mental concept meaning (syllable) specific  general
of how something should look (like a  Grammar: rules in a language that enable  Divergent thinking: ability to think about
restaurant) us to communicate many different things at once
 Memory storage  Semantics: set of rules by which we
o Acetylcholine neurons in the
Motivation & Emotion
derive meaning (adding –ed makes
hippocampus for most memories something past tense) (6-8%)
o Cerebellum for procedural  Syntax: rules for combining words into THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
memories sentences (white house vs casa blanca)  INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed
o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of  Babbling stage: infants babble 1st stage of patterns and are not learned (explains
memory – connections are strengthened speech animal motivation)
over time with repeated stimulation (more  DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need
 One-word stage: duh
firing of neurons)
 Two-word stage: duh duh creates aroused tension (drive) that
RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage
 Theories of language development: motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by
 Serial Position Effect: tendency to homeostasis: equilibrium)
o Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear
remember the beginning and the end of the o Primary drive: unlearned drive based
– but they don’t do it perfectly
list best on survival (hunger, thirst)
 o Secondary drive: learned drive  Eating Disorders:
(wealth or success) o Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15%
 OPTIMUM AROUSAL: humans aim to ideal weight, distorted body image
seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks  Causes: overly critical parents,
requires more arousal, harder tasks need perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals
less o Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go
through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat
massive amounts, then throw up)
 Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person,
 Causes: same as anorexia perfectionist. At risk for heart disease
SEXUALITY
 Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed.
 Biology of sex:
INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH
o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases
 Industrial / Organizational Psych:
sexual behavior, destruction leads to
psychological of the workplace – focuses on
sexual inhibition
employee recruitment, placement, training,
o Pituitary gland: monitors, initiates, and
satisfaction, productivity
restricts hormones
 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived  Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection
 Males – testosterone
by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid of engineering and psych – focuses on
 Females - estrogen
have priority over needs higher in the safety and efficiency of human-machine
o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement
pyramid interactions
phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period
(resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again  Hawthorne effect: productivity increases
until you reset, guys only) when workers are made to feel important
o Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct  Theory X management: manager controls
studies in sex, suggested that people were employees, enforces rules. Good for lower
very promiscuous. Studies lacked a level jobs
representative sample, created scale of  Theory Y management: manger gives
homosexuality employees responsibility, looks for input.
o Homosexuality: biological roots: Good for high level jobs
differences in the brain, identical twins  Employee Commitment:
more likely to both be gay, later sons o Affective: emotional attachment (best
more likely to be (hormones from mom) type)
 Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – THORIES OF EMOTIONS o Continuance: stay due to costs of leaving
you do it b/c you like it  JAMES-LANGE: stimulus o Normative: stay due to obligation (they
 Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain physiological arousal  emotion paid for your school)
a reward (trophy)  CANNON-BARD: stimulus   Meaning of Work:
HUNGER physiological arousal & emotion o Job – no training, just do it for $$. No
 Signals of hunger: simultaneously happiness
o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry  SCHACTER TWO FACTOR: adds in o Career – work for advancement. Some
o Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) happiness
the pancreas (endocrine system). stimulus  arousal interpret external o Calling – work because you love it. Lotsa
o Insulin decreases glucose. Too little cues  label emotion happiness
glucose makes us hungry.
o Orexin is released by the hypothalamus
 Some stimuli are routed directly to the Development
– telling us to eat.
amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut
reaction to a cockroach)
(7-9%)
o Other chemicals include ghrelin,  Prenatal Development:
 Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal
obestatin, and PPY o Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing
emotions (happiness, anger, sadness,
o Lateral hypothalamus: when stimulated o Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital
surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL
makes you hungry, when lesioned you organs being formed
cultures
will never eat again. (I’m LATE for o Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall
 Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile
lunch. I’m hungry. The LATEral development
(you can tell a real smile from a fake one)
hypothalamus makes you hungry.) o Teratogens: external agents that can
o Ventromedial hypothalamus: when  Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced
to smile will make you happier (facial cause abnormal prenatal development
stimulated you feel full, when destroyed (alcohol, drugs, etc)
you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake) expressions influence emotion)
STRESS AND HEALTH  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large
o Leptin: leptin signals the brain to reduce amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes
appetite  GENERAL ADAPTATION
deformities, mental retardation, death
 Obesity: SYNDROME (GAS): three phases of a
stress response (SELYE came up w/ this)  Physical Development:
o Increased risk of heart attack, o Maturation: natural course of
hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes o Alarm: body/you freak out in response to
stress development, occurs no matter what
o Can be genetic – adopted children (walking)
resemble their biological parents o Resistance: body/you are dealing with
stress o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born
o Set point: there is a control system that with
dictates how much fat you should carry – o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any
more, give up  Rooting, sucking, swallowing,
every person is different grasping, stepping
 o Habituation: after continual exposure mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation  PUBERTY! (rapid skeletal and sexual
you pay less attention – used to test couldn’t socialize maturation)
babies  MARY AINSWORTH: developed the o Primary sex characteristics: necessary
o Eyes have the most limited strange situation paradigm (children left structures for reproduction (ovaries,
development, takes till 1 year alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited testicles, vagina, penis)
 Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth w/ mom – determines your attachment style o Secondary sex characteristics:
perception, so they will cross a “cliff” o Secure attachment (60% of infants): nonreproductive characteristics that dev
o Other senses are fairly developed upset when mom leaves, easily calmed during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening
o Brain development continues for a few on return. Tend to be more stable adults of voice, body hair)
years o Avoidant attachment (20% infants): o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully
 JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV. actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when developed till 25)
 Schemas – concepts or frameworks that she leaves  GENDER DEVELOPMENT: sex =
organize info o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): chromosomes, gender = what you identify
 Assimilation: incorporate new info into actively avoids mom, freaks out when yourself as
existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff) she leaves o Gender roles: expected behaviors
 Accommodation: adjust existing schemas o Disorganized attachment (5%): (norms) for men/women
to incorporate new information confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse o Social learning theory: we learn gender
(ACcommodation - All Change)  BAUMRIND: parenting styles roles and identity from those around us
 Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my  AGING:
focused on exploring the world around way or the highway” – kids lack o Cellular clock theory: cells have a
them initiative in college maximum # of divisions before they
o Lack Object Permanence: Objects when o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules can’t divide anymore
removed from field of view are thought to – kids lack initiative in college o Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen
disappear (peek-a-boo) o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – molecules w/in cells damage DNA
o Dev. Sense of Self: by 2 yrs can kids become socially competent and o Over time skills decrease (reaction
recognize themselves in the mirror reliable time, memory)
 Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use  KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV  CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: studies
pretend play, developing language, using o Preconventional morality: Children: ppl of different ages at the same point in
intuitive reasoning they follow rules to avoid punishment time
o Lack Conservation: recognize that o Conventional morality: adolescents: o Adv: inexpensive & quick
substances remain the same despite follow rules b/c rules exist to keep order o Disadv: can be differences due to
changes in shape, length, or position (girls o Postconventional morality: adults: they generational gap
with juice in glasses) do what they believe is right (even if it  LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same
o Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse goes against society) ppl over time
operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4)  Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and o Adv: eliminates groups differences, lots
o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish moral behaviors are two different things of detail
one’s own perspective from another’s – (what you say isn’t always what you do) o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high
think everyone sees what they see  ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : drop out rates
 Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that  Problem-focused coping: solving or doing
operational thinking, classification, and must be resolved, results in competence or something to alter the course of stress
can think logical in concrete context weakness (planning, acceptance)
 Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if  Emotion-focused coping: reducing the
abstract and idealist thoughts, needs are dependably met infants dev emotional distress (denial, disengagement)
basic trust
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs): Personality
 Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages to
discrete, dev. differs b/w kids toddlers learn to exercise their will and (5-7%)
 VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive think for themselves PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION
development is a social process too, need to o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to SIGMUND FREUD said personality was
interact w/ others initiate tasks and carry out plans largely unconscious.
o Zone of Proximal Development: gap o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to  Conscious: immediate awareness of current
b/w what a child can do on their own and puberty): learn the pleasure of applying environment
w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) themselves to tasks  Preconscious: available to awareness
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence (phone #s)
 Temperament: patterns of emotional thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing  Unconscious: unavailable to awareness
roles and forming an identity
reactions and babies (precursor to  id: our hidden true animalistic wants and
o Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form
personality) desires – operates on the pleasure principle,
close relationships and gain capacity for
 Imprinting: baby geese believe the first all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil
love
thing they see after hatching is their mom – on your shoulder – entirely unconscious)
o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s):
happens during a critical period (from  superego: our moral conscious (angel on
discover sense of contributing to the
LORENZ) your shoulder, all 3 consciousness)
world, thru family & work
 HARRY HARLOW: discovered that  ego: reality principle, has to deal w/ society,
o Integrity vs despair: (60s and up):
contact comfort is more important than stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (its
reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or
feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth
failure you! – conscious and preconscious)
 When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and o Transference: looks for feelings to  CARL ROGERS: talked about our self-
superego, we use defense mechanisms transferred to psychoanalyst concept (idea of who we are). Your self-
 Repression: push memories back into the o Dream interpretation: analyze the concept is the center of your personality
unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too manifest (seen message) and latent o Actual (social) self: what others see
traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) (hidden messages) content o Ideal (true) self: who you WANT to be
 Projection: attribute personal shortcomings o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli o A positive self-concept makes us perceive
& faults on to others (man who wants to shown to look at your unconscious the world positively (optimist)
have an affair accuses his wife of having motives (THESE SUCK B/C THEY o A negative self-concept makes us feel
one) ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) dissatisfied and unhappy
 Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality  Thematic apperception test (TAT) : What wrong with humanistic theory? -
(refuse to believe you have cancer) tell a story about a picture (when too optimistic about human nature, abstract
Displacement; shift feelings from an someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask concepts are difficult to test
unacceptable object to a more acceptable what it means What’s good about it? – emphasizes
one (can’t tell at teacher, go home and yell  Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot conscious experiences and change
at the dog) NEO-FREUDIANS  Individualistic Cultures: give priorities to
 Reaction formation: transform  CARL JUNG: believed in the collective own goals over group goals. Define your
unacceptable motive into his opposite unconconcious (shared inherited reservoir identify in terms of you (American society)
(woman who fears sexual urges becomes a of memory – explains common myths  Collectivistic Cultures: give priority to the
religious zealot) across civilizations & time) goals of the group, your identity is part of
 Regression: transform into an earlier  KAREN HORNEY: said personality that group (China)
development period in the face of stress develops in context of social relationships, SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
(during exam week you start to suck your NOT sexual urges (security not sex is  Behavior is a complex interaction of inner
thumb) motivation, men get womb envy) process and environmental influence –
 Rationalization: replace a less acceptable TRAIT PERSPECTIVE which influences personality
reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t  Traits are enduring personality  Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs,
get into your college – justify it was a sucky characteristics, people can be described by expectations, and goals
college anyway) these – have strong or weak tendencies.  BANDURA! Talked about RECIPROCAL
 Sublimation: replace unacceptable impulse They are stable, genetic, and predict other DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior,
w/ a socially acceptable one (man w/ strong attributes. cognitions, and environment make up you.
sexual urges paints nudes. Dexter)  Use factor analysis to find these: statistical 
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES procedure used to identify similar {I’m outgoing
 Oral stage (0-18 months): pleasure focuses components (behavior), I
on the mouth (id)  TRAIT THEORIES: choose to teach
 Anal stage (18 – 36 months): pleasure  Big Five: (by Costa & McCrae) (acronym b/c it lets me be
involves eliminative functions (ego forms) OCEAN) You vary on each of these outgoing
 Phallic stage (3 – 6 yrs): pleasure focuses o Openness : imaginative, independent, like (environment),
on genitals (superego forms) variety and I have thought this through which is
o Oedipal complex: young boys learn to o Conscientiousness: organized, careful, why I teach despite making less money
identify w/ their father out of fear of disciplined (cognitive)}
retribution (castration anxiety) o Extraversion: sociable, fun-loving,  Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed,
o Electra complex: young girls learn to affectionate (opoosite it introversion: so you ensure you do
identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot shy, timid, reserved)  Internal locus of control: you control your
with their father (penis envy) o Agreeableness: soft hearted, trusting, own fate
 Latency stage (6 yrs to puberty): psychic helpful  External locus of control: chance / outside
time out – personality is set o Neuroticism (emotional stability): calm, forces control your fate
secure What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – Too
 Genital State (adulthood): sexual
What’s wrong with trait theory? – ignores specific, cannot generalize
reawakening – oedipal and electra
the role of the situation in behavior What’s good about it? – Highlights
“feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants
What’s good about it? - identifying traits situations, and cognitive explanations of
onto an appropriate person
gives us perspectives about careers,
 FIXATION: can become “stuck” in an personality
relationships, health How do we test it? – Observations &
earlier stage – influences personality (oral
How do we test this approach? interviews (time consuming)
stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal
 MMPI – helpful for mental health and job
retentive”, phallic is promiscuous)
placement
What’s wrong w/ Freud theory? –
unverifiable, descriptive not predictive  Myer’s Briggs – gave you 4 letter combo
What’s good about it? – 1st theory about What’s wrong w/ these tests?
personality, sparked psychoanalysis  They’re long, social desirability can be an
How do we test this approach? influence, and they’re too broad
 Psychoanalysis: analyze a person’s HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
unconscious motives thru the use of:  Emphasized personal growth and free will.
o Free Association: say aloud everythying You don’t like yourself? So change!
that comes to mind w/o hesitation
 Testing & o Environment: early neglect leads to  Biopsychosocial model: currently used
lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ model – stress biological, psychological,
Individual Differences  Types of Tests: and social causes
(5-7%) o Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn  Diagnosing abnormal behavior:
a new skill (ASVAB) o DSM: manual listing all currently
Individual Theories about Intelligence
o Achievement: tests what you know(SAT) accepted psychological disorders.
 GALTON: 1st to suggest intelligence was
 TEST CREATION: Classifies them based on criteria –
inherited. Intelligence based on muscle
o Standardization: administer a test to a provides no explanation of causes or
strength, size of head, reaction time, etc.
representative sample of future test takers treatments
 CATTELL: 2 clusters of mental abilities
to establish a basis for meaningful ANXIETY DISORDERS
o Crystalized intelligence: reasoning and
comparison (test it out 1st) Most common disorders in the U.S.
verbal skills - what you learn in school –
o Should be reliable: same results over  Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD):
the cold hard (like crystals!) facts
time person is generally anxious, all the time, for
o Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities, rote
 Split-half reliability: compare two NO REASON
memory, things that come natural to you
– can’t learn in school. Also decrease
halves of the test  Panic Disorder: person is prone to frequent
 Test-retest reliability: use the same panic attacks (feeling like you’re having a
over time
test on 2 different occasions heart attack). Can come w/ agoraphobia:
 SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: said a o Should be valid: test is accurate – anxiety about being in places you cannot
general intelligence (g) underlies all mental measures what it is intended to escape (fear of public spaces / people)
abilities (typical IQ of today)  Content validity: test measures what  Phobias: irrational fear that disrupts your
 GARDNER: multiple intelligences (8): you want it to (an IQ test actually life
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, measures IQ) CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS:
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal  Predictive validity: test is able to  Psychodynamic: repressed thoughts &
(self), interpersonal (social), naturalist accurately predict a trait (high math feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals
 STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY scores predicts good engineer)  Behaviorist: fear conditioning leads to
o Analytical: mental components to solve  Standardized tests establish a normal anxiety, which is then reinforced. Phobias
problems, what IQ tests assess (book distribution might be learned through observational
smarts)  Standard deviations are used to compare learning
o Practical: ability to size up new scores.
Biological: natural selection favored those with
situations and adapt to real-life demands certain phobias (heights). Twins often share
 Standard deviation measures how much disorders. Often see less GABA in the brain
(street smarts)
the scores vary from the mean. The  Obsessive-compulsive Disorders (OCD):
o Creative: intellectual and motivational
percentages stay the same in every curve person sf overwhelmed with both:
processes that lead to novel solutions,
idea, products o Obsessions: persistent unwanted thoughts
 BINET: developed 1st intelligence test, (did I leave the stove on?)
combined with TERMAN – developed o Compulsions: senseless rituals (hand
the STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST washing)
 Post-traumatic stress disorders
(PTSD): characterized by flashbacks,
problems w/ concentration, and anxiety
o Chronological age = actual age following a traumatic event (war, natural
o Mental age = tested age compared to disasters)
other of that age SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
o 100 is average  Psychological disorders w/ no
 WECHSLER: developed the WAIS and apparent physical cause
WISC – most commonly used today o Conversion disorder: loss of feeling or
 FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over Abnormal Behavior usage of a limb or body part (sight) –
the past 80 years – probably due to (7 – 9%) absolutely no physiological cause though
o Illness Anxiety Disorder: person
education standards and better IQ tests
 Defining abnormal behavior:
 Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above interprets normal symptoms as a major
o Requires “clinically significant” disease – must disrupt their life
135; mentally retarded = below 70
disturbance in cognition, emotional DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
 Causes of mild retardation: regulation or behavior AND
o PKU – liver fails to produce an ezyme  Dissociative Identity Disorder: formerly
o Significant distress or disability social multiple personalities – person fractures
needed to breakdown chemicals – leads
situations, occupations or other important into several distinct personalities who
to brain damage
activities normally have no awareness of each other.
o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21st
 Historical causes: biology, psychological NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA!
chromosome
issues, supernatural issues (demons) o Usually caused by traumatic childhood
o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to
ONE X chromosome  Medical model: emphasizes treatment of abuse
disorders, as they have a biological origin. o Legitimacy is doubted by some, more
 Influence on IQ:
Came through the reformation of common in those w/ good health
o Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ,
institutions in U.S. (DORTHEA DIX) insurance
adopted kids more similar to biological
parents o Treatment involves integration of the
personalities
 Dissociative Amnesia + Fugue: following “turned-on” by environmental stimuli desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of
a traumatic event a person leaves, taking on (like stress) – explains why it is most things about flying that makes you
a whole new life & personality w/ no commonly developed during college nervous – step through each one till
memory of the previous one years you can do it)
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS PERSONALITY DISORDERS  Intensive exposure therapy
 Major depressive disorder: extreme  Marked by disruptive, inflexible, enduring (Flooding): force someone to
sadness and despair, apathy towards life, w/ behavior patterns – makes this very experience the fear (afraid of
no known cause difficult to treat! drowning, throw you in a pool)
 Disruptive mood regulation disorder: o Antisocial: NOT “avoidant of o Operant Conditioning: use behavior
Frequent temper tantrums inconsistent with socialization” – more like “anti-society” – modification (reward good behaviors w/
developmental level disregard for others, manipulative, breaks token reinforcers ). Used in schools, w/
 Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): form laws autistic children, etc.
of depression that occurs typically winter – o Borderline: instable interpersonal  OTHER THERPAIES:
found mostly in Northern areas (Alaska, relationships & self-image, “I hate you, o Family therapy: treats the family as a
Ireland) UNIQUE TREATMENT = don’t leave me” system, individual behaviors are
LIGHT THERAPY o Histrionic: excessive emotionality & influenced by family dynamics
BIPOLAR DISORDERS attention seeking o Group therapy: therapy through a group
 Bipolar disorder: bouts of severe o Narcissistic: need for admiration & lack – lets patients see “they’re not alone”
depression & manic episodes of empathy (who cares about everyone  BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: CALLED
o Mania: heightened mood, characterized else – look at me!) BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES
by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of Treatment of o Drug therapies (psychopharmacology):
ideas  Anti-psychotics: decrease dopamine:
CAUSES OF DEPRESSIVE AND Psychological Disorders treats schizophrenia
BIPOLAR DISORDERS (5-7%)  Side effects: TARDIVE DYSKINESIA:
 Biology: lower levels of serotonin &  PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH: SEE hand tremors (similar to Parkinson’s-
norepinephrine linked to depression, higher PERSONALITY SECTION due to lack of dopamine), worsening
levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. of negative symptoms, extreme
 HUMANISTIC APPROACH:
Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin sedation
o Client-centered therapy: (developed by
studies also support this. CARL ROGERS) techniques include  Drug names: thorazine, clozapine
 Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads active listening, accepting environment,  Anti-depressants: increase serotonin
to depression focuses on patient growth (you figure through REUPTAKE inhibition
SCHIZOPHRENIA out what needs to change and do it)  Side effects: drowsiness, anxiety, can
NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES! increase suicide risk in teens
 COGNITIVE APPROACH:
THEY HAVE ONE PERSONALITY! o Rational-emotive therapy: (developed  Drug names: SSRIs (selective
 SYMPTOMS by ELLIS) techniques include analyzing serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like
o Positive Symptoms (not good – means self-defeating behaviors to change Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil. SNRIs (selective
something added)) thought patterns – and then change norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors)
 Hallucinations: sensory experiences behaviors associated w/ said patterns Cymbalta, Effexor
w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or  Best for anxiety disorders  Mood stabilizers: used in the treatment
hearing things)  Very confrontational of BIPOLAR disorder : LITHIUM
 Delusions: fixed, false beliefs (people o Cognitive therapy: (developed by  Anti-anxiety drugs: depress the
are out to get them, grandiose thoughts BECK) illogical thoughts  central nervous system (dangerous in
(I am God) psychological problems, challenges combo w/ alcohol) Xanax, Ativan
 Disorganized thinking those thoughts o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): send
 Disorganized speech  Best for depression electricity into the brain to induce minor
o Negative Symptoms (something taken  Self-directed – you figure out your seizures. Used (rarely) to treat depression
away) errors (when nothing else works). Thought to
 Flat affect: lack ability to show “reboot” the brain
 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (typically
emotions used for anxiety disorders / phobias) o Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy):
 Impaired decision making, inability o Classical Conditioning:
frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used
to pay attention  Counterconditioning Little Albert & to treat depression or violent individuals –
o Catatonia: become frozen over periods Watson almost never used anymore
of time (exhibit waxy flexibility: can  Aversive conditioning: associate an
move them into new positions) unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea)
 CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g.
o Brain abnormalities: enlarged ventricles drinking alcohol)
(atrophy), smaller frontal cortex  Exposure therapy: slowly expose
o Genetics: runs in families, MZ twins at people to whatever it is that makes
higher risk them anxious
o Dopamine hypothesis: too much
 Systematic desensitization:
dopamine in the brain associate a pleasant relaxed state w/
o Diathesis – Stress: individual has a gradually increasing anxiety
genetic predisposition, disease must be triggering stimuli (create a
 Social GROUP INFLUENCE  Social exchange theory: social behavior
 Social facilitation: perform better on (helping) is an exchange process – aim is
(8-10%) simple or well learned tasks in the presence to maximize benefits and minimize cost
SOCIAL THINKING of others  Reciprocity norm: we give so we can get
 Attribution theory: we explain others  Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group CONFLICT
behaviors by crediting the situation or the to exert less effort when pooling their effort  Social trap: conflicting parties pursue
person’s disposition (they only passed b/c together (tug of war) their own best interests, which can result
they cheated)  Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness in destructive results (prisoner’s dilemma
 Fundamental attribution error (very and self-restraint occurring in group – game theory)
similar to Actor-observer bias): situations that foster arousal and anonymity
tendency for observers to underestimate (mob mentality)
the importance of the situation and  Group polarization: the more time spent
overestimate the impact of personal w/ a group the more similar (polarized) their
disposition (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a thoughts / opinions will become
jerk – not that his wife could be in labor)  Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a
ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS group leads to everyone going along w/ the
 Central route to persuasion: change same thinking, ignoring other possibilities
people’s attitudes through logical or bad ideas
arguments and explanations. Leads to  Risky shift: groups make riskier decisions
long term behavior change together rather than alone
 Peripheral route to persuasion: change PREJUDICE
people’s attitudes through incidental cues  Ingroup: “US” – ppl w/ whom we share a
(like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to common identity 
temporary behavior changes  Outgroup: “them” – ppl perceived as
 Foot in the door phenomenon: different or not part of the group  Approach approach conflict: win – win
situation; conflict is which win you have
complying w/ a small request then leads  Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own
to going along w/ a larger request (can I to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your
group
two favorite restaurants – you can only
have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?)  Scapegoat theory: prejudice offers an
 Door in the face phenomenon: a large choose one though)
outlet for anger by providing someone
request is turned down, when then leads you  Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose
else to blame
situation; outcome has positive and
to be more likely to comply w/ a small  Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your
request (can I have $100? Heck no! How negative aspects (marriage)
own group as more important than others
 Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose –
about $20? Okay)  Just-world phenomenon: tendency for
 STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT lose; both outcomes are bad but you have
ppl to believe that the world is just and
(ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” to choose one (clean your room or do
therefore ppl get what they deserve
where individuals were assigned to be your homework)
(homeless ppl)
guards / prisoners. w/in days they took on  Multiple approach avoidance conflict:
AGGRESION
two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict
their roles and went too far. Highly  Genetic influence: runs in families, can
unethical is which to choose (College A is good for
breed for in animals
 Cognitive dissonance (FESTINGER): two your major but no scholarship, College B
 Lower serotonin, higher testosterone is bad for your major but has a
opposing thoughts conflict w/ each other,  Environmental influence: social
causing discomfort (dissonance), which scholarship)
learning theory (BANDURA) – observing SOCIAL SELF
makes us find ways to justify the situation violence in others makes us more violent
(cult that was going to be abducted by  Self-concept bias: what we consider
for a time important in ourselves is what we
aliens, smokers) o Also: pollution, crowding, heat, humidity
SOCIAL INFLUENCE consider important in others
 Frustration-aggression hypothesis:  False-consensus effect: we overestimate
 Conformity: classic experiment done by frustration creates anger, which leads to
ASCH – showed lines of different lengths, the degree to which everyone else thinks /
aggression acts the way we do
confederates gave wrong answers to see if ATTRACTION
others would go along w/ it  Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that
 Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you
o Normative social influence: we to novel stimuli increases liking of them
conform to gain approval or to not stand all to pass, you know this, you study –
(the more time you spend around fulfilling my prophecy)
out from the group (be part of the norm something the more you like it)
o Informational social influence: we  Self-serving bias: readiness to perceive
 Physical attractiveness: pretty ppl are ourselves as favorably
conform to others b/c we think their
thought to be more credible, less likely to
opinions must be right  Spotlight effect (self-objectification) :
do bad things
 Obedience: classic experiment done by tendency of an individual to overestimate
 Similarity: we prefer ppl similar to us
MILGRAM: participants were to “teach” the extent to which others are paying
ALTRUISM attention to them
another individual using shocks. 60% of
 Altruism: unselfish regard for the
participants would administer lethal shocks
welfare of others
to another person simply b/c they were told
 Bystander effect: the more ppl around Created by C.Thompson; 2013
to [email protected]
the less likely we are to help someone in
need (Kitty Genovese)