Unit 5 PDF

Complex Integration 5.
Complex Integration
Complex integration – Statement and applications of Cauchy’s

integral theorem and Cauchy’s integral formula – Taylor’s and
Laurent’s series expansions – Singular points – Residues –
Cauchy’s residuetheorem – Evaluation of real definite integrals
as contour integrals around unit circle and semi-circle (excluding
poles on the real axis).
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Complex variable techniques have been used in a wide
variety of areas of engineering. This has been particularly
true in areas such as electromagnetic field theory, fluid
dynamics, aerodynamics and elasticity.
With the rapid developments in computer technology and
the consequential use of sophisticated algorithms for analysis
and design in engineering there has been, in recent years, less
emphasis on the use of complex variable techniques and a shift
towards numerical techniques applied directly to the
underlying full partial differential equations model of the
situation.
However it is useful to have an analytical solution, possibly
for an idealized model in order to develop a better understanding
of the solution and to develop confidence in numerical estimates
for the solution of more sophisticated models.
5.2 Mathematics - II Complex Integration 5.3
The design of aerofoil sections for aircraft is an area Connected region

where the theory was developed using complex variable
Definition
techniques. Throughout engineering, transforms defined as
complex integrals in one form or another play a major role in A Region R is said to be a connected region if the
analysis and design. curve joining any two points entirely lies inside the
The use of complex variable techniques allows us to Region R.
develop criteria for the stability of systems.
Simply Connected Region:
Now we see some useful definition which is useful for
our topics. Definition
simple closed curve A Region R is said to be a simply connected region if
Definition any closed curve which lies in R can be shrunk to a without
crossing.
A curve is called a simple closed curve if it does not
intersect itself. Multi-connected Region:
Definition
A connected region which is not simply-connected is called
a Multi-connected region. Multi-connected regions can
be converted into simply-connected regions by introducing
Simple closed curve one or more cross cuts.
multiple curve The boundary of a region is said to be traversed in the

positive direction if an observer travelling along this direction
Definition has the region to his left.
A curve is called multiple curve if it is not a simple closed
curve. 5.2 COMPLEX INTEGRATION
Let f(z) be a continuous function of the complex variable
z = x + iy along the arc C joining the points A and B, whose
length is finite. Divide C into n parts by the points
z1, z2, .... zn–1, where A, B corresponds to z0 to zn.
Multiple curve Let zk = zk – zk–1 and let ak be any point in the arc zk–1zk.
Then the limit of the sum nk =1 f(ak )  zk as n  in = (u dx - v dy) +i (v dx + udy)
  .. (1)
such a way that the length of every chord zk 0 is called C C
the line integral of f(z) along C from A to B is denoted Since f (z) is continuous the four partial derivatives
by f(z)dz u u v v
 , , and are also continuous in R and on C.
c x y x y
i.e.,  f(z)dz = Lt nk=0 f(zk )· zk while zk 0 each By Green’s theorem in the plane.
n 
c
 N M 
If f(z) = u + iv and dz = dx + idy then
  M dx + Ndy  =   x
C R
-  dxdy
y 
 f(z)dz =  (u dx – v dy) + i (v dx + u dy)

C C C
since f(z) = u + iv is analytic, by C -R equations
If x = f(t) and y = g(t) represents the curve C interms of u v v u

a parameter t, then = and = 
x y x y
b
dz From (1)
 f(z)dz =  f(z(t)) dt .dt
a
c
 v u   u v 
Where t = a and t = b are the parametric values  f(z)dz =    x  y  dxdy + i  x  y  dxdy
C R R
corresponding to the end points A and B respectively.
 u u   u u 
5.2.1 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem (or) Cauchy’s Fundamental dxdy i   dxdy
Theorem
 f(z)dz =
c
R  y y 
   +
R 
x x 
If fz) is an analytic and f (z) is continuous at all points
 f(z)dz = 0 + i0 = 0
inside and on a simple closed curve C, then  f(z)dz = 0.
c
c
Proof:  f(z)dz = 0
c
Let be the region enclosed by C, let f(z) = u + iv
z = x + iy  dz = dx +idy
 f(z)dz =  (u +iv) d(x+ i dy)

C C
Extension of Cauchy’s integral theorem On C1, any point z is given by z = a + rei, 0    2

If f(z) is analytic on ‘C’ and inside a multi connected i
dz = ire d
region, whose outer boundary is C and inner boundaries
2π
are C1, C2, ...Cn then f(z) f(a+rei )
 dz = .ir.e i d
C
z-a 
0 re i
 f(z)dz =  f(z)dz+  f(z)dz+......+  f(z)dz

C C1 C2 Cn 2π
i
where all the integrals are taken in the same sense. = i  f(a+re )d .. (2)
0
5.2.2 Cauchy’s Integral Formula (or) Cauchy’s Fundamental In the limit, as r  0 the circle C1 reduces to the point
Formula z=a
Statement: Taking limit as r  0 in (2), we have
If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C 2π
f(z)
and if ‘a’ is any point within C , then  dz = i  f(a)d
C
z-a 0
1 f(z)
f(a) =  dz 2
2πi C z - a = if  a   0
the integration around C being taken in the positive direction.
Proof: f(z)
Since f(z) is analytic inside and on C.
 z - a dz =
C
2 if(a)
f(z) 1 f(z)
 is also analytic inside and on C except at the point
z–a f(a) = 2πi  z – a dz
c
z= a.
Now draw a circle C1: |z – a| = r with centre z = a and 5.2.3 Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives of an Analytic
a radius r units such that C1 lies entirely inside C. Function
f(z) Statement:
Now (z) = is analytic in the region enclosed
z–a If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C
between C and C1.
and is any interior point of the region R enclosed by C ,then
  (z)dz =  (z)dx f(a) =
1 f(z)
dz
C C1 
2πi C (z – a) 2
f(z) f(z)
i.e.,
C
 z - a dz =  z - a dz
C1
.. (1)
2! f(z) SOLVED PROBLEMS

f (a) =  dz
2πi C (z – a) 3
PROBLEM 1
In general
dz
Evaluate the integral  z–a where C is a simple closed
n! f(z)dz
f n(a)= 
2πi C (z – a) n+1
C
curve and ‘a’ is interior to C.

The integration around C being taken in anticlock wise Solution:
direction. By Cauchy’s integral formula
Proof : 1 f(z)
 dz = f(a)
By Cauchy’s integral formula, 2πi C z – a
1 f(z) f(z)
f (a) = dz .. (1)  z–a dz = 2i f(a)

2πi C (z – a) C
Differentiating (1) under the integral sign w.r.to ‘a’, we dz

get,   z–a
C
= 2i f(a) (Here f(z) = 1)
1 1 = 2i (1) (since f(a) = 1)

fa) =  f(z).dz .. (2) = 2i
2πi C (z – a) 2
Differentiating (2) under the integral sign w.r.to a, PROBLEM 2
1 2 cos z
f(a) = f(z).dz Evaluate  dz if C is |z|= 2.

2πi C (z – a) 3 C z–1
Solution:
2! f(z)dz Let f(z) = cos  z and a = 1 lies inside |z| = 2
i.e., f(a) =
2πi C (z – a) 3  By Cauchy’s integral formula
In general f(z)
 z–a dz = 2i f(a)
C
n! f(z)dz
f n(a) = 
2πi C (z – a) n+1 cos πz
  dz = 2i f(1)
C z –1
[since f(z ) = cos z, f(1) = cos  = –1]
= 2i (–1) = – 2i
By Cauchy’s integral formula

PROBLEM 3
ez
Evaluate  dz where C is the circle | z + 1 |=1 .  
z+1 2  since f(a) = f (i) 
C
 
 ez 
Solution: f(z) f(z) = ,
dz = 2i f(a)  (z +i) 
z
 z–a  
e 1 c
 ei 
Let f(z) = and z = –1 lies outside the circle | z + | =1.  f(i) = 
z+1 2 2i
 B y Cauchy’s integral formula f(z) ei
c z – a dz = 2i f(i) = 2i ( )
2i
ez
C z+1dz = 0 =  ei
ii) where C is the circle with centre z = –i
PROBLEM 4
 ez 
z
e ez  
Evaluate z dz Where C is the circle of unit  z +i  dz
C
2
+1 C z 2 +1dz =  z –i
C
radius with centre at (i) z = i (ii) z = –i.
Solution: ez
Where f (z) = , is analytic and inside C.
z2 + 1 = (z + i) (z – i) (z – i)
ez ez By Cauchy’s integral formula,

 C z +1dz =
2 C (z +i)(z – i) dz
ez
i) C is the circle with centre at z = i and unit radius
C z +1dz = 2i f(–i)
2
 The point z = i lies inside ‘C’. e –i

ez
Here f (a) = f (–i)  f(z)= , f(–i) =
 ez  (z – i) –2i
ez  
 z +i  dz  e –i 
C z 2 +1dz =  (z – i) = 2i  –2i 
C  
ez ez
where f (z) = C z 2 +1dz = – e–i
(z +i)
PROBLEM 5 PROBLEM 6
Using Cauchy's integral formula, evaluate z2 + 1

z 1
Evaluate  2 dz where C is the circle i) |z–1| = 1,
C z –1
 (z – 1)(z – 2) dz where C is the circle z – 2 = . ii)|z+1|= 1, iii) |z–i| = 2.
C
2
Solution:
AU - (Nov / Dec 2004, 2006)
Solution: z 2 +1 z 2 +1
We know that the Cauchy's integral formula is
Now C z 2 – 1 dz = C (z +1)(z – 1) dz
f(z) Take (z + 1) (z – 1) = 0
 z – a dz = 2πi f(a) , .. (1)
C  z = –1 and z = 1
Let (z –1) (z – 2) = 0
i) C is the circle |z – 1| = 1, the centre of this circle (1, 0) and
 z = 1 and z = 2 radius is 1.
Given C is the circle
 The point z = 1 lies inside ‘C’.
1
|z – 2| =
2 z 2 +1 ( z 2 +1)/( z +1)
1
C z 2 – 1 dz = C (z – 1) dz
Put z = 1, |1 – 2| >
2
By using Cauchy’s integral formula
1
Put z = 2, |2 – 2| <
2 z 2 +1
Here z = 2 lies inside C and z = 1 lies outside C
C z 2 – 1 dz = 2i f(1)
Now 
z
dz =
 z z  1 dz . where f(z) =
z 2 +1
,
C (z – 1)(z – 2)

C z2 z+1
taking = 2 i f(2) ...by using (1) 1+1

f(1) = =1
1+1
 2   z 
= 2 i  
 2  1  f  z   z  1  z 2 +1
 
 C z 2 – 1 dz = 2i
= 4i
ii) Consider the circle |z+1| = 1, this is a circle with centre

z2 +1 1 1
(–1, 0) and the radius is 1.  2 = 1+ –
z –1 z – 1 z +1
 The point z = –1 also lies inside ‘C’.
z2 +1 dz dz
2
z +1
dz =
2
( z +1)/( z – 1)
dz
C z2 – 1 dz = C 1.dz + C z -1 - C z +1
z
C
2
–1 
C (z +1)
[since by Cauchy’s Fundamental Theorem]
By using Cauchy’s integral formula, we get  dz  0
dz
z 2 +1 [since  z – a = 2πi , if a lies inside C]
C z 2 – 1 dz = 2i f(–1)
Therefore by using Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
2
z +1
where f(z) = z2 +1
z –1 C z2 – 1 dz = 0 + 2 i – 2 i = 0
1+1
f(–1) = =–1 z2 +1
–2  C z2 – 1 dz = 0
z 2 +1
C z 2 – 1 dz = 2i (–1) = –2i PROBLEM 7
iii) Consider the circle C:|z – i| = 2. z 4

Using Cauchy's integral formula, evaluate z 2
dz
C  2z  5
When z = 1, |z – i| = |1 – i| = 2<2
where C is the circle |z + 1 + i| = 2.
z = –1, |z – i| = |– 1 –i| = 2<2 (AU - Dec 2010, April / May 2005)
 both z = 1 and z = –1 lies inside ‘C’. Solution:
In this case, we proceed as follows. Find the factors of z2 + 2z + 5

 z2 + 2z + 5 =0
Splitting into partial fraction,
A B 2  2 2  4( 1)( 5 )
z2 +1 1  z
We write = 2( 1)
z2 – 1 z1 z1
z2 + 1 = z 2
 1 + A  z  1 + B  z  1 2  4i
 = 1  2i
2
Put z = 1, B=1
Put z = –1, A = –1  z 2  2z  5 =  z   1  2i    z   1  2i  
The given C is the circle |z + 1 + i| =2 PROBLEM 8

Put z = –1 + 2i, |–1 + 2i + 1 + i| = |3i|> 2
z 1
By Cauchy's integral formula, z 4
dz
 3i  3  C  4z3  4z2
evaluate where C is the circle |z – 2 – i| = 2.
Put z = –1 – 2i, |–1 – 2i + 1 + i| = |i| < 2
(AU - Nov/Dec 2005)
 z = –1 –2i lies inside C and z = –1 + 2i lies
Solution:
outside C
z1 z1
We know that the Cauchy's integral formula is = 2 2
z  4z 3  4z 2
4
z ( z  4z  4 )
f(z) .. (1)
 z – a dz = 2πif(a) z1
=
C z ( z  2 )2
2
z4 z4 Let z2 (z – 2)2 = 0

Now z 2
dz =  dz
C
 2z  5 C
[ z  ( 1  2i)][ z  ( 1  2i)]  z = 0 (or) z = 2
The given C is the circle |z – 2 – i| = 2
=
 z  4 ( z  1  2i) dz

C [ z  ( 1  2i)]
Put z = 0, |0 –2 – i| = 2  i  5  2
Put z = 2 , |2 – 2 –i| = |– i| <2

Taking f(z) = z  4 ( z  1  2i)  z = 0 lies outside C and z = 2 lies inside C
We know that the Cauchy's integral formula for
z4 derivative
z 2
dz = 2 i f ( 1  2i) ...by using (1)
C  2z  5
f(z)
  z – a 2
dz = 2πif(a) , .. (1)
 1  2i  4  C
= 2 i  
 1  2i  1  2i 
z1
C z 2 ( z  2 ) 2 dz =
 z  1 z  dz
2
 2i  3 
= 2 i  
 ( z  2)
C
2
 4i 
2 i
 2i  3  = f '( 2 ) ... by using (1)
=    1 !
 2 
 d z1   1
=
 ( 3  2i) = 2 i 
 dz

z 2  z 2   f  z   z  z 2 
2
(z2+1) = (z–1) (z–2) + A(z–2) + B(z–1)

 2 
z ( 1  0 )  ( z  1)2z 
= 2 i  Put z=1, 2=–A   = –2
 2 2 
  z   z 2 Put z=2, 5=B =5
  z 2  2z  ( z2 +1) 2 5
= 2 i  4  = 1– +
 z  z2 ( z – 1)( z – 2) z–1 z– 2
 4  4  ( z2 +1) dz dz
= 2 i  C ( z – 1)( z – 2) dz = C dz  2  z –1 + 5  z  2
 16  C C
= 0 – 2 (2i) + 5 (2i)
 1 
= 2 i  
 2 = –4i + 10i
= –i = 6i
PROBLEM 9 PROBLEM 10
Using Cauchy’s integral formula evaluate
(z2 +1)
Without using residue theorem evaluate  dz ,
C ( z – 1)( z – 2)
sinπz2 + cosπz2
where C is |z| = 3
C (z – 1)(z – 2) dz , where C is |z| = 3
Solution: Solution:
C is the circle |z| = 3 , let
Given C is the circle
( z2 +1) |z| = 3,
f(z) =
( z – 1)( z – 2)
let f (z) = sin z2 + cos z2
Both the poles z = 1 and z = 2 li es insi de C.
Both the poles z =1 and z = 2 lies inside C
Hence, as Cauchy’s integral formula cannot be applied Splitting into partial fractions,
as there are two singularities inside ‘C’.
Solving into partial fractions, 1 A B

= +
( z – 1)( z – 2) z 1 z2
( z2 +1) A B
= 1+ + 1 = A(z–2) + B(z–1)
( z – 1)( z – 2) z–1 z –2
Put z=1, A=–1 PROBLEM 11
Put z=2, B=1 Using Cauchy's integral formula, evaluate

4  3z 3
1 –1 1  z( z  1)( z  2 ) dz , where 'C' is the circle z  .
 ( z – 1)( z – 2) = + C
2
z –1 z – 2
(AU - June 2010)
sinπz 2 +cosπz 2 Solution:
  ( z – 1)( z – 2) dz
C 3
The given C is the circle z  .
2
sinπz 2 +cosπz 2 sinπz 2 +cosπz 2
= – dz + dz Let z(z – 1) (z – 2) = 0
C ( z – 1) C ( z – 2)
 z = 0, z = 1, z=2
sinπz 2 +cosπz2 f ( z) dz f ( z) dz The poles are z=0, z=1 and z=2

i.e.,  dz = –  + 
C ( z – 1)( z – 2) z –1 z2 3
Put z = 0, 0 
2
By using Cauchy’s integral formula, we get,
3
sinπz 2 +cosπz2 Put z = 1, 1
2
C ( z – 1)( z – 2) dz = – 2i f(1) + 2i f(2)
3
2 2 Put z = 2, 2 
Since f(z) = sin z + cos z 2
f(1) = sin  + cos  = –1  z = 0 and z = 1 lies inside C and z = 2 lies
f(2) = sin 4 + cos 4 = 1 outside C
sinπz 2 +cosπz2  4  3z 
  dz = – 2i (–1) + 2i (1) 4  3z  
( z – 1)( z – 2)  z2 
C Now  dz =  dz .. (1)
C 
z z  1 z  2  C z  z  1
= 2i + 2i = 4i
1 A B
 Take = 
z( z  1) z z1
1 = A(z – 1) + Bz
Put z = 0, 1 = A(0 – 1) + 0  A = –1 PROBLEM 12

Put z = 1, 1 = A(0) + B(1) B=1
dz
1 1
Evaluate  2 where C is the circle |z – i|= 2.

1
=  .. (2)
C z 2
 4
z( z  1) z z 1 AU - (Nov/Dec 2003) (Nov/Dec 2008)
We know that the Cauchy's integral formula is Solution:
f(z) dz dz
C z – a dz = 2πif(a) , Given  2 =   z  2i  z  2i 
2 2
C z 2
 4 C
Now Let (z + 2i)2 (z – 2i)2 = 0

 z = –2i (or) z = 2i
The given circle is |z – i| = 2
4  3z
 z( z  1)( z  2 ) dz =
 4  3z ( z  2 ) dz Put z = 2i  |2i – i|=|i| < 2
C  z( z  1)
C Put z = –2i  |–2i –i|=|– 3i| > 2
 z = –2i lies outside C and z = 2i lies inside C
=
 4  3z ( z  2 ) dz –
 4  3z ( z  2 ) dz .. by (2)  1 
 ( z  1)  z  
C C
dz   z  2i  2 
=    dz
 2
C  z  2i 
2
 4  3z  C z 2
 4
= 2 i f ( 1)  2 i f ( 0 )  f ( z )  z  2  By Cauchy's Integral formula for derivative, we have
2 i
= f '  2i 
 4  3( 1)   40  1!
= 2 i    2 i  
 (1 2)   (0  2) 
  1 
= 2 i ( 1)  2 i ( 2 )
 d  ( z  2i) 2    1 
   f  z  
= 2 i   2
= –2i + 4i  dz    z  2i  
  z 2i
= 2 i  2 
= 2 i  3
( 1  0 )
 ( z  2i)  z  2i
 2   2  
= 2 i  3 
= 2 i  =
 ( 2i  2i)   64i  16
PROBLEM 13 PROBLEM 14
Using Cauchy’s integral formula evaluate 3 z2 +7 z +1
If f(a) =  dz , where C is |z| = 2. find f(3),
zdz 1 z– a
 (z – 1)(z – 2)
C
2 , where C is |z – 2| =
2
.
C
f (1– i), f (1– i) and f(1–i)

Solution: Solution:
Let (z – 1)2 (z – 2)2 = 0
 z = –2i (or) z = 2i 3 z 2 +7 z +1
Given f(a) = C z – a dz .. (1)
1
Given C is the circle |z – 2| = Since the pole z = 3 is lies outside the circle |z| = 2.
2
1 3 z 2 +7 z +1
Put z = 1, |1 – 2| = |1| >  f (3) =  dz
2 C z –3
1
Put z = 2, |2 – 2| = |0| < Differentiating (1) w.r. to ‘a’ we get,
2
 z = 1 lies outside C and z = 2 lies inside C. 3 z 2 +7 z +1
f(a) =   z – a 2
dz ,
 z  C
zdz  
 z  1  dz
  ( z – 1)( z – 2) 2 =  2 Again Differentiating with respect to ‘a’ we get
C C  z  2
f ( z) dz  z  3 z 2 +7 z +1
f(a) = 2  dz
=  ( z – 2)2 ,  f  z    z – a
3
C  z  1  C
By Using Cauchy’s integral formula for derivative, z = 1 – i lies inside the circle C .
zdz
C ( z – 1)( z – 2)2 = 2i f (2) Since |z| = 2<2
z 3 z2 +7 z +1
Here f(z) = f (1 – i) = –  dz
z –1 C  z – (1 – i)  2
–1
f(z) = By Using Cauchy’s integral formula,
( z – 1)2
–1 3 z2 +7 z +1
f (2) = = –1 f (1 – i) = –  dz
(2 – 1)2 C  z – (1 – i)  2
zdz = 2 i f (z)
  ( z – 1)( z – 2) 2
= 2i (–1) = –2i
C
Where f(z) = 3z2 + 7z + 1

PROBLEM 15
f(z) = 6z + 7 If C is a simple closed curve containing z = a and z = b,
dz
f (z) = 6 then evaluate  (z – a)(z – b)
C
3 z2 +7 z +1 Solution:
 f (1 – i) = –  dz
C  z – (1 – i) 
2
Both z = a and z = b lie inside C
For z = a
= 2i (6z + 7)
 1 
= 2i (6 (1 –i) + 7)  
 z–b
Take f(z) =
= 2i (13 – 6i) z–a
By Using Cauchy’s integral formula,
3 z 2 +7 z +1
Now, f (1 – i)= 2 dz
 f(z)dz = 2if (a)
C  z – (1 – i) 
2
C
 1 
 2πi  = 2πi  
= 2 f''( z)  a–b
 2! 
For z = b,
= 2i (6)
 1 
 
= 12i  z – a
Take f(z) =
z –b
3 z2 +7 z +1
Also, f (1 – i) =  z – (1 – i)2 dz
–
 f(z)dz = 2i f(b)
C  
C
= 2i f(z)  1 
= 2πi  
= 2i [3z2 + 7z + 1] b–a
= 2i [3 (1 – i)2 + 7(1– i) + 1]  1 

= –2πi  
a–b
= 2i (8 – 13i)
 1 1 
  f(z)dz =
C
2πi  – =0
a–b a–b 
EXERCISE 5.3 TAYLOR’S SERIES

Evaluate the following integrals using Cauchy’s If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at z = a,
integral formula: then f(z) can be expressed as
cosπz 2 3 (z - a) (z – a) 2
1.  dz where C is |z| = (Ans: 2i) f(z) = f(a) + f (a) + f '' (a)
2
C (z – 1) (z – 2) 2 1! 2!
(z - a) n (n)
z+4 + f (a)+ ... + to 
2. z 2
dz where C is the circle |z + 1 – i| = 2 n!
C
+ 2z +5
Which is convergent at every point inside C. This is called
Taylor’s Series of f(a) about z = a
  
 Ans : 2 (3  2i) 
 
SOLVED PROBLEMS
z +1  3  PROBLEM 1
3. z 3
dz where C is |z| = 1  Ans :  2 i 
C
– 2z 2   π
Expand f(z) = cosz about z = in Taylor’s Series.
3
e 2z 1
4. C z 2 +1 dz , where C is |z| = 2 (Ans: 0) Solution:
π π 1
Given f(z) = cosz, then f   = cos =
dz   3 3 2
5.  (z 2
+4) 2 , where C is the circle |z – i| = 2  Ans : 16 
C  
π π – 3
f(z) = – sinz  f'   = – sin =
3 3 2
zdz
6.  (z – 1)
C
2
(z+1) where C is |z| = 2 (Ans: 0)
π π –1
f(z) = –cosz  f   = – cos =
3
  3 2
π π 3
f (z)= sinz  f   = sin =
3
  3 2
We know the Taylor’s Series of f(z) about z = a is given The Taylor’s Series of f(z) about the point z = a is
by, given by,
n z z2 z3
(z – a) (z – a) 2 (z – a) (n) f(z) = f(0)+ f'(0) + f"(0)+ f'"(0) +....
f(z)= f(a) + f(a) + f'' (a)+..+ f (a) 1! 2! 3!
1! 2! n!
z z2 z3
= 0 (1)+ f”
”(–1)+ (2)+...
π 1! 2! 3!
when a = ,
3
z2 z3
f(z) = z – + – ....
π π π 2 3
(z – ) (z – ) 2 (z – ) 3
π 3 f'  π  + 3 f''  π  + 3 f'''  π  +...
f(z)= f   +      
3 1! 3 2! 3 3! 3 PROBLEM 3
(z –
π
)
π
(z – ) 2
π
(z – ) 3  z2  1
Expand f ( z)  in Taylor's series if |z| < 2.
1
f(z)= + 3  – 3 + 3  –1  + 3 3
( z  2)( z  3 )
      +...
2 1!  2  2!  2  3!  2 
AU - (Nov/Dec 2006, Nov/Dec 2007)
1 3 π 1 π 3 π  Solution:
= 1 – (z – ) – (z – ) 2 + (z – ) 3 +...
2 1! 3 2! 3 3! 3 
z2  1
f(z) =
( z  2 )( z  3 )
PROBLEM 2
5 z  7
Expand f(z) =log( 1+ z) as Taylor’s Series about z =0 f(z) = 1  .. (1)
( z  2 )( z  3 )
if |z|<1.
Taking partial fraction
Solution:
5 z  7 A B
Let f(z) = log(1+z)  f(0) = log(1+0) = log 1 = 0 = 
( z  2 )( z  3 ) ( z  2) ( z  3)
1 1 1 1  5 z  7 = A( z  3 )  B( z  2 )
f(z) = (1) =  f(0)= = =1
1+ z 1+ z 1+0 1
Put z = –2, A = 3
–1 –1 –1 Put z = –3, B = –8
f (z) =  f(0)= (1+0)2 = = –1
(1+ z)2 1 5 z  7 3 8
 ( z  2 )( z  3 ) = ( z  2 )  ( z  3 )
2 2 2
f(z) =  f(0)= (1+0)3 = = 2
(1+ z)3 1 3 8
 ( 1)  f ( z ) = 1  
( z  2) ( z  3)
First we shall express f(z) by using partial fraction

z
Given |z|< 2,  1 method, we have,
2
z A B
= + .. (1)
z z (z+1)(z – 3) (z +1) (z – 3)
  1 , it gives 1 .. (2)
2 3
z= A(z – 3) + B(z + 1)
3 8 1
f(z) = 1   Put z = –1, then A =
 z  z 4
2 1  3 1 
 2  3
3
1 1 Put z = 3, then B =
3 z 8 z 4
f(z) = 1  1    1 
2 2 3 3
z 1/4 3/4
f(z) = = +
2 3 (z +1)(z – 3) (z +1) (z – 3)
3  z  z   z  
f(z) = 1          ...... 
1   
2  2  2  2  1 1 3
f(z)= +
4 (z+1)  z
2 3
4(–3) 1 – 
8  z  z  z   3
  1           ...... ... by (2)
3   3   3   3  

1 1
= 
3  n
( 1) z n
8  n
( 1) z n 4(z +1)  z
4 1 – 
f(z) = 1 
2

n 0 2n

3

n 0 3n  3
–1
1 –1 1 z
PROBLEM 4 = (z +1) –  1 – 
4 4 3
Find the Taylor’s Series expansion about z = 0 of
2
z 1 2 1 z z 
f(z) = = 4 1 – z+ z – .... –
 4  1+ +   +...
(z+1)(z – 3) 3 3
 
Solution:
n
1  1  z
=  (–1) n z n –   
z 4 n=0 4 n=0  3 
Let f(z) =
(z+1)(z – 3)
PROBLEM 5 EXERCISE
1– z 1. Find the Taylor’s Series of f(z) = ez about z = 0
Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of f(z) = 2 in power of
z  
zn 
(z –1).  Ans :  n! 
 n=0 
Solution:
π
f(z) is not analytic at z = 0. Hence we consider a circle 2. Expand f(z) = sinz in a Taylor’s Series about z = .
4
with centre at z = 1 and radius  < 1.
n
  π 
So that the point z = 0 is excluded from the origin. That   
z–  
is, the region of vality for Taylor’s series will be |z – 1| <1.  Ans : 1   4 
 2 n=0 n! 
 f(a) = f(1) = 0,  
 
1– z 1 1
f(z) = 2 = 2 – z
z z z 3. Expand f(z) = in a Taylor’s Series about
(z+1)(z + 2)
2 ! 1! i) z = 0 ii) z = 2
f(z) = 3 – 2
z z
n n
 
n z 

n

 1
2
3!  1
2
2!  Ans : i)  (–1)   –  (–1) (z) 
f (z) = –  n=0  2  n=0 
z4 z3  
 1 1  n n

 ii)   2n – n (–1) (z – 2) 
3 3  n=0  2 +1 3 +1  
f (z) =
 1 4!
–
 1 3!
5 4
z z z
4. Obtain the Taylor’s series for f(z) = in |z| < 1.
(z+ 2)(zn +1)
(–1)n (n+1)! (–1) n (n)!
 f(n) (z) = –
z n+2 z n+1  1 
n

n z  2–z
 Ans :  (–1)   +  z 2n 
Hence f(n) (1)= (–1) n (n+1)! – (n)!  = (–1)n n! n  10 n=0  2 5 
1– z
 f(z) =
z2

n
=  (–1) n!n(z – 1) n
n 1
5.4 LAURENT’S SERIES SOLVED PROBLEMS

If C1 and C2 are two concentric circles with centre at
z = a and radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2). PROBLEM 1
If f(z) is analytic inside and on the circle and within z

Expand the function f(z) = in Laurent’s
the annuals between C1 and C2 then for any z in the annauls,  z – 1 z – 3 
we have series valid in |z| > 3 and |z – 1| < 2.
  Solution:
f(z) = a n (z – a) n +  bn (z – a) -n
n=0 n=0 z
Let f(z) =
1 f(z)  z – 1 z – 3 
Where an =  dz and
2πi c (z – a) n+1 By using partial fraction, we have
1 f(z) z A B
dz = +
bn = 
2πi c  z - a  n 1 (z – 1)(z – 3) (z – 1) (z – 3)
z = A(z – 3) + B(z –1)

Note:
1. In Laurent’s series of f(z) about z=a, the terms 1
Put z = 1, then A= –
containing the positive powers is called regular part. 2

n 3
i.e.,  a  z – a
n Put z = 3, then B =
n=0 2
2. In Laurent’s series of f(z) about z = a, the terms 1 3

z 2 + 2
containing the negative powers is called principal  f(z) = =
(z – 1)(z – 3) (z – 1) (z – 3)
part.

-n 3 1  1 1 
i.e.,  b  z – a
n = –
n=0 2  z – 3  2  z – 1 
i) consider the region |z| > 3(given)
3
 <1
z
    PROBLEM 2
3  1  1  1 
  –   1
 f(z)= Find the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) =
2  3 2  1  2
z + 3z+ 2
 z1 – z    z1 – z  
      in the region 1 < |z| < 2.
Solution:
3  3 3
2
 1  1  1 2 
= 2z 1+ z +  z  +... – 1+ +  +... 1
    2z  z  z   Given f(z)= 2
z +3z + 2
 n  n
3 3 1  1 A B
=
2z
   –
z 2z
  
 z = +
n=0 n=0 (z+1) (z+ 2)
ii) Consider the region |z – 1| < 2
1 1
u  f(z)=  z  1 +  z  2 
Put u = z – 1  <1
2
z = u + 1, i) Given 1 < |z| < 2,
 1 < |z| and |z| < 2
3 1  1 1 
 f(z)= 2  z – 3  – 2  z – 1 
    1 z
 < 1 and <1
z 2
3 1  1 1 
= –
2  z – 1 – 2  2  z – 1 

1 1
f(z)= –
3 1  1 1  1  z
3 1 1 z  1+  2  1+ 
=  –   = –  z  2 
2 u– 2 2 u 2  u  2u
(–2)  1 – 
 2 –1 –1
1 1 1 z
–1 =  1+  –  1+ 
3 u 1 z z 2 2
= – 1 –  –
4 2 2u
2 3 2
2
1  1  1  1  1   z   z  
–3  u u  1 = z  1 – + –
      ... –  1 –     – ...
+
= 4  1+ +   +... –   z   z   z   2   2   2  
 2 2  2u
n n
1   1 1 
z
3   z – 1  z – 1
2
 1 =  (–1) n   –  (–1) n  
= 4  1+   +   +...– z n=0  z 2 n=0 2
  2   2   2  z – 1
PROBLEM 3 i) Given 2 < |z| < 3,

i.e., 2 < |z| and |z|< 3
Find the Laurent's series expansion for the function
2 z
z2  1 in the region. i.e.,  1 and 1
f ( z)  2 z 3
z  5z  6
i) 2 < |z| < 3; ii)|z| > 3 2 z
i.e.,  1 and 1
AU - (Nov/Dec 2005), (Nov/Dec 2007) z 3
Solution: 3 8
(3)  f(z) = 1  
 2  z
z2  1 z 1  31  
Given f(z) =  z  3
( z  2 )( z  3 )
1 1
(To use partial fraction the degree of Dr.> degree of Nr.) 3 2 8 z
= 1 1    1  
z z 3 3
5 z  7
f(z) = 1  .. (1) 2
( z  2 )( z  3 ) 3 2  2 
= 1   1      .........
z z z 
Taking partial fraction 
5 z  7 A B 8 z  z
2

=    1      .........
( z  2 )( z  3 ) ( z  2) ( z  3) 3  3  3 

–5z – 7 = A(z + 3) + B(z + 2)
3 
( 1) n 2 n 8 
( 1) n z n
Put z = –2 f(z) = 1 
z

n 0 zn

3

n 0 3n
–5 (–2) – 7 = A(–2 + 3) + b(–2 + 2) A=3
ii) Given |z| > 3 ,
Put z = –3 i.e. 3 < |z|
–5 (–3) – 7 = A(–3 + 3) + b(–3 + 2)  A = –8 3
 1 , i.e., 3 2
i.e.,  1,  1
5 z  7 3 8 z z z
= 
( z  2 )( z  3 ) ( z  2) ( z  3)
3 8
(1)  f(z) = 1  
3 8  2  3
(1) f(z) = 1   .. (2) z 1  z 1 
( z  2) ( z  3)  z  z
1 1
3 2 8 3
= 1 1    1  
z z z z
2 2 –1 –1
3 2  2  8 3  3  –3  2 4 z
= 1   1      .........    1      ......... f(z) =  1+  +  1+ 
z  z z  z
  z  z 

z  z 3 3
 n  n
5 3 2 8 3 –3   2   2 
2
 4   z   z 2 
f(z) = 1    ( 1)n     ( 1) n    1 – + +.... + 1 –   +   +....
z z z z z = z  z  z
 3   3   3 
n 1 n 1
     
PROBLEM 4  n n
–3  2 4   z
=  (–1) n   +  (–1) n  
Find the Laurent’s series of the function z n=0 z 3 n=0 3
z–1
f(z) = , valid in the region 2 < |z| < 3. PROBLEM 5
(z+ 2)(z+ 3)
Solution: Find the Laurent’s series expansion of
7z – 2
f(z) = , valid in 1 < |z + 1| < 3.
z –1 z(z – 2)(z+ 1)
Given f(z) =
(z + 2)(z+ 3) Solution:
By using partial fraction,
7z – 2
Let f(z) =
z –1 A B z(z – 2)(z+1)
= +
(z + 2)(z+ 3) (z + 2) (z+ 3)
By using partial fraction, we have
z – 1 = A(z + 3) + B(z + 2)
7z – 2 A B C
Put z = –2,  A = –3 = + +
z(z – 2)(z +1) z (z – 2) (z+1)
Put z = –3. B = 4
7z – 2 = A(z – 2) (z + 1) + Bz(z + 1) + Cz(z – 2)
z –1 –3 4
 f(z) = (z + 2)(z+ 3) = (z + 2) + (z+ 3) Put z = 0,  –2A = –2 A = 1
Put z = 2,  6B = 12 B = 2
i) Given the region 2 < |z| < 3,
Put z = –1, 3C = –9 C = –3
2 z
i.e., < 1, <1 1 2 3
z 3 + –
 f(z) =
z (z – 2) (z+1)
–3 4
 f(z) = + Given the region 1 < |z + 1| < 3,
 2  z
z  1+  3  1+ 
 z  3 
Let u = z+1, i.e., 1 < |u| < 3

e   z – 1   z – 1 2 
1 |u| = (z – 1) 2 1+   +  +...
 z = u – 1, < 1 and <1   1!   2!  
|u| 3
 1 1 1 (z – 1) 
1 u = e 2
+ + + +...
i.e., < 1, <1  (z – 1) (z – 1) 2 6 
u 3
 1 
1 2 3  Residue at the point z = 1 is the coefficient of  z – 1  .
 f(z) = + –  
u –1 u –3 u
 Res at  z = 1 = e .
1 3 2
= + –
 1  u u PROBLEM 7
u  1 –  –3  1 – 
 u  3
1
1 1 2 u
–1
3
–1 Find the Laurent's series expansion of f ( z)  in
z  z2
= 1–  – 1–  –
u u 3 3 u the region 1 < z + 1| < 2 and |z + 1| > 2.
n n
AU - (May/June 2006), (Nov/Dec 2008)
1 
 1 2 
 u 3
=    –     Solution:
u n=0 u 3 n=0 3 u
n n
1 1 1
1 
 1  2 
 z +1  3 f(z) = 2 = =
=    –    – zz z( 1  z ) z( z  1)
z+1 n=0  z +1  3 n=0  3  z +1
PROBLEM 6
1 A B
Obtain the Laurent’s expansion of the function = 
z( z  1) z ( z  1)
ez
f(z) = , in the neighborhood of its singular point. i.e., –1 = A(z – 1) + Bz
(z – 1)2
Hence find the residue at the point. Put z = 0,  –1 = A(0 – 1) + 0  A=1
Solution: Put z = 1,  –1 = A(1 – 1) + B(1)  B = –1
Here z = 1 is a singular point.
1 1
f(z) =  .. (1)
ez e.e z–1 e z ( z  1)
f(z) = 2 = 2 = 2
e z–1
(z – 1) (z – 1) (z – 1)
i) The given region is 1 < |z+1| < 2, i.e., 1 < |u| < 2 by ii)The given region is |z+1| > 2 i.e., |u| > 2 by taking
taking u = z + 1  z = u – 1 u = z + 1,
i.e., 1 < |u| and |u| < 2 2
i.e., 1
u
1 u
i.e., 1 and 1
u 2 2 1
i.e.,  1  1
u u
1 u
i.e  1 and 1 1 1
u 2  (1) f(z) = 
u1 u 2
1 1
(1)  f(z) =  1 1
u1 u 2 = 
 1  2
u 1  u 1  
1 1  u  u
= 
 1 u
u 1   2   1   1 1 1 2
1 1
 u  2 = 1   1 
u u u u
1 1
1 1 1 u
= 1   1   1 1  1
2

u u 2 2 =  1      ...... 
u u u 
2
1 1  1 
= u  1      ......  2
u u  1  2  2 
    1        ......
u   u   u  

2
1  u  u 
  1        ......  n 1
2   2   2    1 n n
{ 1   2  }
 = 
n 1
 
u
 n  n
1  1 1  u But u = z + 1
=
u
  u 
n 0

2
  2 
n 0
 n 1
 1  n n
But u = z + 1 f  z     { 1   2  } is the required Laurent's
n 1  z  1 
n n
1 
 1  1   z  1 series of f(z) in 1 < |z+1| > 2.
f ( z)  
z1
 
n 0  z  1 
   is the required
2 n 0  2 
Laurent's series of f(z) in 1 < |z + 1| < 2.
PROBLEM 8 2 2
1  1  1  1  3 3 

= 2z  1      ...    1      ... 
1 z z  2z  z z 
Evaluate f ( z)  in Laurent's series valid    
( z  1)( z  3 )
for the regions (i)|z| > 3 (ii) 1<|z| < 3. 1 
( 1)n 1 
( 1) n 3 n
f(z) =
2

n 1 z n 1

2

n 1 z n 1
AU - (Nov/ Dec. 2009)
Solution : 1  ( 1)n
f ( z)   {(1) n  3 n } is the required Laurent's
2 n 1 z n 1
1
Given f(z) = series of f(z) in |z| > 3.
( z  1)( z  3 )
ii) Given 1 < |z| < 3, i.e. 1 < |z| and |z| < 3
1 z
1 A B i.e., 1 and 1
=  z 3
( z  1)( z  3 ) ( z  1) ( z  3 )
i.e., 1 = A(z + 3) + B(z + 1) 1 z
i.e., 1 and 1
z 3
Put z = –1, 1= A( 1  3 )  0  A  1 2
1 1
(1) f(z) = 
Put z = –3, 1= 0  B( 3  1)  B  1 2  1  z
2z  1   2( 3 )  1  
 z  3 
12 12
 
f(z) = .. (1) 1 1
( z  1) ( z  3 ) 1  1 1 z
= 1    1  
i) Given |z| >3 i.e 3 < |z| 2z  z 6 3
2
3 1  1  1 
i.e., 1  1    .........
z = 2z  
z z 
 
3 1 1 z  z
2

i.e., 1  1   1      .........
z z 6  3 3 

1 1
(1)  f(z) =  1  ( 1) n 1n 1  ( 1) n z n
 1
2z  1  
 3
2z  1  
f ( z)   zn
2z n 0
  3n is the required
6 n 0
 z  z
Laurent's series of f(z) in 1< |z| < 3 .
1 1
1  1 1  3
= 1    1 
2z  z 2z  z
PROBLEM 9 2 1 3
 f(z) = – +
u 2(u+1) – 1 u+1+ 2
Obtain Laurent’s expansion of the function
2 1 3
9z2 – 4z+1 = – +
f(z) = , in the region 1<|z – 1|< 3. u 2u+ 2 – 1 u+1+ 2
(z – 1)(2z – 1)(z+ 2)
Hence find the residue of the function at z = 1. 2 1 3
= – +
Solution: u 2u+1 u+3
2 1 3
9z 2 – 4z +1 = – +
Let f(z) = u  1   u 
(z – 1)(2z – 1)(z+ 2) 2u  1+  3  +1 
 2u   3 
By using partial fraction method, we have –1 –1
2 1  1   u
9z 2 – 4z +1 A B C
= –  1+  +  1+ 
u 2u  2u   3
= + +
(z – 1)(2z – 1)(z+ 2) z – 1 2z – 1 z+ 2 2
2 1   1   1     u   u 2 
–
= u 2u  1 – +
 2u   2u  – .... + 1 –   +   – ....
9z2 – 4z + 1 = A(2z – 1) (z + 2)
        3   3  
+ B(z – 1) (z + 2)
2 1  1 1 
+ C(z – 1) (2z – 1) = –  1– + 2
– ....
z – 1 2(z – 1)  2(z – 1) 4(z – 1) 
Put z = 1, 3A = 6  A = 2
  z – 1   z – 1 2 
1 5B 5 + 1 –  3  +  3  – ....
Put z = , = B = –1      
2 4 4
Here Res [f(z)] z=1 = Lt(z – 1)f(z)
Put z = –2, 15C = 45  C = 3 z1
2 1 3 (9z 2 – 4z+1)(z – 1)
 f(z) = – + = zLt
z – 1 2z – 1 z + 2 1 (z – 1)(2z – 1)(z+ 2)
Consider the region 1< |z-1| < 3, (9z 2 – 4z +1)
Let z – 1 = u  z = u +1 = zLt
1 (2z – 1)(z + 2)
 1< |u| < 3
(9 – 4 +1)
=
1 u (2 – 1)(1+ 2)
 < 1 and <1
u 3 6
= = 2.
3
PROBLEM 10 2
1 2 2
2
 1 1  1 
 
=  1      ......... z  1      .........
1 z  z  z  z  z 
Expand in the region |z| > 2 and   
( z  1)( z  2)
0 < |z – 1| < 1. 
2n 
1n
AU - (April/May 2003)
= 
n 1
 
z n n 1 z n
Solution: 
1
f ( z)    2 n  1n  is the required Laurent's series of
n 
1 n 1 z
Given f(z) =
( z  1)( z  2 ) f(z) in |z|> 2 .
Taking partial fraction ii) The Given region is 0 < |z – 1|< 1, i.e. 0 < |u| < 1 by
taking u = z – 1  z = u + 1.
1 A B i.e., 0 < |u| and |u| < 1
= 
( z  1)( z  2 ) ( z  2 ) ( z  1)
1 1
(1) f(z) = 
1 = A(z – 1) + B(z – 2) u1 u
Put z = 1, 1 = 0 + B(1 – 2) + 0  B = –1
1 1
Put z = 2, 1 = A(2 – 1) + 0 A=1 =  
u u1
1 1 1 1
 f(z) =  .. (1) =  
( z  2 ) ( z  1) u 1  u
i) Given |z| >2 i.e 2 < |z|
1 1
=  1  u
2 u
i.e., 1
z 1
=   1  u  u 2  ......
u
2 1
i.e., 1  1 .. (2) n
z z 1 
=   u
u n 0
1 1
(1) f(z) =  But u =z–1
 2  1
z1   z 1 
 z  z 1  n
f ( z)     z  1 is the required Laurent's series

1 1 z  1 n 0
1 2 1 1
= 1    1  of f(z) in 0 < |z – 1| < 1.
z z z z
PROBLEM 11 1 1
–2
1  1  1
2

= u 1+  =  1 – 2   +3   – ....
z –1  u u   u  u 
Obtain the expansion of the function f(z)= , in the
z2
Taylor’s series in power of (z – 1) and give the region of 1 2 3
= – 2 + 3 – ......
validity and Laurent’s series for the domain |z – 1| >1. u u u
Solution: 1 2 3
f(z) = – 2
+ – ......
z –1 1 1 z – 1 (z – 1) (z – 1) 3
Given f(z)= 2 = – 2
z z z which is valid in |z – 1| > 1.
Now we want f(z) as series in powers of (z – 1) and the
function is not analytic at z = 0. EXERCISE
So the region should not contain z = 0 and |z –1| <1
1
Let u = z–1 1. Expand f(z) = in Laurent’s series valid for
(z+1)(z + 3)
 u + 1= z i) |z| < 1 ii) |z| > 3
 |u| < 1 iii) 1 < |z| < 3 iv) 1 < |z + 1| < 2
u 
 f(z) = = u (1 + u)–2 n 1
(1+u) 2 Ans: i)  (–1) (1 – 3 –n–1 ).z n
n=0 2
2 3
= u[1 – 2u+ 3u – 4u + ..] 
1 n+1
2 3 4 ii)  2 (–1) (3n – 1 ).z –n –1
= u – 2u +3u – 4u .. n=0
2 3
= (z – 1) – 2(z – 1) + 3(z – 1) – ....  n  n
1  1 1 z
Which is a Taylor’s series valid in |z – 1|<1 iii)  (–1) n   –  (–1) n  
2z n=0  z 6 n=0 3
ii) But in Laurent’s series |z – 1| > 1
 n
Let u = z – 1, 1 1 n z +1 
iv) –
2(z +1) 4

n=0
(–1) 
 z 

1
 z = u+1, i.e., |u|>1,  <1
u
(z – 1) u u
 f(z) = 2
= =
z (1+ u) 2  1
2
u 2  1+ 
 u
z+ 4 5.5 SINGULAR POINT AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

2. If f(z)= , find the Laurent's series expansion
(z+ 3)(z – 1) Singular Point:
in the region for Definition
i) 0 <|z – 1|< 4 ii) |z – 1|> 4
A point at which a function ceases to be analytic is called
n
1 
 z –1 1 5 a singular point or singularity of f(z).
Ans: i) f(z) =    – + (z – 1) 2
64 n=0  4  16(z – 1) 4 z2
Example: The function has singular
(z – 1) (z + 1) 2
1  4 42  5 points at z = ± 1
ii) f(z) = 16(z – 1) z – 1 (z – 1) 2 – .... + 4(z – 1) 2
 – +
 
Isolated Singularity:
z2 – 1 Definition
3. Expand f(z) = in Laurent’s series valid for
(z+1)(z +3)
A singular point z = a of a function f(z) is called an isolated
|z| > 3.
singular point if there exists a circle with centre a which
3  n  n contains no other singular point of f(z).
 2 8 3
Ans: 1+  (–1) n   –  (–1) n  
z n=0 z
  z n=0 z Example: z = –1, 1 are two isolated singular points of
z2
6z +5 the function f(z) = 2 .
4. Find the Laurent’s series for f(z) = in the z 1
z(z – 2)(z+1)
region 1 < |z + 1| < 3. 1
The function f(z) = has an infinite number of
sin  z 

n+2 isolated singular points z = 1, 2, 3, ....
Ans: z in 0 < |z| < 1
n=0 Pole:
1 Definition
5. Expand f(z) = 2 in Laurent’s series expansion and
z (1 – z)
If we can find a positive integer n such that
specify the regions of validity.
lim(z – a) n ·f(z)  0 then z = a is called a pole of order n for f(z).
za
1
Ans: – in |z| > 1
z n+3 Simple pole: A pole of order one is called a simple pole.
Double pole: A pole of order two is called a double pole.
Essential Singularity: SOLVED PROBLEMS

Definition
PROBLEM 1
If the number of terms with negative power of (z – a) in the
Laurent’s expansion of f(z) about z = a is infinite, then Find the singularities of the following functions
i) f(z) = ez ii) f(z) = cos z iii) f(z) = ez+1 iv) f(z) = sin (z – 2)
z = a is called an essential singular point of f(z).
Solution:
Example: z = 0 is an essential singular point of
i) f(z) = ez
1 1 1 1
f(z) since e z = 1+ + 2 + 3 +.... z z
z 2z 6z
f(z) = ez = 1    ...,
Removable Singularity: 1! 2 !
1
Definition Since f(z) has no terms, z = 0 is removable singularity
z
of f(z).
The singular point z = a is called a removable
ii) f(z) = cos z
singularity of f(z) if Ltz  a f(z) exists.
z2 z4
sin z sin z f(z) = 1    ...,
2! 4!
Example: f(z) = since limz 0
z z 1
Since f(z) has no terms, z = 0 is removable singularity
Hence z = 0 is a removable singularity of f(z). z
of f(z).
Working rule for finding the type of singularity
iii) f(z) = ez+1
Nature of Larent series 2
S.No Type of singularity z  1  z  1
of f(z) about z = a
f(z) = ez+1
= 1   ...,
1! 2!
1. Removable singularity No negative powers of z – a 1
Since f(z) has no terms, z = –1 is removable
2. Pole A finite number of negative
z1
singularity of f(z).
powers of z – a
iii) f(z) = sin (z – 2)
3. Essential singularity An infinite number of
3
negative power of z – a z  2  z  2
f(z) = sin (z – 2) =   ...,
1! 2!
1
Since f(z) has no terms, z = 2 is removable
z2
singularity of f(z).
PROBLEM 2  1 
iii) cos  
Find the singularities of the following functions  z – 1
1  1  1   1 
i) e z ii) sin   iii) cos   iv) sin  . 2 4
 z  z – 1  z  1  1   1 
   
z 1 z  1
Solution: f(z) = 1     ...
2! 4!
1
i) e z
1 1 1 1
= 1 2
  ...
2 2 !  z  1 4 !  z – 1 4
1  1
1  z
f(z) = e z  1  z 
   ... 1
1! 2! Since f(z) contains infinite number of terms, z = 1
z 1
1 1 1 1 is an essential singularity of f(z).
= 1   ...
1! z 2 ! z 2
1  1 
Since f(z) contains infinite number of terms, z = 0 is iii) sin  
z  z  1
an essential singularity of f(z).
3
 1   1 
 1    
ii) sin    z  1    z  1   ...
 z f(z) =
1! 3!
3
1  1
 z 1 1 1 1
f(z) = z     ... =   ...
1! 3! 1! z  1 3 !  z  13
1 1 1 1 1
=   ... Since f(z) contains infinite number of terms,
1! z 3 ! z 3 z1
1 z = –1 is an essential singularity of f(z).
Since f(z) contains infinite number of terms, z = 0 is
z
an essential singularity of f(z).
PROBLEM 3 1
iii)
Find the nature of the singularities for the following z  e z  1
sin z 1  cos z iii) 1 z(ez – 1) = 0

i) ii) .
z z 2
z  e z  1 z = 0, ez – 1 = 0
Solution: z = 0, e z = 0
sin z z = 0, e z = e2ni ; n = 0, 1, 2, ....

i)
z z = 0, z =  2ni ; n = 0, 1, 2, ....
z = 0, z = 0, z =  2i, + 4i, ....
z z3 z5
   ... z = 0 is pole of order 2,
1! 3 ! 5 !
f(z) =
z z =  2i, + 4i, .... are poles of order 1.
1 z2 z4
= 1! 3 ! 5 !  ...
  5.6 RESIDUES
1 If z = a is an isolated singular point of f(z), then f(z) can
Since f(z) has no terms, z = 0 is removable singularity be expanded in a Laurent’s series about z = a in the form
z
of f(z).  
n –n
f(z) =  an (z – a)  bn (z – a)
ii) 1  cos
2
z
n=0 n=0
z
1 f(z)

1  1 
z2

z4

z6 
 ... 
Where b n = 2πi  (z – a) –n+1
C
 2! 4! 6! 
f(z) =
z2 1
The coefficient b1 of in the Laurent’s series of f(z),
za
z2 z4 z6 is called the residue of f(z) at z = a.
   ...
2! 4! 6!
= 1
z2  Residue of f(z) at z = a is b1= 2πi  f(z)dz
C
1 z2 z4 If z = a is a simple pole of f(z), then

= 2 ! 4 ! 6 !  ...
 

b1
f(z) = a (z – a) n +
1 n=0
n
z–a
Since f(z) has no terms, z = 0 is removable singularity
z

of f(z).
 (z – a)f(z) = a n (z – a) n+1 +b1
n=0
 Lt z  a (z – a)  f(z) = b1 (z + 2) 4
= zLt 2 =
Hence, if z = a is a simple pole of f(z) .
2 (z +1) 9
Then Residue of f(z) at z = a is Lt z  a (z – a).f(z) . 1 d

Now, Res[z = –1] = zLt (z +1) 2 f(z) 
 –1 1! dz
Res  f(z)z=a = Lt(z – a) f(z)
z a
d  (z + 2) 
= zLt  (z+1) 2  2
If z = a is a pole of order n, then, the Residue  –1 dz  (z – 2)(z +1) 
1 d n –1  n d  z+2
Res  f(z)z=a = Lt n –1 
z – a  f(z) = zLt

(n – 1)! z  a dz  –1 dz  z – 2 
  z – 2  1 –  z + 2   1 
SOLVED PROBLEMS Lt
= z  –1  2

  z – 2 
PROBLEM 1
 –4  4
Classify the singularities if the function =  2  = –
 (–1 – 2)  9
z+ 2
f(z) = and find the residue of f(z) at each
(z – 2)(z+1)2 PROBLEM 2
singularity.
1
Solution: Find the residue of f(z)= 2 about each singularity..
z 2
 1
z+2 Solution:
Given f(z) =
(z – 2)(z +1) 2 1 1
f(z) = 2 =
Let (z–1) (z+1) = 02
z 2
 1 (z – i) (z +i) 2
2
 z = 2 (or) z = –1
Hence f(z) has a pole of order 2 at each point z = i , z = –i
Hence f(z) has a pole at z = 2 of order one and
1 d  1 
z = –1 of order two.  Res[z = i] = Lt zi 1! dz  (z +i) 2 
 
i.e., Res [z = 2]= zLt
2
(z – 2)f(z)
 –1× 2  z +i  
= Ltz  i  4 
z+2  (z +i) 
= zLt (z – 2)
2 (z – 2)(z +1) 2
PROBLEM 4
 –2  –i
= zLt
i  (z+i) 3 
=
  4 z2
Determine the poles of f(z) = and the
(z – 1)2 (z+ 2)
d  1  residues at each pole.
 Res[z = –i]= zLt
 – i dz  (z – i) 2 
 
Solution:
 –1 × 2  z – i  
= zLt   z2
– i
 (z – i) 4  Given f(z) =
(z – 1) 2 (z + 2)
 –2  i
= zLt
 – i  (z – i) 3 
= Let (z – 1)2 (z + 2) = 0
  4
 z = 1 is a pole of order 2 and z = –2 is a simple pole
PROBLEM 3
Find the zeros and singularity of the function given 1 d
 Res [z = 1] = zLt  z  1 f  z  
below. 1 1! dz 
sinz – z cosπz 1 d  z2 
i) ii) Lt
= z1 1! dz  z + 2 
z3 (z – a)3  
Solution:
(z+ 2)2z – z 2
z3 z5 = zLt
i) W.K.T sinz = z – + ....
1 (z+ 2) 2
3! 5!
5
sinz – z =
 zLt 0 9
0 z3
sinz – z  Res[z = –2] = zLt (z + 2)f(z)
 z = 0 is a removable singularity of f(z) = .  –2
z3
It has no zero.  z2 
= zLt (z + 2)  2 
cosπz  –2
 (z – 1) (z+ 2) 
ii) f(z) =
(z – a)3
 z2 
Let (z – a)3 = 0, this implies z = a is a pole of order 3 of f(z) Lt
= z 2  (z – 1) 2 
 
1 3 5 2n  1
 cos  z = 0, z =  ,  ,  , ....,  , .... are
2 2 2 2 4
=
zeros of f(z). 9
5.6.1 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem SOLVED PROBLEMS

Statement:
PROBLEM 1
If f(z) be analytic at all points inside and on a simple
closed curve C, except for a finite number of isolated zdz
singularities z1, z2, ...zn inside C, then Evaluate  (z – 1) (z+1)
C
2 where C is the circle |z| = 2.
 f(z)dz = 2i[sum of the residues of f(z) at z1, z2 , ...zn] Solution:

C
n z
Let f(z) =
= 2πi  Ri where Ri is the Residue of f(z) at z= zi 2
(z – 1) (z +1)
i=1
Proof: It has a simple pole at z = –1 and z = 1 is pole of order 2.
We enclosed the singularities z1, z2 , ...zn by small non-  Given circle C is |z|= 2 both the poles are lies inside C.
intersecting circles C1, C2, ...Cn with centres at z1, z2 , ...zn and
 Res [z = –1] = zLt
 –1
(z +1)f(z)
radii 1, 2, ...n lying wholly inside C.
z
 f(z)dz =  f(z)dz +  f(z)dz+....+  f(z)dz
C1 C2 Cn
.. (1) = Lt (z +1) 
z  –1 2
(z – 1) (z +1)
C
Now z = z1 is an isolated singularity. Hence by Laurent’s z 1

= Lt =–
series z  –1 (z – 1) 2
4
 
f(z) = a n (z – zi ) n +  bn (z – zi ) –n 1 d
n=0 n=0
 Res [z = 1] = zLt  (z – 1) 2  f(z) 
Where 1 1! dz
1 f(z)dz 1 d  z 
b n = 2πi  = zLt  (z – 1) 2 
C
(z – zi ) –n+1 1 1! dz  (z – 1) (z+1) 
2
1 d z 1 1
 Residue of f(z) at z = zi is bn = 2πi  f(z)dz = zLt1
d z (z + 1)
= zLt1
(z + 1) 2 =
Ci 4
i.e.,  f(z)dz = 2ib1 = 2iR1 .. (2)  By Cauchy’s Residue theorem, we have
C
Hence using (2) in (1), we get,  f(z)dz = 2i (sum of the residues) = 2πi Ri
C
n
 f(z)dz = 2πi  R1 + R2 +...+ Rn  = 2πi Ri

C
i=1
 1 1
= 2πi  – +  = 0.
 4 4
PROBLEM 2  –1  πi – 1
=  e i   1
z
e dz 4π 3  –1 i
Evaluate  (z 2
+ π 2 )2
,where C is the circle |z| = 4 using
C π +i
Caushy’s Residue theorem. =
4π 3
Solution: 1 d
 Res[z= –  i] = Lt [(z+πi) 2 f(z)]
e z dz
z  – πi 1! dz
Let f(z) = 2 with; |z| = 4
(z +π 2 ) 2 (z – πi) 2 e z – 2e z (z – πi)
= Lt
Now (z2 + n2)2 = (z + i)2 (z – i)2
z  – πi (z – πi) 4
 f(z) has a pole at z = i and z = –i e z [z – πi – 2]

= Lt
If z = i is pole of order 2 which lies inside C z  – πi (z – πi) 3
If z = –i is pole of order 2 which lies inside C. e –πi [–2πi – 2]
=
1 d (–2πi) 3
 Res [z=  i] = zLt [(z – πi) 2 f(z)]
 πi 1! dz
e –πi  2   πi + 1
d  e z
 = 8 π 2  –1 i
= zLt  (z – πi) 2 2 2 2 
 πi dz (z +π ) 

e –πi  πi + 1
d  ez  = 4 π 2 –1 i
= zLt    
 πi dz (z +πi) 2
 
 1  πi + 1
(z +πi) 2 e z – e z 2(z +πi) =  e  i   1
= zLt 4 π 2  –1 i
 πi (z +πi) 4
π –i
(z +πi) e z – 2e z =
= zLt 4π 3
 πi (z+πi) 3  By Cauchy’s Residue theorem, we have
z
e  z +πi – 2   f  z  dz = 2πi   Ri 
= zLt 3 C
 πi (z+πi)
e πi  2πi – 2  π +i π – i   2π 
= 2πi  + = 2πi  3 
=
(2πi) 3  4π
3
4π 3   4π 
i
e πi  πi – 1 = .
= 4π 3 –1 i π
 
PROBLEM 3 3
 f(z) has poles at z = 1 of order 2 and z = – of order 1.
2
z–3
Evaluate  (z dz , where C is a closed curve
2
– z – 12) Given x2 + y2 = 4 is a circle with centre at (0, 0) and
C
in the annular region 1< |z| < 2. radius 2. i.e., C is |z| = 2.
Solution: Hence z = 1 lies inside C.
z–3 3
Let f(z) = 2 and z = – lies inside C.
(z – z – 12) 2
z–3 R 1 = Res[z = 1]
=
(z – 4)(z + 3)
1 d
Then f(z) has a simple poles at z = 4 and z = – 3 which = zLt ( z  1) 2 f ( z )
1 1! dz
lies outside C.
Since C lies in the annular region.  
d  2 12z  7 
By Cauchy’s Residue theorem, Lt
= z 1  ( z  1) 
dz  2  3 
( z  1)  z  
  2  
z–3
 (z 2
dz = 0.
C
– z – 12)
 
PROBLEM 4 d 12z  7 

= zLt  
1 dz
  z  3 
12z – 7   
2  
Evaluate  (z – 1) (2z+ 3) dz ,
C
2
where C is the circle
x2 + y2 = 4.
 3 
Solution:   z   ( 12 )  ( 12z  7 ) ( 1) 
2
Lt   2

12z – 7 = z  1   3 
1 12z – 7
 (z – 1) dz dz ...(1)  z  
Given
C
2
(2z+3) = 2 C  3   2 
(z – 1) 2  z + 
 2
 23
12z – 7   ( 12 )  5
Let f(z) =  2  4
3 = 2
  23
(z – 1) 2  z + 
 2  
 2 
R 1= 4
PROBLEM 5
 3 sin  z 2  cos  z 2
R 2= Re s  z    17. Evaluate dz around |z| = 3 .
 2 
C ( z  1)2 ( z  2 )
 3
= Ltz 3  z    f ( z ) AU - (Nov/Dec 2003)
2  2
Solution:
 3 12z  7
= Lt 3 z   sin  z 2  cos  z 2
z   2  3 Given f(z)=
2 ( z  1) 2  z   ( z  1) 2 ( z  2 )
 2
The poles of f(z) are given by the equation
 12z  7 
= Lt z 3  2  (z – 1)2 (z – 2) = 0
2  ( z  1) 
 (z – 1)2 = 0 (or) (z – 2) = 0
 3 
12  7  z = 1, 1 (or) z = 2
 2 
= 2  z = 1 is a pole of order 2 lies inside the circle|z| = 3
 3 
  1 and z = 2 is a simple pole lies inside side the circle |z| = 3
 2 
We know that the Cauchy's residue theorem is
25
= 4
 25   f  z  dz  2 i  R 1  R2  .....  Rn 
  C
 4  To find R1:
R 2= – 4 R1 = Re s f ( z ) z  1
 By Cauchy’s Residue therom, we have
1 d  2
2 sin  z  cos  z
2 
C f(z) dz = 2i (R1 + R2) = ( 2  1) ! lim   z  1 2 
z  1 dz
  z  1  z  2  
= 2i (4 – 4) = 0
1 12z  7 1 d  sin  z 2  cos  z 2 

dz lim
= 1 ! z 1 dz  
 By (1)
2 C 3
= 0  z  2
 z  1  z    
2
 2
( z  2 )[cos  z 2 ( 2 z )  sin  z 2 ( 2 z )] 
 
12z  7   (sin  z 2  cos  z 2 )( 1  0 ) 
  dz  0
2  3 = lim 2

C z 1
 z   z 1
 z  2
 2

(1 – 2)[(–1)(2(π)) – 0] – (0+(–1))
= 2 z (z – 1)= 0
1 – 2
R1 = 2 + 1 i.e., z = 0 or z=1
z = 0 is a pole of order 1 or simple pole lies inside |z| = 3
To find R2: and z = 1 is a simple pole lies inside side |z| = 3
2 sin  z 2  cos  z 2 We know that the Cauchy's residue theorem is

R2 = Re s  f ( z ) z  2 = lim  z  2 2
z 2
 z  1  z  2 
 f ( z )dz  2 i( R
C
1  R2  .....  Rn ) .. (1)
2 2
sin  z  cos  z
= lim 2
To find R1:
z 2
 z  1
z2
sin 4  cos 4 R1  Re s f ( z )z  0 = lim  z  0
= 2
z 0 ( z  0) z  1  
 2  1
z2
01 = lim
z 0 z1
R2 = = 1
1
02
=
z2 01
Now  z( z  1)dz =
C
2 i( R1  R2 ) .. By (1). R1 = 2
To find R2:
= 2 i( 2  1  1)
z2
R2  Re s f ( z )z  1 = lim  z  1
= 4 2 i  4 i z 1 z  z  1
z2
PROBLEM 6 = lim
z 1 z
z 2 1 2
Evaluate  z( z  1) dz where C is |z| = 3. =
C
1
R2 = –1
AU - (May/June 2006)
Solution: z2
Now  z( z  1)dz
C
= 2 i( R1  R2 ) By (1).
z2
Given f(z)= = 2 i (2 – 1)
z( z  1)
= 2 i
PROBLEM 7 z2
 dz = 2i (R1 + R2)
z2  z
z 2 C
Evaluate  dz , where is the circle x2 + y2 = 4.
C z2  z = 2i [2 –1] = 2  i
Solution:
PROBLEM 8
Here the circle is |z| = 2 .
dz
z2 Evaluate  2 where C is the circle |z – i| = 2
Let f(z) = 2 C z 2
 4
z z
Solution:
z2
i.e., f(z) = 1
z  z  1 Let f(z) = 2
z 2
 4
f(z) has a simple poles at z = 0 and z = 1, both lies inside ‘C’. 1
i.e., f(z) = 2 2
 R1 = Res [z = 0] = zLt zf (z)

 z  2i   z  2i 
0
 f(z) has the poles of z = 2i of order 2 and z = –2i of order 2.
z2
= zLt
0
z
z  z  1
Hence the circle |z – 2i| = 2,
Put z = 2i,  |2i – 2i| = 0 < 2, lies inside C
z2 Put z = –2i,  |–2i – 2i| = |–4i| > 2, lies outside C.
= zLt
 0  z  1
2
R1 = Res [z = 2i]
R 2 = Res [z = 1]= zLt

1
(z – 1) · f(z) 1 d  2
= zLt   z  2i f ( z )
 2i 1! dz
z2
= zLt  z  1 
1 z  z  1 1 d  2 z1 
Lt
= z  2i 1! dz   z  2i  2 2

  z  2i   z  2i  
z2
= zLt  1
1 z d  1 
Lt
= z2 i dz  2

Hence by Residue theorem,   z  2i  
 f  z  dz = 2πi  R1 + R2   2  1
= zLt  3

C 2 i
  z  2i   32i
 R2 = Res [z = –2i] = 0 [z = –2i lies outside C] 5.7 CONTOUR INTEGRATION

 By Cauchy’s Residue theorem, we have Certain types of real definit e int egral s can be
evaluated by using residue theorem and properly chosen
 f  z  dz
C
= 2 [R1 + R2] contours.
Cauchy’s lemma I
dz  1   If f(z) is a uniform continuous function such that
 2 = 2 i   0 
C z 2
 4  32i  16 |( z  a) f ( z )|  0 as|( z  a)|  0 then  f ( z ) dz  0
C
where C is the circle |(z – a)| = r.

EXERCISE
Cauchy’s lemma II
4  3z
1. Evaluate  dz where C : z  3 [(Ans: 2)] If f(z) is a uniform continuous function such that
C
z( z  1) ( z  2 ) 2
|( z  a ) f ( z)|  0 as|( z  a)|   then  f ( z ) dz  0 as R  
C
3z 2  z  1
2. Evaluate  dz where C : z  2 where C is the circle |(z – a)| = R.
C z( z  1) ( z  3 )
Jordan’s lemma
 5 i 
 Ans :  44  If f(z) is a uniform continuous function such that
f ( z )|  0 as| z|   then  e imz f ( z ) dz  0 as R  
2 2
sin  z  cos  z C
3. Evaluate  dz where C : z  3
C ( z  1) ( z  2 ) where C is the semi circle |z|= R above the real axis and
m > 0.
[Ans: 4i]
Type I:Integration around a unit circle
( z  3)
4. Evaluate  2 dz where C: |z| = 1 and |z+1 –i| = 2 2
z  2z  5
C Consider I =  f  cos , sin  d ,
0
[Ans: i) 0 ii)  (–2 + i)]
where f is a rational function of cos and sin
dz
5. Evaluate  1  z 2 , where C: |z| = 3 [Ans: 0] Putting z = e i 
C
dz dz
ez d = 
6. Evaluate  dz , where C: |z| = 1 [Ans: –4i sin (½)] iei iz
C cos  z
We know that SOLVED PROBLEMS

ei  e –i  i  i 1 PROBLEM 1
cos =  sin ce e  z, e  
2  z 2
1
Evaluate  13  5 sin d using contour integration.
1 1 0
cos = z  
2 z AU - (Nov/Dec 2003), (Nov/Dec 2008)
Solution:
z2  1
=
2z On z  1, z  e i  cos  i sin 
e i  e –i dz 1
 dz  iei d  d    e i  cos  i sin 
sin = iz z
2i
1  z2  1
 2isin  z   sin   
1  1 z  2iz 
= z  
2i  z 1  z 2  1
 2 cos  z   cos   
z  2z 
z2  1
=
2zi 2 dz
1 iz
2  d = 
0 13  5 sin C  1  z2  1  
I =  f  cos  , sin   d 13  5   
0  2i  z  
 z 2  1 z 2  1  dz dz
=   2z , 2zi  iz
f =   26iz  5 z 2  5  
|z| 1   C
iz  
 2iz 
=   ( z ) dz  2 i (Sum of the residues) dz
c
= 2 2
C
5 z  26iz  5
= 2i  Ri dz
= 2 .. (1)
C
( z  5i)( 5 z  i)
By using Cauchy's residue theorem
 f ( z )dz  2 i  R
C
1  R2  .....  Rn  .. (A)
1 PROBLEM 2
Here f(z) =
( z  5i)( 5 z  i)
2
Here sin 2 
Evaluate  d using contour integration.
z = –5i is a simple pole of f(z) lies outside |z|=1. 0 5  3 cos 
i AU - (Nov/Dec 2006)
and z = is a simple pole of f(z) lies inside |z|=1.
5 Solution:
To find R1:
On z  1, z  e i  cos  i sin 
 i 1
R1  Re s f ( z ) z   i = zlim  z  dz 1
5  i 
5 5  ( z  5i)( 5 z  i)  dz  iei d  d    e i  cos  i sin 
iz z
 i 1 1  z2  1
= lim z   2isin  z   sin   
z  i 5  5  i z  2iz 
5( z  5i)  z  
 5  1  z 2  1
 2 cos  z   cos   
1 z  2z 
= zlim
 i 5 5( z  5i )
Now
1
=  1  cos 2 
 i 
5   5i  2
sin 2  2  
 5  d =  2  d

0 5  3 cos  5  3 cos
0
1
=
 i  25i  2
1  e i2
5
 5

 = Re al part of  d
0 2( 5  3 cos )
1
R1 =
24i ( 1  z 2 ) dz
iz  z 2  ei 2 
= R.P of  2
2 dz   z 1  
1 C
2 5  3 
(1)   13  5 sin d = 2 
C ( z  5i)( 5 z  i)   2z  
0
 1 
= 2  2 i  ( 1  z 2 )dz
 24i  = R.P of 
C  10z  3z 2  3 
2iz  
  2z 

6
1 ( 1  z 2 )dz 8
= R.P of
i C 3z 2  10z  3 = 9
2
38
3 
1 ( 1  z )dz
= R.P of
i C 3z 2  10z  3
...(1)
1
R1 =
9
2
sin 2  1
 2 i  R1  
 f ( z )dz = 2 i  R1  R2  .....  Rn 
C
(1)  
0 5  3 cos
d = R.P of
i 
( 1  z2 )   1  
Here f(z) = = R.P of   2   
3z 2  10z  3   9 
( 1  z2 ) 2
= = .
( 3z  1)( z  3 ) 9
( 1  z2 ) PROBLEM 3
=
3( z  1 3 )( z  3 ) Using the method of contour integration, show that
2
Here z = 3 is a simple pole of f(z) lies outside |z| = 1 d 2
  .
1 0 5  4 sin 3
and z = is a simple pole of f(z) lies inside |z| = 1.
3
AU - (Nov/Dec 2004), (Nov/Dec 2006)
To find R1: Solution:
 1 ( 1  z2 )
R1  Re s  f ( z )z  1 = lim  z   dz
3 1
z  3  3( z  1 3 )( z  3 ) On z  1, z  e i  cos  i sin  dz  iei d  d 
3 iz
1 1  z2  1
( 1  z2 )   e  i  cos  isin  2i sin  z   sin   
lim
= z  1 3( z  3 ) z z  2iz 
3
2 2
1 dz
=
1 1  3  5  4 sin
d =  
iz
z2  1 
0 C
1  5  4 
3  3  2iz 
 3 
dz 1
=   5iz  2z 2  2  =
C
iz   i 
 2   2i 
 iz   2 
dz 1
=  2z =
2
 5iz  2  i  4i 
C 2 
 2 
2
1 dz
 5  4 sin d =   z  2i  2z  i 
C
.. (1)
R1 =
1
.
0
3i
We know that the Cauchy's residue theorem is 2
1
(1)   5  4 sin d = 2 i  R1 
 f ( z )dz  2 i  R1  R2  .....  Rn 
C
0
1
= 2 i 
1 3i
Here f(z) =
( z  2i )( 2z  i) 2
= .
3
1
=
 i
2( z  2i)  z   PROBLEM 4
 2
Us ing con tou r i nteg rat ion , p rove th at
Here z = –2i is a simple pole of f(z) lies outside |z|= 1 2
cos 3 
i  d  .
and z =  is a simple pole of f(z) lies inside |z|= 1. 0 5  4 cos  12
2
To find R1:
Solution:
i
R1  Re s f ( z ) z   i = lim  z  
1
2 i 2  i dz
z  
2 2( z  2i)  z   On z  1, z  e i  cos  i sin  dz  iei d  d 
 2  iz
1 1  z2  1
  e  i  cos  isin  2 cos  z   cos   
1 z z  2z 
= zlim
 i 2 2( z  2i) Now z 3  ( ei ) 3  e i3  cos 3  i sin 3
 cos 3  Re al part of z 3
To find R1:
2
cos 3 R.P of z 3 dz
d iz

0 5  4 cos
=   z2  1 1
R1  Re s f ( z )z  1 = lim  z  
z3
C
5  4  2 z 1 2  2  1
 2z  2( z  2 )  z  
 2
z 2 dz
= R.P of  z3
2
C  5 z  2z  2  = zlim
i  1 2 2( z  2 )
 z 
3
1 z dz 3  1 2
= R.P of  2
=
1 
i C 2z  5 z  2 2  2
2 
1 z 3 dz
= R.P of
i C 2z 2  5 z  2 1
8
=
 3

2
cos 3 1 z 3 dz 2 
d = R.P of  2 
 i C ( z  2 )( 2z  1)
...(1)
0 5  4 cos
1
We know that the Cauchy's residue theorem is R1= .
24
 f ( z )dz  2 i  R
1  R2  .....  Rn  .. (2) 2
cos 3 1
C (1)   5  4 cos d = R.P of  2 i( R1 ) .. by (2)
0
i
3
z
Here f(z) =
( z  2 )( 2z  1)  1 
= R.P of 2  
 24 
z3
= 1 
2( z  2 )( z  ) =
2 12
Here z = 2 is a simple pole of f(z) lies outside |z|= 1

1
and z = is a simple pole of f(z) lies inside |z|= 1.
2
PROBLEM 5 ( z 2  z  1)
=
2 z( 2z  1)( z  2 )
1  2 cos 
By contour integration, evaluate  d .
0 5  4 cos  ( z 2  z  1)
=
AU - (Nov/Dec 2005) 2z( z  1 2 )( z  2 )
Solution:
Here z = 0 is a simple pole of f(z) lies inside |z|= 1,
dz z = –2 is a simple pole of f(z) lies outside |z|= 1
On z  1, z  e i  cos  i sin   dz  ie i d  d 
iz 1
1 1  z 2  1 and z =  is a simple pole of f(z) lies inside |z|= 1.
  e  i  cos  isin  2 cos  z   cos    2
z z  2z 
To find R1:
  z 2  1   dz 1
R1  Re s f ( z )z  1 = lim  z  
z2  z  1
 1  2   2 z  1 2  2  1
 2z   iz
2
1  2 cos  2z( z  2 )  z  
Now  d =   2
0 5  4 cos  C  z2  1 
5  4 
 2z 
z2  z  1
= zlim
 z 2  z  1  dz  1 2 2z( z  2 )
  iz
 z 
=   1 
2
C 

2z 2
 5 z 2

 1 2  1
 2
 z  =
  1
 1 
2    2
2
 2  2 
1  2 cos 1 ( z 2  z  1)dz
 d =  .. (1)
5  4 cos i C z( 2z 2  5 z  2 )
0 1 1 3
4 2 4
We know that the Cauchy's residue theorem is = =
3
    3 
( 1)    
2
   2 
 f ( z )dz  2 i  R
C
1  R2  .....  Rn 
1
2 R1 = .
( z  z  1) 2
Here f(z) =
z( 2z 2  5 z  2 )
To find R2:
2
cos 2
2 Let I =  5  4 cos  d
z  z1
R2  Re s f ( z ) z  0 = lim  z  0  0
z 0  1
2z( z  2 )  z  
 2 e i 2
= C 5  4 cos  d
z2  z  1
= lim
z 0  1 Take C as the unit circle.
2  z    z  2
 2
 dz 
001 z2  
=  iz 
1 i.e., I = R.P of 
2  2   C  z2  1 
2 5 4 
 2z 
1 1 z 2 dz
= = R.P of 
2 i C 5 z  2z 2  2
2
1  2 cos 1
(1)   5  4 cos d =  2 i  R1  R2  1 z 2 dz
i
0 = R.P of 
i C 2z 2  5 z  2
1  1 1 
=  2 i   
i  2 2 1
= R.P of i  f ( z ) dz
=0 C
PROBLEM 6 z2
Where f(z) =
2
2z 2  5 z  2
cos 2
Evaluate  d
0 5  4 cos  1
= R.P of 2 i  Ri  R.P of 2  Ri .. (1)
Solution: i
Put z= e i  Where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the pole of f(z)

inside C.
dz i z2  1
 ie and cos  
ie i 2z z2
f(z) =
dz 2z 2  5 z  2
d 
iz
Poles of f(z) are given by 2z2 + 5z + 2 = 0

1
 (2z + 1) (z + 2) = 0 = 4
3
2 
 1  2
 2  z    z  2  0
 2
1
1 =
 z ( or ) z   2 12
2
Hence by Cauchy’s residue theorem,
1
Take    , = –2 From (1), I = R.P of 2 = R
2 i
z =  is the only pole lies inside C (simple pole) Where  R is

i the sum of the residues at the poles of
z =  is the outside C (simple pole) f (z) inside C
Re s  f ( z ) : z     1   
R.P of 2   = R.P of =
12
  6 6
= z Lt

z    f ( z)
2
cos 2 
2   5  4 cos  d =
z 6
= z Lt z   0
 2 z   z   
PROBLEM 7
z2
Lt
= z 2 z   2
  d
Evaluate  1 , a  1 using contour
0 2a cos   a 2
 2 integration.
= 2   Solution:
 
Put z = ei,  |z| = 1
2
 1
  dz
 2  ei i
= d
 1 
2   2
 2 
dz z2  1
d  , cos  
iz 2z
Take C as the unit circle. 1

f(z) =
2 az   1  a 2  z  a
2
d
Let I =  1  2a cos   a
0
2
Poles of f(z) are given by az2 + (1 – a2) z + a = 0
2 2
dz 1  a   1  a 
2
 4a 2
iz z =
=  2
2a
C  z  1 2
1  2a  a
 2z  2 2
1  a   1  a 
2
=
2a
dz
=  2
iz 1  a    1  a 
2 2
C  z  1 2 =
1 a  a 2a
 z 
1  a2  1  a2 1  a2  1  a2
= ,
1 dz 2a 2a
= 
i C z  az  a  a 2 z
2
2 2a 2
= ,
2a 2a
1 dz
= 
i C az   1  a 2  z  a
2

1
,a
a
1 dz 1
=  f ( z ) dz, Where f(z) = Take  = a and  =
i C az   1  a 2  z  a
2
a
z =  is the only pole lies inside C (simple pole)
By Cauchy Residue theorem,  f ( z )dz  2 i  Ri
C z =  lies outside C (simple pole)
1 Re s  f ( z ) : z   
 I =  2 i  Ri
i
= Lt
z 
z    f ( z)
Where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the pole of f (z)
inside C 1
= Lt z  
z a z   z   
 I =  2  Ri .. (1)
1 1  cos 2 1  R.P e i 2
= Lt sin2  = =
z a z    2 2
1  1   ei  2 
=  
 1 = R.P  2 
a a    
 a
 1  z 2  
1 = R.P  
= 2  2 
a 1  
Hence by Cauchy’s residue theorem, 2
sin 2 
Let I =  d
From (1), I = 2  Ri 0 5  4 cos 
 1  1  z2
= 2  2  1
 a  1 = R.P of  2 dz
2
C  z  1  iz
54 
2  2z 
=
1  a2
1 1  z2 1
= R.P of C 2
dz
PROBLEM 8 2  z  1  iz
52 
2  z 
sin 2 
Evaluate  d
5  4 cos 
0
1 z 1  z2  dz
= R.P of  2
Solution: 2 C 5 z  2z  2 iz
i
Let z=e ,  |z| =1
1 1  z  2
dz z2  1 = R.P of  dz
 ei i sin   2i C 2z 2  5 z  2
d 2zi
1
d 
dz
cos  
z2  1 = R.P of 2i  f ( z ) dz
C
iz 2z
Take C as the unit circle. 1 z2
Where f(z) =
2z 2  5 z  2
2
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,  f ( z )dz  2 i  Ri  1
1  
C
 2
=
 1 
2 i 2   2
 I = R.P of  Ri  2 
2i
1
= R.P of   Ri .. (1) 1
= 4
3
Where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the pole of f(z) 2 
2
inside C
1 z2 3
Here f(z) = 4 1
2z 2  5 z  2 =
3 4
Poles of f(z) are given by
Hence by Cauchy’s residue theorem,
2z2 + 5z + 2 = 0 
From (1), I = R.P of   Ri =
(z + 2) (2z + 1) = 0 4
2
1 sin 2  
  5  4 cos  d =
 z = –2, z = – 4
2 0
1 PROBLEM 9
Take    is the simple pole which lies inside C
2 2
d
   2 is the simple pole which lies outside C Evaluate  0 2  cos 
Re s  f ( z ) : z    (AU - Nov/Dec 2009, June 2010, Dec 2010)
= z Lt z    f ( z) Solution:

dz
1  z2 On z  1, z  e i  cos  i sin   dz  ie i d  d 
Lt
= z  z    iz
2 z   z   
1 1  z 2  1
2   e  i  cos  isin  2 cos  z   cos   
1 z z z  2z 
= z Lt
  2 z   
2
1 dz
1 2 d = iz
= 2  
Now  2  sin  2
 z  1
  0 C
2 
 2z 
dz 1
=  =
C   z2  1 
iz  2   
 z   2  3   z   2  3  
  2z  
1
=
( z   )( z   )
dz
= 
C  4z  z 2  1 
iz  
 
Here   2  3 is a simple pole lies inside |z|= 1 and
 2z    ( 2  3 ) is a simple pole lies outside side
|z|=1.
2
d 2 dz To find R1:
 2  cos
0
=
i z 2
 4z  1
.. (1)
C
1
We k now t hat t he Cauchy's r esidue t heor em is R1  Re s f ( z )z  = lim z  
z  ( z   )( z   )
 f ( z )dz  2 i  R
C
1  R2  .....  Rn  .. (A) = lim
1
z  (z)
1
Here f(z) = 2
1
z  4z  1 =
(   )
1
z2 + 4z + 1 = 0 =
 ( 2  3 )  (  2  3 ) 
 
4  ( 4 ) 2  4( 1)( 1)
z = 1
2( 1) R1 =
2 3
4  12 4  2 3 2
d 2
= = (1)  =  2 i ( R1 ) ... by using (A)
2 2 
0 2  cos i
= 2  3  1 
= 4  
1 2 3
 f(z) = 2
z  4z  1
2
= .
3
PROBLEM 10 2 1
=  f ( z ) dz Where f(z) = 2
2
i C
bz  2a z  b
d
Evaluate  , a  b  0 by using contour
a  b cos 
0
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,  f ( z )dz  2 i  R i
integration. C
Solution: 2
i
 I = 2 i  Ri
Put z = e ,  |z| = 1 i
dz I = 4  Ri .. (1)
 ei i
d
Where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the pole of f (z)
dz z2  1 inside C
  iz and cos  
d 2z
1
dz Here, f(z) = 2
d  bz  2a z  b
iz
Poles of f(z) are given by bz2 + 2az + b = 0.
Take C as the unit circle.
2
d 2a  4a 2  4b 2
Let I =  z =
a  b cos  2b
0
dz 2a  4  a2  b2 
iz =
=  2b
C  z2  1 
ab  
 2z  2a  2 a 2  b 2 a  a2  b2
= =
2b b
dz
= 
C  2az  bz 2  b   a  a 2  b 2 a  a 2  b 2
iz   z = ,
 2z  b b
2dz a  a 2  b 2
=  Take  =
i  bz  2az  b 
2 b
C
a  a 2  b 2
2 dz and  =
=  b
i C  bz  2 az  b 
2
z =  is the only pole lies inside C (simple pole) EXERCISE

z =  lies outside C (simple pole) Using contour integration, prove the following:
2
Re s  f ( z ) : z    d 2
1.  5  2 cos  
0 21
= Lt
z 
z    f ( z)
2
d 2
2.  a  b sin   ,ab0
1 a  b2
2
= Lt z   0
z b z   z   
2
d 2
1 3.  5  4 sin  
= zLt 0 3
  b z   
2
d a
1   a  cos   2
 3  a  1
= 4.
b    
0
a 2
 1 2
2
1 cos 2 3 3
= 5.  d 
 a  a 2  b 2   a  a 2  b 2  0 5  4 cos 2 8
b  
 b   b 
    Type II
1 P( x )

= Consider the integral I=

 ,f ( x) dx where f(x)=
2 Q( x )
a2  b2  
b  a rational function of x, in which the degree of P(x) is less
 b 
  than that of Q(x) atleast by two,Q(x)has no poles on the
real axis.
1
=
2 a2  b2 
Then  f ( z ) dz =  f ( x) dx ,where C is the closed
Hence by Cauchy’s residue theorem, C 
contour. Consisting of semi circle of radius R, large enough
 1  to include all the poles of f(z) and then the real axis from
From (1), I = 4  Ri  4  2 2

 –R to R.
 2 a b 
If f(z) is analytic in the upper half plane of the z - plane
2
d 2 except at the finite number of poles in it.
  a  b cos  =
0 a  b2
2
R 1 d2  3
 We have .. (1)  [Res f(z)][z = i] = Lt 2 
z  i f ( z ) 
 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz   f ( x ) dx
C  R
zi 2 dz 
 
1 d2  3 1
If Lt z  f ( z )  0 , then th e v alue of  f ( z ) dz Lt
= z  i 2 dz 2   z  i  3


z 
  z 2
 1  
approaches zero as R   .
1 d2  3 1 

= z  i 2 dz 2   z  i 
Lt 3 3

 from (1)  f ( x) dx  2 i  R (using residue theorem)
i   z  i  z  i  

1 d2  1 
SOLVED PROBLEMS = zLt
 i 2 dz 2
 3

  z  i  
PROBLEM 1
1 d  3 
 Lt
= 2 z  i dz  4

dx   z  i  
Evaluate  3 by contour integration.
 x 2
 1
1  12 
Solution: Y
= 2 zLt  5


i
  z  i  
1
i
Given f(x) = 3
x 2
 1 1  12 
 = 6  3
X
–R
–i
R
= 2 5
1   2i   32i 16i
f(z) = 3
z 2
 1  By Cauchy's residue theorem, we have
Consider the contour C which is the semi-circle 
 3  3
bounded by the diameter [–R, R]. Then
 f ( z ) dz = 2 i   Ri   2 i  
C
 16i  8
R
.. (1) From (1),
 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz   f ( x ) dx
C  R
As R |z|   f ( z ) dz  0
The poles of f(z) are the solutions of (z2 + 1)3 = 0 
z = i is a pole of order 3, which is lie inside C 

3
z = –i is a pole of order 3, lie outside C.
  f ( x) dx 
 8

dx 3
 
 3
8
 x 2
 1
PROBLEM 2 1
Here f(z) =
 ( z  1 )( z 2  2 2 )
2 2
dx
By contour integration, evaluate  (x .

2
 1)( x 2  4) 1
=
( z  i)( z  i)( z  2i)( z  2i)
(AU - Dec 2010, Nov/Dec 2007)
Here z = i, z = 2i are simple poles of f(z) lies inside C and
Solution: z = –i, z = –2i are simple poles of f(z) lies outside C .
We know that the Cauchy’s residue theorem is To find R1:
 Sum of the residues of f  z   1
 f ( z )dz = 2 i   .. (1) R1  Re s f ( z )z  i = lim  z  i
C  at its poles inside C 
z i ( z  i)( z  i)( z 2  4 )
1
dz = lim
Consider  f  z  dz  C  z 2  1 z 2  4  ,Where C is the upper z i ( z  i)( z 2  4 )
C
1
half of the semi-circle  :| z| R with the bounding diameter =
( i  i )[( i) 2  4 ]
[  R, R]
1
R =
( 2i)[ 1  4 ]
  f ( z )dz =  f ( x)dx   f ( z )dz
R 
C 1
R1 =
When R , Y 6i
 f ( z )dz  0
  To find R2:
2i
 i 1
X R2  Re s f ( z )z  2 i = lim  z  2i 
  f ( z )dz =
C


f ( x )dx  0 –R –i
–2i
R z  2i [ z 2  1]( z  2i )( z  2i )
1
 = lim 2
z  2i [ z  1]( z  2i)
  f ( x)dx =  f ( z )dz
C

1
= 2
[( 2i)  1]( 2i  2i )

dx dz
i.e  ( x  1)( x 2  4 ) =
2  z
C
2
 1 z 2  4  1
=
[ 4  1]( 4i )
= 2i [sum of the residues of f(z) at its
poles inside C] ...by (1) 1
=
12i

dx When R ,  f ( z )dz  0 Y
  (x

2
 1 )( x 2  2 2 )
2 = 2 i  R1  R2  


2i
  f ( z )dz =  f ( x )dx  0 i
1 1  X
= 2 i   C  –R –i R
 6i 12i  
–2i
2 i  1 1 
  f ( x)dx =  f ( z )dz
C

= 
i  6 12  
dx dz
 2  1
i.e  (x

2
 1)( x 2  4 )
= C ( z  1)( z 2  4 )
2
= 2 
 12  = 2i [sum of the residues of f(z) at its poles in C] ...by (1)
 z2
= Here f(z) =
6 ( z 2  12 )( z 2  2 2 )
z2
=
PROBLEM 3 ( z  i)( z  i)( z  2i)( z  2i)
Using the method of contour integration, evaluate Here
 2
x z = i, z = 2i are simple poles of f(z) lies inside C and
 (x 2
dx .
  1)( x 2  4) z = –i, z = –2i are simple poles of f(z) lies outside C .
AU - (Nov/Dec 2004) To find R1:
Solution: z2
R1  Re s f ( z )z  i = lim  z  i
z i ( z  i)( z  i)[ z 2  4 ]
 Sum of the residues of f  z   z2

C f ( z )dz = 2 i  at its poles inside C  .. (1) = lim
z i ( z  i)[ z 2  4 ]
i2
dz =
Consider  f ( z )dz   2 , Where C is the ( i  i)[( i) 2  4 ]
C C
( z  1)( z2  4 )
upper half of the semi-circle  :| z| R with the bounding 1
=
2i[ 1  4 ]
diameter [  R, R]
R 1
=
  f ( z )dz =  f ( x )dx   f ( z )dz
R 
6i
C
To find R2: PROBLEM 4

z2 Using the method of contour integration, evaluate
R2  Re s f ( z )z  2 i = lim  z  2i 
z  2i [ z 2  1]( z  2i)( z  2i) 
x2
 2 2
dx .
 ( x  9 )( x  4)
z2 AU - (May/June 2005)
= lim 2
z  2i [ z  1]( z  2i) Solution:
( 2i) 2 We know that the Cauchy's residue theorem is

=  Sum of the residues of f  z  
[( 2i) 2  1]( 2i  2i)
 f ( z )dz =
2 i 
at its poles inside C
 .. (1)
C  
4
= z 2 dz
[ 4  1]( 4i) Con si der  f  z  dz  C  z 2  9  z 2  4  Where C is the
C
1 upper half of the semi-circle  :| z| R with the bounding

=
3i diameter [  R, R]
R

dx
  = 2 i ( R1  R2 )
  f ( z )dz =  f ( x)dx   f ( z )dz
  x  1  x 2  2 2 
2 2 C R 
When R ,  f ( z )dz  0 Y


 1 1  
= 2 i    
 6i 3i  = 3i
  f ( z )dz  f ( x )dx  0

2i
X
C
–R –2i R
 1 1  
= 2    –3i
 6 3   f ( x)dx =  f ( z )dz
C

 1  2 

dx dz
= 2  i.e  (x =  z 2
 9  z 2  4 
 6 
2
  9 )( x 2  4 ) C
 Sum of the residues of f  z  

 = 2 i   . by (1)
= .  at its poles inside C 
3
z2
Here f(z) =
( z 2  3 2 )( z 2  2 2 )
z2
=
( z  3i)( z  3i)( z  2i)( z  2i)
Here 
dx
  (x 2
= 2 i  R1  R2 
z = 3i, z = 2i are simple poles of f(z) lies inside C, and z = –3i,   1 )( x 2  2 2 )
2
z = –2i are simple poles of f(z) lies outside C .

To find R1:  3 1
= 2 i   
 10i 5i 
z2
R1  Re s f ( z ) z  3i = lim  z  3i  3 1
z  3i ( z  3i)( z  3i)[ z 2  4 ]
= 2   
 10 5 
z2
= lim 3  2
z  3i ( z  3i)[ z 2  4 ]
= 2 
 10 
( 3i) 2
= 
( 3i  3i)[( 3i) 2  4 ] =
5
9 3
= =
6i[ 9  4 ] 2i[ 5 ] PROBLEM 5

3 x2  x  2
= Evaluate  dx by contour integration.
10i  x 4  10 x 2  9
To find R2: Solution:
z2 z2  z  2
R2  Re s f ( z )z  2 i = lim  z  2i 2 Let f(z) = 4
z  10z 2  9
z  2i [ z  9 ]( z  2i)( z  2i)
Where C is the semi-circle  with the bounded diameter
z2
lim
= z 2i 2 [–R, R]; we have,
[ z  9 ]( z  2i)
R
2
( 2i)  f ( z ) dz   f ( x ) dx   f ( z ) dz .. (1)
= 2 C R 
[( 2i)  9 ]( 2i  2i)
The poles of f(z) are the solutions of z4 + 10z2 + 9 = 0
4 1
= = i.e., (z2)2 + 10(z)2 + 9 = 0
[ 4  9 ]( 4i ) [5 ]i
(z2 + 9) (z2 + 1) = 0
1
= 
5i
i.e., z2 + 9 = 0, z2 + 1= 0 7  3i
=
z =  3i, z = i 48i
Out of the poles z = i, 3i lies inside C 7  3i

=
48i
z2  z  2
f(z) = By Residue theorem, we have
z 2
 9  z 2  1
  f ( z ) dz = 2 i   Ri 
2
z z2 C
=
 z  3i  z  3i  z  i   z  i 
 1  i 7  3i 
2 i  
 f ( z ) dz =  16i 48i 
 Res [f(z): z = i] = zLt
i
 z  i f ( z ) C
5
 f ( z ) dz = .. (2)
 z  i  z  z  2
2
C
12
= Lt
z  i  z  3i   z  3i   z  i   z  i 
From (1),
= zLt
z2  z  2 As R   f ( z ) dz  0 ,

i  z  3i  z  3i   z  1

1  i  2 1i   f ( z ) dz  0 +  f ( x) dx
= = C 
 4i   2i   2i 16i

Res {f(z): z = 3i} i.e.,  f ( x ) dx   f ( z ) dz (using (2))

 C
= Lt
z  3i
 z  3i  f ( z ) 
5
i.e.,  f ( x) dx  12
z2  z  2 
= Lt
z  3i
z 2
 1  z  3i  
x2  x  2 5
i.e  x4  10x 2  9 dx  12
9  3i  2
=
 9  1  6i 
PROBLEM 6 a
=

x2  2i  a  b 2 
2
Prove that  x dx  , a  b  0. .

2
a 2
 x 2
b 2
 a b
 Res [(f(z):z = bi] = Lt  z  bi  f ( z )
z  bi
Solution:
z2
z 2
= Lt  z  bi
Let f(z) =
z  bi
z 2
 a 2   z – bi   z  bi 
z 2
a 2
 z 2
b 2

Consider C is the semi circle  with the bounding  b2
=
diameter [–R, R], we have 2bi   b 2  a 2 
R
b
 f ( z ) dz   f ( x) dx   f ( z ) dz .. (1) =
C R  2i  a 2  b 2 
The poles of f(z) are the solutions of By Cauchy's residue theorem,
(z2 + a2) (z2 + b2) = 0  f ( z ) dz

C
= 2i [ Ri]
z2 + a2 = 0, z2 + b2 = 0
 a b 
z =  ai z =  bi
= 2 i   
 2i  a  b  2i  a  b  
2 2 2 2
z = ai is a simple pole lies inside C
z = bi is a simple pole lies inside C 
=  a  b
z = –ai, –bi are the simple poles lies outside C  a  b2 
2
 Res [f(z):z = ai] z Lt  z  ai  f  z    a  b

 ai =
 a  b  a – b
z2
= Lt  z  ai 
z  ai
 z  ai   z  ai  z 2  b 2  =
 a  b
z2  From (1), As R  then
= Lt  f ( z ) dz  0
z  ai
 z  ai  z 2  b 2  

 a2  f ( x) dx  0
=
  f ( z ) dz =
2ai   a  b
2 2
 C 

= z2
 f ( x) dx  f ( z ) dz Now f(z) = 4
 C z  a4

 Poles of f(z) are given by
 f ( x) dx  a  b

z4 + a4 = 0

x 2 dx  z 4 = –a 4 [since –1 = ei(2k+1)
 x 

2
 a  x  b  a b
2 2 2
z 4 = (–1)a4
i.e., z 4 = a4.ei(2k+1)
PROBLEM 7
i
 2  z = ae ( 2 k  1) 4
x
Evaluate x 4
dx by using contour integration.
0  a4 i3 i Let k = 0,1,2,3
c4 e4
Solution:
i i 3 i5 i7 
z 2 z  ae 4
, ae 4
, ae 4
, ae 4
,
Let f(z) = 4
z  a4   i i3
ei 4 ei 4
Take C as the curve as shown in figure. z  ae 4
and ae 4 are the only poles in the upperhalf
R
of the plane.
Let I =  f ( z ) dz
C
=  f ( x) dx   f ( z ) dz
R  z2 P  z
f(z) = z 4  a4  Q z
As R  then
 
 f ( z ) dz  0 and

Using the result,
R 
As R then  f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx P  z z2 1
 3 
R 
Q'  z  4z 4z

I  f ( x) dx  0  2 i  R i .. (1)
 P  z 1
Res {f(z): z = a}= Q' z  4z
Where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the poles in the  
upper half plane.
i
  1 1  i4
 Re s  f ( z ) : z  ae 4  = i
 e
  4a
4 ae 4
1     Hence by Cauchy's residue theorem,

=  cos  i sin 
4a  4 4 From (1),

1  1 1  1  i 
= 4a  i  (1 i) I =  f ( x) dx 2 i  R
i  2 i  
 2 2a 
 2 2  4 2a 

3i 
 
 Re s  f ( z ) : z  ae 4  =
1

1
e

i3
4  f ( x ) dx  a
 2
,
i3 
  4a
4 ae 4


2  f ( x) dx   f ( x) is even 
1  3 3  0 a 2
=  cos  i sin 
4a  4 4 

x2 
1      
 0 x 4  a4 dx  2a 2
=  cos      i sin     
4a   4  4 
EXERCISE
1   
=   cos  i sin  Prove that the following by using contour integration.
4a  4 4

dx
1  1 1  1.  1 x 2

=  i  
4a  2 2

1 x 
1  i  dx  
= 2. 2
27
4 2a  x 2
 4 x  13 
1 1 
dx 
Now  Ri = 4 2a  1  i   4 2a  1  i  3.  x 
0
2
a  x  b 
22 2
2ab ( a  b )
1
= 1  i  1  i 
dx 
4 2a 4. x 4

0 1 2 2
2i i
= 
4 2a 2 2a
TYPE III PROBLEM 1

  
cos mx  ( x) dx (or) cos mx


 sin mx  ( x) dx

Evaluate x 2
 a2
dx
0
P( x ) Solution:
where (x) =
Q( x ) eimz
Let f(z) = 2
z  a2
We have i) (x) has no poles on the real axis
Take C as the curve as shown in the figure.
ii) (x)  as |z| R
Take f(z) = eimz (z)

 f ( z ) dz 
C R
 f ( x ) dx   f ( z ) dz

.. (1)
Take C as the curve shown in figure. As R   f ( z ) dz  0


R
R 
 f ( z ) dz =  f ( x ) dx   f ( z ) dz
R 
.. (1) when R   f  x  dx =  f  x  dx
C
R 

As R   f ( z ) dz  0

(1) 

 f ( x) dx  f ( z ) dz
C
 2 i  Ri .. (2)
R  where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the poles of f(z)

when R   f  x  dx
R
=  f  x  dx

in the upper half plane.
Y
eimz 
Now, f(z) = 2

z  a2 ai
(1)   f ( x) dx

=  f ( z ) dz Poles of f(z) are given by X
C –R R
2
z +a = 0 2 –ai
= 2 i  Ri
z 2 = – a2
where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the poles of f(z) z =  ia
in the upper half plane. Here z = ia is the only pole lies in the upper half
plane
e imz
 f(z) = z  ia z  ia
  
e imz PROBLEM 2
Lt
Res {f(z): z = ia}= z  ia  z  ia 
 z  ia   z  ia  
x sin mx
Prove that =
  ma , m > 0, a > 0
 dx e
0 x 2  a2 2
e  
im ia
e imz AU - (Apr/May 2005, Apr/May 2008)
= Lt =
z  ia  z  ia   ia  ia 
Solution:
e  ma zeimz
= Let f(z) = 2
2ia z  a2
From (2),
R

 e  ma 
 f ( z ) dz =  f ( x ) dx   f ( z ) dz .. (1)
eimz C R 
 2 2 dx  2 i  Ri = 2 i  
 z  a  2ia  As R   f ( z ) dz  0

Y


e imz  when R  ai
  z 2  a 2 dx = a e ma R  X
–R R
 f  x  dx
R
=  f  x  dx

–ai

cos mx  i sin mx   ma
 dx = e 
2
z a 2
a

(1)  f ( x) dx   f  z  dz  2 i  R
 C
i .. (2)
Equating real part we get,
where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the poles of f(z)

cos mx  in the upper half plane.
 z 2  a 2 dx = a e ma zeimz
Now, f(z) = 2
z  a2

cos mx   ma Poles of f(z) are given by z2 + a2 = 0
2 2 2
dx = e {since function is even}
0 z a a
z 2 = – a2

cos mx z =  ia

Hence 0 z 2  a 2 dx = 2a e ma Here z = ia is the only pole lies in the upper half
plane
ze imz PROBLEM 3
Res {f(z): z = ia} Lt
= z  ia  z  ia 
 z  ia   z  ia  
dx 
Show that  1 x 4
 .
imz 0 2 2
ze
= Lt
z  ia  z  ia  Solution:
ia e  ma
=  Sum of the residues of f  z  
2ia
 f ( z )dz = 2 i 
 .. (1)
C  
e  ma
= dz
2 Consider  f ( z )dz   1  z
C C
2
, Where C is the upper half of

From (2), = 2 i  Ri the semi-circle  :| z| R with the bounding diameter
 f ( x) dx
 [  R, R]
R
e  ma
= 2 i
2
  f ( z )dz =
C R
 f ( x )dx   f ( z )dz


When R ,  f ( z )dz  0
 ma
2  f ( x ) dx = 2 i e [f(x) is even]

i3 y
0 2  e4  i
e4

  f ( z )dz =  f ( x )dx  0
 i  ma C 
 f ( x ) dx =
2
e  –R R
x
0
  f ( x)dx =  f ( z )dz
C i5 i3
 e 4
e4

x  cos mx  i sin mx   i  ma
 2 2
dx = e 
dx dz
x a 2
0 i.e  1 x 4 =  1 z
C
4

Equating imaginary part we get,
 = 2 i   ...(2)
x sin mx  at its poles inside C
Hence 0 x 2  a 2 dx = 2 e ma  
1
Here f(z) =
1  z4
The poles of f(z) are given by the equation i i3 
Here z  e 4 ,e 4
are simple poles of f(z) lies inside C
z4 + 1= 0
i5  i7 
 z 4 = –1 and ze 4
,e 4 are simple poles of f(z) lies outside C
 z = (–1)¼ To find R1:
= (cos + isin)¼ i
 4
 1
¼
= [cos (2n+1) + i sin (2n+1)] where n = 0, 1, 2, 3. R1  Re s  f ( z )z  e i4 = limi  z  e  4
ze 4   ( z  1)
  
z =  cos( 2n  1)  isin( 2n  1)  where n = 0, 1, 2, 3.  1 0 
 4 4 = limi  4z 3  0  (using L Hospital’s Rule)
z e 4  
   i
When n = 0, z =  cos  isin  = e 4
 4 4 1 1
= 3 =
  i
 i 3 
1 1 4 e  4 4 e 4 
z = i    
2 2
 3 3  1  i34
= 4e
i3
When n = 1, z =  cos  i sin = e 4
 4 4 
To find R2:
1 1
z = i
2 2  i3 
 1
4
R2  Re s  f ( z ) i3 
= limi 3 
z  e  4
 ( z  1)
ze 4
ze 4 
 5 5  i5 
When n = 2, z =  cos  isin  = e 4
 4 4 
 1 0 
= limi 3 
z e 4 
4z 3  0  (using L Hospital’s Rule)
1 1
z = i
2 2
1 1
= 3 =
 7 7  i7   i 3
  i9  
When n = 3, z =  cos  isin  = e 4 4 e 4
 4 e 4 
 4 4     
1 1
z = i 1  9i4
2 2 = e
4
 R
dx
(2)   1  x 4 = 2 i ( R1  R2 )   f ( z )dz =
C
 f ( x )dx   f ( z )dz
R 
When R , Y
dx

 1  3i4 1  9i4 
 f ( z )dz  0
 
 2 4 =
2 i  e  e 
0 1 x 4 4  
i

  f ( z )dz =
C
 f ( x )dx  0

–R
–i
R
X
dx  i  3 3   9 9  

1  x 4 =
4  cos 4  i sin 4    cos
4
 i sin 
4  

  
0 

 f ( x)dx =  f ( z )dz
C
 i  1 1   1 1 
= 4  i  i  
dx dz
 2 2  2 2  i.e  (1 x 2 2 = C
 ) ( 1  z 2 )2
i  1 
=  2i   Sum of the residues of f  z  
4  2 = 2 i   ...(2)
 at its poles inside C 

dx  1
 = Here f(z) =
0 1 x
4
2 2 ( z  1) 2
2
1
PROBLEM 4 =
( z  i) ( z  i) 2
2

dx
Evaluate  (1  x 2
using contour integration. Here z = i is a pole of order 2 lies inside C, and z = –i
)2
0 is a pole of order 2 lies outside C.
To find R1:
Solution:
We know that the Cauchy's residue theorem is 1 d  2 1 
R1  Re s f ( z )z  i = lim  z  i   2 2 
1 ! z  i dz  ( z  i) ( z  i) 
 f ( z )dz =
2 i 
 .. (1)
d  1 
C  
= lim
dz z i dz  ( z  i) 2 
Consi der  f ( z )dz   Where C is the upper half
C (1  z 2 ) 2
C
of the semi-circle.  :| z| R with the bounding diameter  2 
= lim
z i  ( z  i) 3
( 1  0 )
[  R, R] , we have  
R 
 2 
=  3 
 ( 2i) 
when R  
R
f ( x) dx =

 f  x  dx

2
=
8i
(1)  f ( x) dx   f  z  dz  2 i  R
 C
i .. (2)
where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the poles of f(z) in the

1
= upper half plane. Y
4i

iz

dx e ib
Now , f(z) = ia
(2)   ( 1  x 2 ) 2 = 2 i ( R1 ) z 2
a 2
 z 2
b 2
 –R –ia R
X
–ib

dx 1 Poles of f(z) are given by z2 + a2 = 0; z2 + b2 = 0;
 2 2 2 = 2 i  
0 (1 x )  4i  z =  ia; z =  ib

dx  Here, z = ia and z = ib is the only pole lies in the
Hence  (1 x
0
2
) 2 =
4 upper half plane
eiz
PROBLEM 5 Res {f(z): z = ia} = Lt  z  ia 
z  ia
 z  ia   z  ia   z 2  b 2 

cos x
Evaluate  x dx, a  b  0

2
 a 2   x 2  b2  e iz
= Lt
Solution: z  ia
 z  ia   z 2  b 2 
eiz
Let f(z) = e a  ea
z 2
a 2
 z 2
b 2
 =
2ia   a 2  b 2 
=
2ia  a 2  b 2 
eiz
R
Res {f(z): z = ib}= Lt  z  ib 
 f ( z ) dz   f ( x ) dx   f ( z ) dz .. (1) z  ia
z 2
 a 2   z  ib  z  ib 
C R 
eiz
As R   f ( z ) dz  0 Lt
= z  ib z 2  a 2  z  ib 
  
eb eb PROBLEM 6

= =
 b 2
a 2
 2ib 2ib  a  b
2 2
 
cos ax 
Evaluate  2
dx  (1+ab)e–ab , where a > b > 0.
x 2
b 2
 4b3 Y
1  eb ea  
Now R i = 2i a 2  b 2    Solution: 
   b a 
ia
 eiaz X
Let f(z) = 2 –R R
From (2),  f ( x) dx  2 i  R

i z 2
 b2  –ib

1  eb e a 
= 2 i    R
2i  a 2  b 2   b a 
 f ( z ) dz   f ( x ) dx   f ( z ) dz
C R 
.. (1)
  e b e  a 
= a 2  b2  b  a  as R   f ( z ) dz  0
  

  e b e  a  R 
2  f ( x) dx = 2 2  
0
a b  b a 
 when R  
R
f ( x) dx =  f  x  dx


  eb e a  
 f ( x ) dx = 2 a2  b2  b  a 
  
(1)  f ( x) dx   f  z  dz  2 i  R
 C
i .. (2)
0
 where  Ri is the sum of the residues at the poles of f(z)

e ix dx   eb e a 
 x =    in the upper half plane.
0
2
 a2   x2  b2  2  a2  b2   b a 
eiaz

 cos x  i sin x  dx   eb e a  f(z) = 2
 x =    z 2
 b2 
0
2
 a2   x2  b2  2  a2  b2   b a 
Poles of f(z) are given by (z2 + b2 )2 = 0; z2 + b2 = 0;
Equating Real Part, we have z 2 = – b2;

z =  ib
 b a
cos x dx  e e  Here, z = ib is the only pole lies in the upper half
 x = 2 
 
0
2
a 2
 x 2
b 2
 2a b   b
2
a  plane.
   e  ab  1  ab  
1 d  2 e iaz  = 2 i  
Res {f(z): z = ib}= zLt
 ib 1! dz 
 z  ib 
2 2   4ib 3 
  z 2
 b  


2 2  f ( x) dx = e  ab  1  ab 
d   z  ib  eiaz  2b 3
= Lt  2 2
 0
z  ib dz
  z  ib   z  ib  


 f ( x) dx = 3
e  ab  1  ab 
d  e iaz  0 4b
= zLt
 ib dz
 2

  z  ib   
e iax dx 
  = e  ab  1  ab 
  z  ib  2 iae iaz  eiaz 2  z  ib   0 x 2
b 2 2
 4b 3
= Lt  4

z  ib
  z  ib  

 cos ax  i sin ax  dx 
e  ab  1  ab 
 =
  z  ib  iae iaz  2eiaz  0 x 2
b 2 2
 4b 3
Lt
= z  ib  3

  z  ib   Equating real part, we get,
  z  ib  ia  2  
= Lt eiaz   cos ax dx 
3
 = e  ab  1  ab 
z  ib
  z  ib   2 2 4b 3
0 x 2
b 

 ab  2ib   ia   2

= e   EXERCISE
3
  2 ib   
cos x dx  a
 2ab  2  1. Show that  2 2
 e .
= e  ab   0 x  a 2a
3
 8ib 

x sin x 
 ab  2  1  ab   2. Show that  2
dx  .
= e  3  0 x 1 2e
 8ib 

  1  ab   cos 3x dx   3 e 6 
= e  ab
3. Show that  x 2  1 x 2  4  e 

 4ib 
3 
0    3  2 .


 ma
From (2),  f ( x) dx = 2 i  Ri x sin mx   2  ma 
4. Show that  x 2  1 x 2  4 dx  2a 2 e sin  .
0   

 2
REVIEW QUESTIONS 10. Using Cauchy's int egral formula evaluat e
PART - A sin  z 2  cos  z 2 3

C  z  1  z  2  dz , where C is|z|= 2 .
1. Evaluate  tan z dz where C is|z|=2.
C
zdz 1
11. Evaluate  , where C is |z|= .
 C
z  2   z  1 2
2. Find the Taylor's series for f(z)=sinz about z  .
4
12. Define singular point.
 3z 2
 7 z  1 dz 13. Expand f(z)=sinz in a Taylor's series about origin.
3. What is the value of the integral  , where
C  z  1
PART - B
1
C is the circle z  . COMPLEX INTEGRATION
2
zdz 1
4. If f(z)=
1
 2 [1   z  1   z  1  ....] , find the residue 1. Evaluate   z  1  z  2 
C
2 where C is the circle|z – 2|=
2
z1
of f(z) at z = 1. using Cauchy's integral formula.
5. Identify the type of singularities of the following function  z  1 dz

1 2. Evaluate  z 2
 2z  4  2 where C is|z+1+i|=2 using
f ( z)  z 1 . C
e
Cauchy's integral formula.
1
6. Classify the singularity of f ( z )  e ez

2
.
 z  4  dz
3. Evaluate 
C z 2  2z  5
where C is the circle |z+1+i|=2
e2 z using Cauchy's integral formula.

7. Calculate the residue of f ( z )  2 at its pole.
 z  1 z dz
4. Using Cauchy's integral formula, evaluate 
C
z2  1 ,
4
8. Find the residue of the function f ( z )  at a where C is the circle |z+i|= 1.
 2  z3
z 
simple pole.  4  3z  dz
5. Using Cauchy's integral formula, evaluate  z  z  1 z  2  ,
ez C
9. Evaluate  dz ,if C is |z|=2.

C z 1 3
where C is the circle|z|= .
2
6. Evaluate using Cauchy's integral theorem, 

x 2 dx
15. Evaluate using contour integration  2
.
sin  z 2  cos  z 2
dz , where C is|z|=3.
 x 2
 1

C z  z  1 z  2 

dx
16. Evaluate  , a > 0 using contour integration.
 z  1 dz x 2
 a2 
3
Evaluate 
0
7. 2 , where C is |z – i|=2 using
C  z  2  z  1
Cauchy's residue theorem. 
cos mx dx
17. Evaluate  x using contour integration.
CONTOUR INTEGRAL OF TYPES-I,II&III 0
2
 a2 
2
d 
8. Evaluate  2  cos using contour integration. cos x dx
18. Evaluate  x dx using contour integration
0

2
 a2   x2  b 2 
2
d a > b > 0.
9. Evaluate  a  b cos  a  b  0  using contour integration.
0 TAYLOR'S AND LAURENTS SERIES
2
sin 2  d z2 1
10. Evaluate  a  b  0 . 19. Expand f (z) = z  2 z  3 as a Laurent's series in the
  
0 a  b cos
region 2<|z|<3.
2
dx
11. Evaluate  1  2x sin  x , 0  x  1
0
2
20. Find the Laurent's series of f(z) =
z2 1
valid in
z 2
 5 z  6

x2  x  2 the region 2<|z|<3.
12. Evaluate  4 2
dx using contour integration.
 x  10x  9
1
21. Expand f(z) = z  2 z  3 in Laurent's series valid for

x 2 dx
  
13. Evaluate  x dx using contour integration
2
 a2   x2  b 2  the region|z| > 3 and 1<|z|<3.

a > b > 0. 2
d

22. Evaluate, by contour integration,  1  2a sin  a
0
2 ,
dx
14. Evaluate  x dx using contour integration. 0 < a < 1.

2
 1  x 2  4 
5.148 Mathematics - II
1
23. Find the Laurent's series expansion of f(z)= z 1  z valid
 
in the regions |z + 1|< 1, 1< |z + 1|< 2 and |z + 1| > 2.
24. Find the Laurent's series expansion of
7z  2
f(z)= in 1< |z+1|< 3.
z  z  2  z  1
z2
25. Find the residues of f(z)= 2 2 at its isolated
 z  1  z  2 
singularities using Laurent's series expansion. Also state
the valid region.

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Complex Integration 5.

Complex integration – Statement and applications of Cauchy’s

The design of aerofoil sections for aircraft is an area Connected region

multiple curve The boundary of a region is said to be traversed in the

 f(z)dz =  (u dx – v dy) + i (v dx + u dy)

If x = f(t) and y = g(t) represents the curve C interms of u v v u

 f(z)dz =  (u +iv) d(x+ i dy)

Extension of Cauchy’s integral theorem On C1, any point z is given by z = a + rei, 0    2

 f(z)dz =  f(z)dz+  f(z)dz+......+  f(z)dz

2! f(z) SOLVED PROBLEMS

curve and ‘a’ is interior to C.

Differentiating (1) under the integral sign w.r.to ‘a’, we dz

1 1 = 2i (1) (since f(a) = 1)

Differentiating (2) under the integral sign w.r.to a, PROBLEM 2

By Cauchy’s integral formula

ez ez By Cauchy’s integral formula,

 The point z = i lies inside ‘C’. e –i

Using Cauchy's integral formula, evaluate z2 + 1

taking = 2 i f(2) ...by using (1) 1+1

ii) Consider the circle |z+1| = 1, this is a circle with centre

iii) Consider the circle C:|z – i| = 2. z 4

In this case, we proceed as follows. Find the factors of z2 + 2z + 5

The given C is the circle |z + 1 + i| =2 PROBLEM 8

z4 z4 Let z2 (z – 2)2 = 0

Put z = 2 , |2 – 2 –i| = |– i| <2

(z2+1) = (z–1) (z–2) + A(z–2) + B(z–1)

Solving into partial fractions, 1 A B

Put z=1, A=–1 PROBLEM 11

Put z=2, B=1 Using Cauchy's integral formula, evaluate

sinπz 2 +cosπz2 f ( z) dz f ( z) dz The poles are z=0, z=1 and z=2

Put z = 0, 1 = A(0 – 1) + 0  A = –1 PROBLEM 12

Now Let (z + 2i)2 (z – 2i)2 = 0

f (1– i), f (1– i) and f(1–i)

Where f(z) = 3z2 + 7z + 1

= 2i [3 (1 – i)2 + 7(1– i) + 1]  1 

EXERCISE 5.3 TAYLOR’S SERIES

First we shall express f(z) by using partial fraction

5.4 LAURENT’S SERIES SOLVED PROBLEMS

If f(z) is analytic inside and on the circle and within z

z = A(z – 3) + B(z –1)

2. In Laurent’s series of f(z) about z = a, the terms 1 3

i) consider the region |z| > 3(given)

PROBLEM 3 i) Given 2 < |z| < 3,

Let u = z+1, i.e., 1 < |u| < 3

f ( z)     z  1 is the required Laurent's series

z+ 4 5.5 SINGULAR POINT AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Essential Singularity: SOLVED PROBLEMS

sin z 1  cos z iii) 1 z(ez – 1) = 0

sin z z = 0, e z = e2ni ; n = 0, 1, 2, ....

1 z2 z4 If z = a is a simple pole of f(z), then

Then Residue of f(z) at z = a is Lt z  a (z – a).f(z) . 1 d

5.6.1 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem SOLVED PROBLEMS

 f(z)dz = 2i[sum of the residues of f(z) at z1, z2 , ...zn] Solution:

Proof: It has a simple pole at z = –1 and z = 1 is pole of order 2.

Now z = z1 is an isolated singularity. Hence by Laurent’s z 1

 f(z)dz = 2πi  R1 + R2 +...+ Rn  = 2πi Ri

 f(z) has a pole at z = i and z = –i e z [z – πi – 2]

in the annular region 1< |z| < 2. radius 2. i.e., C is |z| = 2.

Solution: Hence z = 1 lies inside C.