Arch Neuropsychiatry 2019;56:32−39

RESEARCH ARTICLE https://doi.org/10.29399/npa.19390

Adaptation of the Cognitive Triad Inventory into Turkish: a Validity and

Reliability Study
Özge ERARSLAN1 , Sedat IŞIKLI2
Dokuz Eylül University, Department of Psychology, İzmir, Turkey
1

Hacettepe University, Department of Psychology, Ankara, Turkey

2

ABSTRACT

Introduction: The aim of this study was to assess psychometric properties inventory is high. It was found that test-retest reliability coefficients
of the Turkish version of The Cognitive Triad Inventory developed to use range from 0.74 to 0.94 and are high for an interval of 4 weeks (p<0.005).
cognitive triad based on Beck’s depression model. Confirmatory factor analysis has supported three factor structure of
Methods: The study sample included 337 (female 72.2%, male 27.8%) the inventory: “view of self”, “view of world” and “view of future”. The
students from Hacettepe University. Reliability was evaluated by analysis showed that the model has high goodness of fit. Comparison
test-retest analysis and internal consistency coefficients. For validity, with three self-report measures released that Cognitive Triad Inventory
explanatory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed. In and its subscales have good convergent validity.
addition, the scales which are assumed to measure similar cognitive
structures were used to examine convergent validity. The Cognitive Triad Conclusion: The Turkish version of the Cognitive Triad Inventory has
Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory and The Hopelessness Scale were been found to be a valid and reliable measure that can be used for the
administered to the participants. university students of Turkey.

Results: The Cronbach Alpha coefficient reliability of The Cognitive Keywords: The cognitive triad inventory, beck’s depression model,
Triad Inventory (r=0.91) showed that internal consistency reliability of negative cognitive triad, reliability and validity

Cite this article as: Erarslan Ö, Işıklı S. Adaptation of the Cognitive Triad Inventory into Turkish: a Validity and Reliability Study. Arch Neuropsychiatry 2019;56:32-39.
https://doi.org/10.29399/npa.19390

INTRODUCTION
World Health Organization lists depression as the fourth leading cause of indefinitely, making long-term predictions (negative view of the future),
incapacity for disease worldwide, predicting that depression will be the (b) attributes adverse events to personal psychological, moral, or physical
second leading cause by 2020 (1). One of the scientifically supported and defects (negative view of self) and (c) tends to see the world as over-
widely accepted theories explaining the development and maintenance demanding and / or providing insurmountable obstacles to achieve life
of depression was developed by Beck, Rush, Shaw and Emery (2). goals (negative view of world). Totally, these three cognitive views are
known as the cognitive triad (2).
In Beck’s cognitive model (3), schemas, cognitive errors, cognitive triad
and automatic thoughts are central in the development and maintenance The cognitive triad consists of negative views of the self, the world and the
of depression. Schemas are highly persistent and organized structures that future. The person with the negative cognitive triad considers him/herself
guide situational information processing. Schemas causing depression to be inadequate and believes that unpleasant experiences are the result
are negative and include immature, absolute and rigid attitudes about of his/her behaviors or characteristics. The individual considers the world
self and the relationship of self with the world. These stress-driven as full of obstacles and interprets the interactions with the environment
schemas lead to cognitive errors which are the next step in the causal in a negative way. Furthermore, the future is seen as full of challenges
pathway to depression. Cognitive errors lead to a negative, unrealistic, and it is believed that the current difficulties will continue indefinitely. In
excessive and distorted perception and thought. As a result, a depressive addition to being susceptible to depression, the cognitive triad also plays
individual (a) predicts that current difficulties or suffering will continue a role in maintaining depression (4).

Correspondence Address: Özge Erarslan, Dokuz Eylül University, Department of Psychology, İzmir, Turkey • E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 08.11.2016, Accepted: 28.02.2018, Available Online Date: 31.01.2019
©Copyright 2018 by Turkish Association of Neuropsychiatry - Available online at www.noropskiyatriarsivi.com

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Arch Neuropsychiatry 2019;56:32−39 Erarslan and Işıklı, Cognitive Triad Inventory

Many studies conducted to date have shown the relationship between world is a very hostile place.”) and future (e.g. “There is nothing to expect
negative view of the self and depression (5-8). Although views of from the future”). Four of the items measure positive self view and six of
the world and the future have not been studied as much as self view, the items measure negative self view. Five items each are used to measure
negative views of the world and the future and depresive symptoms positive and negative world views and positive and negative future views.
has also been supported (9,10). The Beck Depression Inventory (11) has The remaining six items are filler items that ara not included in scoring
items that measure all three aspects of the cognitive triad but it was not (item numbers are 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 22). Individuals are asked to rate the items
systematically designed to measure the cognitive triad. The Cognitive on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (‘‘total agree’’) to 7 (‘‘totally disagree’’). For
Triad Inventory was developed to assess all aspects of the cognitive triad scoring, all of the positive items are reversed and the low scores from the
in a systematic manner (12). The findings have supported the utility of scale represent the positive cognitive triad and the high scores represent
classification of depressogenic cognitions into three structures (self, the negative cognitive triad.
world and future) and the notion that different cognitive processes and
response styles can be obtained from positive and negative items (10). Initially, the reliability and validity statistics of American Cognitive Triad
Inventory were examined in the sample of 26 patients with depression
Pössel (13) conducted an adaptation study to obtain a reliable and valid and the items that did not correlate with their own subscale were
German version of the American Cognitive Triad Inventory. The findings excluded. The reliability and validity of the inventory was reevaluated
supported the generalizability of Beck’s model to different cultures. in a separate sample of 28 patients with depression. The scale and its
subscales were found to have high internal consistency. The Cronbach
In addition to the development of the Cognitive Triad Inventory, Alpha coefficient reliability of overall CTI was 0,95 (12). The total CTI
adaptation to different cultures and validity-reliability studies, there are correlated highly (r=0,77) with Beck Depression Inventory (11), self view
also studies examining the relationship between cognitive triad with subscale correlated highly (r=0,90) with Rosernberg Self Esteem Scale (17)
depression and anxiety. Previous studies have emphasized that cognition and future view subscale correlated highly (r=0,90) with Hopelessness
plays an important role in anxiety. Scale (18).

In this respect, Wong (14) investigated the relations of the cognitive triad, The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
dysfunctional attitudes, automatic thoughts, and irrational beliefs with The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) adapted by Teğin (19) was used to
test anxiety. Multiple regression analyses showed that only the cognitive evaluate the level of depressive symptoms in this research. It measures
triad was an important predictor of anxiety. Specially, negative view of self somatic, emotional, cognitive and motivational symptoms in depression
was found as an important predictor of anxiety. and includes 21-symptom categories. The high score of the scale
represents the severity of depression. According to the reliability analysis
Mak and his colleagues (15) tested the assumption that the relationship of the Turkish version of the scale, split half reliability coefficients were
between psychological resilience, life satisfaction and depression could be found to be 0,78 and 0,61, respectively for students and for a group of
explained by a positive view to the self, the world and the future (positive 30 patients with depression. Test-retest reliability of the scale was found
cognitive triad). The results of structural equation model and mediator to be 0,65 (19).
analysis showed that psychological resilience was significantly related to
positive cognitions about self, world and future. Individuals with positive
The Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS)
cognitions reported higher life satisfaction and lower depression. It has
The Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) was used to evaluate negative
been supported that positive cognitive triad can be utilized to increase
expectations of the person about the future (18). The scale is a 20-item
overall well-being.
scale that includes emotions, thoughts and motives about the future.
Scores range from 0 to 20 and high scores represent high level of
Despite the importance of the cognitive triad in the development,
hopelessness (20). In the reliability and validity study of the scale (21),
maintenance and treatment of depression, there is no measurement
the scale was applied to the patient and control groups and a significant
tool to examine the cognitive triad in adult sample in Turkey. Güloğlu
difference between the groups was found. The reliability and validity
and Aydın (15) adapted the Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children which
analysis was also conducted by Durak (22) and The Cronbach Alpha
measures automatic thoughts reflecting the cognitive error tendency in
reliability coefficient was found as 0,86.
children. However, no studies have been conducted with adults so far. In
order to fill this gap in the literature, it was aimed to adapt the Cognitive
Item 12 of The Beck Hopelessness Scale was not included in the scoring
Triad Inventory developed by Beckham and his colleagues (12) into
in the analysis phase of this study because of misspelling.
Turkish and to evaluate the psychometric properties in non-clinical adult
sample.
The Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory (SEI)
The Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory developed by Stanley
METHOD Coopersmith (23) was used to evaluate person’s self attitudes about
Sample various areas. There are two separate forms for children and adults. The
The study included 334 (female 72.2%, male 27.8%) students from adult form has two types as a short form with 25 items and long form with
Hacettepe University. The mean age of the sample was 21,19 years 58 items. In this study, the short form was used. The high scores indicate
(S=3,82). The test-retest study of the scale was conducted on 35 high self-esteem and the low scores indicate low self-esteem (24). The
participants after four week interval. validity and reliability study of the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory
was performed by Turan and Tufan (25) and the test-retest coefficient
Measurements was found to be 0,65.
The Cognitive Triad Inventory (CTI)
The Cognitive Triad Inventory (12) is composed of substances that The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS)
measure both positive and negative cognitions of individuals. It includes The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale developed by Weismann and Beck
cognitions about self (e.g. “I can do a lot of things well.”), world (e.g. “The (26) was used to measure the frequency of dysfunctional attitudes about

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Erarslan and Işıklı, Cognitive Triad Inventory Arch Neuropsychiatry 2019;56:32−39

depression. The 40-item scale is rated on 7-point Likert scale from 1 to factor limitation. While the factor with an eigenvalue of 5,63 explained
7. Higher scores represent more frequency of dysfunctional attitudes of 18,75% of the total variance, the factor with an eigenvalue of 4,83
person (20). The scale was adapted by Hisli-Şahin and Şahin (27) and the explained 16,08% of the total variance and the factor with an eigenvalue
Cronbach Alpha coefficient reliability was found as 0,79. of 2,43 explained 8,1% of the total variance.

Procedures The findings of EFA revealed that all of the items under the sub-scales do
The adaptation study of the the scale was based on the recommendations not show a distribution according to the sub-scales in the original form.
of Hambleton and Patsula (28) and Savaşır (29) regarding the cross-cultural It was found that some items are loaded on other factor as distinct from
scale adaptation. After the original scale was translated into Turkish, it the original scale or they are loaded on two factors with similar factor
was examined by three experts in both psychology field and translation. loading. At this stage, item-total correlations were examined for each
The scale was applied to 10 participants before the implementation of item to determine the item distinctiveness of the inventory. The item-
the validity and reliability of the scale and it was observed that all items total correlation more than 0.30 would be regarded as the criteria for item
are understandable. Following the permission from Hacettepe University retention (33). Based upon the 0.30 item-to-total correlation standard, all
Ethics Committee, the applications were carried out with students from but item 27 (r=0,28) had an item-to-total correlation of more than 0,30.
different departments of Hacettepe University. The test-retest study of However, to keep the Turkish CTI version as similar as possible to the
the scale was conducted on 35 participants after four week interval. American original, all following analyses were calculated with item 27 as
part of the scale view of world. The findings of explanatory factor analysis,
Data Anaysis item-total correlations of the items and Cronbach Alpha values when the
The goodness of fit indices were evaluated based on the Lisrel program. item deleted were presented on Table 2.
The data collected from the participants were analyzed using Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 18.0 and LISREL 8.54. Descriptive In order to test how well the three-factor structure applied to the Turkish
statistics, Cronbach alpha technique, Pearson Correlation Coefficient CTI with the sample of university students, confirmatory factor analysis
analysis, explanatory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, was performed. Goodness of fit indeces were used as a criterion in
multiple linear regression analysis and goodness of fit statistics were used assessing the degree to which the factorial model of the scale was valid
for the evaluation of the data. for Turkish culture.

In this study, fit indeces were analyzed based on generalized value

FINDINGS ranges. One of the values required for a good model fit is the ratio of
In the Turkish version of the scale, Cronbach Alpha coefficients of self- chi-square to degree of freedom. Accordingly, for a good model fit, the
view, world-view and future-view subscales were found as 0.85, 0.72 ratio of chi-square to degree of freedom should be 3 or smaller than 3
and 0.87, respectively. The internal consistency coefficients based on (34). In this study, this ratio was determined as (1142,980/402) 2,84 that
the Cronbach’s alpha values indicated that the reliability level of the showed a good fit of the model to the data. Comparative Fit Index (CFI),
responses to the Cognitive Triad Inventory is above the acceptable limit The Normed Fit Index (NFI) and Non-normed Fit Index (NNFI) were
of 0.70 (30). The Cronbach Alpha coefficient reliability of The Cognitive examined as incremental fit indeces. CFI values of ≥0,95 indicate a good
Triad Inventory (r=0.91) showed that internal consistency reliability of model fit and values between 0,90 and 0,95 are regarded as acceptable
(35). In this study, CFI value was found as 0,94. Values of NFI and NNFI
inventory is high. It was found that test-retest reliability coefficients range were determined as 0,91 and 0,93, respectively and these values of ≥0,90
from 0.74 to 0.94 and are high for an interval of 4 weeks (p<0.005). The were regarded as acceptable (35).
consistency of the scale over time was supported (Table 1).
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), The Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI),
The explanatory factor analysis was performed to examine the construct Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) and Root Mean Square Error of
validity of the scale. The value of Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) was found as Approximation (RMSEA) were also evaluated as absolute fit indeces.
0,909 in the Principle Component Analysis. The range of 0,80 and 0,90 of These values that are close to 1 indicate a good fit of the model to the
the value of KMO is thought as very good in the literature (31). Bartlett data (36). GFI and AGFI values were determined to be 0.79 and 0.76,
test statistic was found as 4481,735 (p<0,05). These findings indicated that respectively. These values ≤0,90 did not meet the criteria for good model
the data are suitable for factor analysis (32). Factors with the eigenvalue fit (36). These low values were accepted because of the low effect on the
greater than 1.00 were evaluated to determine the number of factors. study. The other fit index, RMSEA, was found as 0,08 and it was at the
As a result of the analysis, the 9-factor structure of the scale was found. acceptable limit (37). SRMR value was determined as 0,07 and the value
Since the original scale consists of three factors, it was reanalyzed by the of ≤ 0,10 was regarded as acceptable (37). As a result, CFA confirmed
principle component analysis and varimax rotation method using three that the scale was composed of three factors: “self-view”,“world view” and

Table 1. Pearson moments correlation coefficients for test – retest reliability of the scale

Self view (retest) World view (retest) Future view (retest) CTI total score (retest)

Self view 0.94**

World view 0.74**

Future view 0.81**

CTI total score 0.90**

** p<0.01

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Table 2. Factor loadings of items, item-total correlations and Cronbach Alpha values when item deleted*
Factor loadings Item-total Cronbach alpha values
İtem F1 F2 F3** correlation when item deleted Mean Standard deviation
CTI 6 0.57 0.24 0.10 0.53 0.91 2.13 1.17

CTI 9 0.72 0.16 0.22 0.62 0.91 2.64 1.29

CTI 11 0.72 0.14 0.15 0.58 0.91 2.67 1.22

CTI 15 0.41 0.45 0.10 0.55 0.91 1.76 1.11

CTI 16 0.14 0.44 0.17 0.40 0.91 3.73 1.72

CTI 19 0.52 0.50 0.18 0.68 0.91 2.00 1.35

CTI 26 0.50 0.55 0.14 0.68 0.91 1.83 1.21

CTI 28 0.72 0.18 0.04 0.56 0.91 2.64 1.22

CTI 32 0.55 0.44 0.05 0.61 0.91 1.71 1.24

CTI 36 0.66 0.04 0.08 0.45 0.91 2.74 1.33

CTI 5 0.46 0.48 0.14 0.62 0.91 2.29 1.39

CTI 10 0.16 0.64 0.05 0.50 0.91 2.51 1.49

CTI 13 0.36 0.60 0.08 0.60 0.91 1.98 1.17

CTI 17 0.48 0.10 0.12 0.39 0.91 2.66 1.28

CTI 21 0.33 0.62 -0.00 0.58 0.91 1.88 1.43

CTI 25 0.60 0.21 0.03 0.50 0.91 2.48 1.13

CTI 29 0.20 0.65 0.09 0.54 0.91 2.54 1.50

CTI 31 0.61 0.30 -0.01 0.56 0.91 2.18 1.17

CTI 33 0.57 0.18 0.15 0.51 0.91 2.96 1.51

CTI 35 0.30 0.61 0.03 0.57 0.91 2.52 1.50

CTI 3 0.01 -0.12 0.62 0.13 0.92 4.19 1.46

CTI 8 0.18 -0.01 0.69 0.32 0.91 2.45 1.25

CTI 12 0.43 0.07 0.32 0.41 0.91 3.74 1.49

CTI 18 0.10 0.33 0.49 0.42 0.91 3.97 1.80

CTI 20 0.28 0.24 0.54 0.48 0.91 2.23 1.16

CTI 23 0.14 0.50 0.35 0.51 0.91 3.50 1.57

CTI 24 0.30 0.12 0.42 0.38 0.91 2.46 1.57

CTI 27 0.05 0.48 -0.07 0.28 0.91 1.55 1.24

CTI 30 0.02 0.52 0.44 0.46 0.91 2.99 1.51

CTI 34 -0.07 0.48 0.42 0.38 0.91 4.55 1.52

*Items 1, 2, 4, 7, 14 and 22 were not inclued in analysis.
**F1: future view subscale, F2:self view subcsale, F3: world view subscale The numbers in bold are the items loaded on the specific factors in the original study

“future view”. The goodness fit indeces showed a good fit of the model
to the data. The values of goodness fit indeces were presented in detail Table 3. Results of good fit indeces
on Table 3. Fit index Good fit Acceptable limit Results of good fit
Chi square/ 0< Chi-square / 2< Chi-square / Chi-square /
It was investigated whether three factors, including self-view, world-view,
sd sd <2 sd <3 sd=2.84
and future-view, explain the cognitive triad latent variable. It was found
that all factors explain the cognitive triad latent variable significantly and RMSEA 0<RMSEA <0.05 0.05<RMSEA <0.08 0.08 (CI%90=0.08; 0.09)
proposed model is in accordance with the data. The t values of the model SRMR 0<SRMR <0.05 0.05<SRMR <0.10 0.07
showed that all items are significantly predicted by their sub-scales. NFI 0.95<NFI <1.00 0.90<NFI <0.95 0.91
NNFI 0.95<NNFI <1.00 0.90<NNFI <0.95 0.93
CFI 0.95<CFI <1.00 0.90<CFI <1.00 0.94
For all items in the scale, it was found that all t values are significant and RFI 0.90<RFI <1.00 0.90<RFI <0.95 0.90
their standardized loadings are high (Figure 1).

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Erarslan and Işıklı, Cognitive Triad Inventory Arch Neuropsychiatry 2019;56:32−39

Convergent validity was also evaluated within the scope of validity

of the scale. Statistically significant correlations between CTI and its
subscales and BDI, BHI, SEI, DAS were obtained (Table 5). A significant
positive correlation between BDI and CTI total score was found (r=0,66,
p<0,01). Similarly, a significant positive correlation between CTI total
score and BHS was detected (r=0,70, p<0,01). It was found that there is
a higher correlation between BHS and future-view subscale than other
subscales (r=0,72, p<0,01). A significant negative correlation between
SEI and CTI total score was determined (r=- 0,64, p<0,01). It was found
that there is a higher correlation between SEI and self-view subscale
than other subscales (r=-0,66, p<0,01). Lastly, a significant negative
correlation between DAS and CTI total score was found (r=-0,40, p<0,01).
Comparision with the self-report measures released that Cognitive Triad
Inventory and its subscales have good convergent validity.

DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to translate and evaluate the American Cognitive
Triad Inventory (12) in order to obtain a reliable and valid Turkish version
of the CTI to measure the cognitive triad explaining the development and
maintenance of depression.

The Cronbach Alpha coefficient reliability of The Cognitive Triad Inventory

(r=0.91) showed that internal consistency reliability of inventory is high.
Its subscales were also found to have high internal consistency. The
reliability and validity of American version of the inventory was evaluated
in a sample of 28 individuals with depression. The scale and its subscales
were found to have high internal consistency. The internal reliabilities of
the subscales were found to be 0,91, 0,81 and 0,93, respectively for view
of self, view of world, and view of future (12). In this study, it was observed
that the internal reliability of the Turkish version is similar to the internal
reliability of the American CTI.

Chi-square: 1312.3, P: 0.00000, RMSEA=0.082 When the test-retest reliability coefficients were examined, the
consistency of the scale over time was supported. Four-week retest
Figure 1. Structural equation model.
reliability was also used to determine the reliability of the German CTI
version (13). It was found that test-retest reliability coefficients range
from 0,82 to 0,86. Test retest reliability coefficient was also found as
In this study, multiple linear regression analysis was applied for predictive 0,90 for the total scale. It was found that the reliability coefficients of the
validity. It was examined to what extent sub-scales of CTI predict Turkish CTI are similar to the reliability coefficients of both the American
depressive symptoms. Findings of multiple linear regression analysis for CTI and the German CTI.
predicting depression of self, world and future subscales were presented
on Table 4. Explanatory factor analysis and comfirmatory factor analysis were
performed to examine the construct validity of the scale. At first, 9 factors
The results showed that all independent variables explain 45% of the were observed with an eigenvalue greater than 1,00. As a result of the
total variance of depression. A significantly result was obtained with F literature review, it was found that there were inconsistencies in the
test (F=83,79, p<0,01). adaptation of the scale to different cultures (10,13,38).

According to standardized regression coefficient (β), order of importance A six-factor structure was observed in the German adaptation of the
of predictive variables on depression was in the form of world-view, self- scale and it was suggested that this structure may be caused by the
view and future-view. T test results showed that world-view and self-view negative and positive decomposition of items (13). Also, it was claimed
have a significant effect on depression. that inconsistency of factor structure in different studies can be derived

Table 4. Results of multiple linear regression analysis for predicting depression

Variable B Sd β t Sig.

Instant -9.5 1.43 -6.66 0.000*

Self view 0.30 0.05 0.33 5.52 0.000*
World view 0.38 0.05 0.37 6.89 0.000*
Future view 0.06 0.05 0.07 1.18 0.24

Model (R=0.67, R2=0.45, F (3, 304)=83.79, p=0.000*)

*p<0.001

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Arch Neuropsychiatry 2019;56:32−39 Erarslan and Işıklı, Cognitive Triad Inventory

Table 5. Correlation coefficients between variables

Self-view World-view Future-view CTI total score

BDI 0.59** 0.60** 0.52** 0.66**

BHS 0.57** 0.49** 0.72** 0.70**

SEI -0.66** -0.53** -0.48** -0.64**

DAS -0.42** -0.35** -0.29** -0.40**

BDI: Beck depression scale; BHS: Beck hopelessness scale, SEI: Coopersmith self esteem inventory, DAS: Dysfunctional attitudes scale, CTI: Cognitive triad inventory
**p<0.01

from methodological factors rather than conceptual problems in the Consequently, The Turkish version of the Cognitive Triad Inventory has
model (2). Since the original scale consists of three factors, the principle been found to be a valid and reliable measure. Therefore, The Cognitive
component analysis was repeated using three factor limitation. The Triad Inventory can be used to measure the cognitive triad explaining
findings of EFA showed that all items under the sub-scales do not show a the development and maintenance of depression (2). It is thought that
distribution according to the sub-scales in the original form. At this stage, the Cognitive Triad Inventory which was developed based on the view
item-total correlations were examined for items loaded on other factor that views of self, world and future in a negative way leads to depression
as distinct from the original scale or loaded on two factors with similar can shed light on the studies on the cause and prevention of depression.
factor loading. Item 27 (r=0,28) had an item-to-total correlation of less Positive self-view has been found to be an important protective factor
than 0,30. However, to keep the Turkish CTI version as similar as possible against the development of many psychological disorders, especially
to the American original, all following analyses were calculated with item depression, anxiety, violence and substance abuse (41). It was found
27 as part of the scale view of world. In the German version, a similar that self-esteem plays a mediator role between environmental risk
process was carried out for the item 12, which was loaded on a different factors and depression (42). It was observed that people with positive
factor (13). Nonetheless, the highest correlation between item 12 and the world view have a tendency to find solutions to problems and to see
view of future, not like expected with the view of world was defined as opportunities in difficult situations as people with positive self view
a problem. (43). In the studies on the future view, it was found that people with
positive future view are tend to less influenced by negative effects of
In order to test how well the three-factor structure applied to the stress, to have more problem solving skills, to use more active coping
Turkish CTI, confirmatory factor analysis was performed. As a result, CFA stratejies rather than passive ones and to be more resistant to stress
confirmed that the scale was composed of three factors: “self-view”,“world (44,45). Conducting studies on the relationship between the cognitive
triad and psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety may
view” and “future view”. The goodness fit indeces showed a good fit of the
contribute to the development of treatments for these disorder in our
model to the data.
country.
In this study, multiple linear regression analysis was applied for predictive
Previous studies have found that cognitive-behavioral components
validity and it was examined to what extent sub-scales of CTI predict
are effective in preventing and treating depression (46). In order to
depressive symptoms. The findings revealed that all independent variables
struggle negative beliefs about self, the world and the future, cognitive
explain 45% of the total variance of depression. It was found that world-
techniques and disaster reversal techniques can be applied and coping
view and self-view have a significant effect on depression. Accordingly, it
skills can be taught. In-session and between sessions exercises might
can be said that there is an increase in depressive symptoms of people
help clients adapt these cognitive skills into daily life (47,48). In addition,
with negative world and self-views. The lack of a significant effect of
preventive interventions can be developed with a good understanding
the future view on depression did not show consistency with studies
of the cognitive triad structure. Especially, education programs that aim
supporting the relationship between depression and negative future view
to teach positive thinking can be designed. These kinds of trainings can
in the literature (39,40). As Beckham et al. (12) and Pössel (13) did not act as a preventive intervention that can equip individuals with positive
report the findings of predictive validity, it is not possible to compare the expectations about the self, the world and the future (15).
findings of predictive validity in this study with the findings in original CTI
and the German CTI. The limitation of the study is related to the generalizability of the
findings. The study sample included students from Hacettepe University.
Comparison with the self-report measures released that Cognitive Therefore, it may not be possible to generalize the results of the study to
Triad Inventory and its subscales have good convergent validity. The all university students or those who do not have university education.
correlations between CTI and BDI, BHI, SEI were very similar to those Also, non-clinical sample of the study makes it difficult to generalize the
found in the original study (12). The findings suggested that the future findings to clinical sample. In addition, unlike the original study carried
view can be measured by BHI and the self view can be measured by out with clinical sample, the use of non-clinical sample in this study is
SEI. As CTI is different from these measurements in terms of systematic considered as a source of statistical differences. Psychometric properties
evaluation of the cognitive triad structure, it was suggested that the use of the inventory may differ by a clinical sample. As in the original study, it
of CTI in depression studies will give better results (12). In this study, is recommended to carry out future studies related to the cognitive triad
instead of the CEQ (Cognitive Error Questionnaire) used in the German with individuals with depression. In addition, it is thought that the use of
version of CTI, the DAS was used. The correlation between DAS and the clinical sample together with the non-clinical sample will provide a
CTI was similar to the relationship between CEQ and CTI in German comparison and more comprehensive information.
adaptation (13).

37
Erarslan and Işıklı, Cognitive Triad Inventory Arch Neuropsychiatry 2019;56:32−39

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is important for getting more accurate findings.
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Inventory and various psychological structures (such as personality traits, positive cognitive triad. J Couns Psychol 2011;58:610–617. [CrossRef]
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adapted scale does not measure depression in all dimensions. As the ve otomatik düşünce biçimi arasındaki ilişki. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim
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our literature. Evaluation of the validity and reliability of the scale in a 21. Seber G, Dilbaz N, Kaptanoğlu C, Tekin D. Umutsuzluk ölçeği: geçerlilik ve
larger sample with different cultural characteristics may contribute to güvenirliği. Kriz Derg 1993;1:139–142.
the development of the scale. Investigating the relationship between 22. Durak A. Beck umutsuzluk ölçeğinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Türk
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Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed. Attitude Scale: A preliminary investigation. ERIC Collection; 1978.
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be avoided and guidelines for improving test adaptation practices. J Assoc
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Test Pub 1999;1:1–13.
Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest was declared by the authors. 29. Savaşır, I. Ölçek uyarlamasındaki sorunlar ve bazı çözüm yolları. Türk Psikoloji
Derg 1994;9:27–32.
Financial Disclosure: No financial support.
30. Nunnally JC, Bernstein IH. Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-
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