Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9

DOI 10.1007/s12671-011-0072-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

The Turkish Version of Mindful Attention Awareness Scale:

Preliminary Findings
Pelin Devrim Catak

Published online: 23 September 2011

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Abstract The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale Keywords Mindfulness . MAAS . Well-being . Experiential
(MAAS) is the most frequently utilized self-report measure avoidance . Suppression . Impulsivity
of mindfulness. The present study sought to investigate the
psychometric properties of MAAS among non-clinical
Turkish participants as well as to explore the relationships Introduction
between mindfulness and well-being, experiential avoid-
ance, cognitive reappraisal, and impulsivity. One hundred Mindfulness originates from Buddhist insight practices and
participants from two samples were recruited for the study. it refers to a state of mind which can be cultivated by
After the translation of MAAS into Turkish, a test battery practicing mindfulness meditation. While mindfulness is
including MAAS Turkish form, a demographic information rooted in eastern spritual traditions, continuous efforts to
form, General Health Questionnaire, Emotion Regulation operationalize mindfulness as a psychological process are
Questionnaire, White Bear Suppression Inventory, and also present (Bishop et al. 2004; Shapiro et al. 2006).
MMPI Impulsivity Subscale was administered to partic- Recent conceptualizations define mindfulness as the aware-
ipants. After a 3-week interval, the second administration of ness of the present experience with acceptance (Germer et
MAAS was carried out in the same samples. Cronbach’s al. 2005). According to another definition, mindfulness is
alpha method was used to determine the internal the awareness of the present moment experiences which
consistency and Pearson correlation was utilized to emerges through paying attention on purpose and non-
assess test–retest reliability of the scale while factor judgmentally (Kabat-Zinn 2003). The presence of these
analysis was employed to investigate the internal different definitions suggests that mindfulness is a multidi-
structure of the scale. The relations between mindful- mensional construct, and each definition emphasizes some
ness and convergent measures were examined using dimensions more strongly than the others.
Pearson correlation. The study provided preliminary A number of different self-report instruments have
results indicating that the Turkish version of MAAS been developed for the assessment of mindfulness
possesses good psychometric qualities. The single factor (Baer et al. 2004; Brown and Ryan 2003; Walach et al.
structure of the original scale was confirmed. Significant 2006). Structural qualities of these self-report measures
relationships in the expected directions were found between vary to the extent that conceptual approaches to mind-
mindfulness and well-being, experiential avoidance, and fulness differ. For example, according to Walach et al.
impulsivity. The Turkish version of MAAS is an internally (2006), although nonjudgment, acceptance, or insight
consistent and temporally reliable assessment tool for mea- reflects different facets of mindfulness, these facets are
suring mindfulness in Turkish population. highly interrelated, thus dividing mindfulness into its
components may not be useful. Therefore, Walach et al.
(2006) developed Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory which
P. D. Catak (*)
507 M Blok D:17 Mimaroba,
assesses mindfulness as a unidimensional construct.
Istanbul, Turkey Based on different formulations of mindfulness, multidi-
e-mail: [email protected] mensional measures of mindfulness have also been
2 Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9

developed (Baer et al. 2004; Cardaciotto et al. 2008; Lau culture. If the Turkish MAAS would display similar
et al. 2006). psychometric characteristics, then the universality of the
The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale is a commonly mindfulness construct would able to be supported.
used unidimensional measure of mindfulness developed by Mindfulness as measured by MAAS has been found
Brown and Ryan (2003). Brown and Ryan (2003) define inversely related to many measures of psychopathology,
mindfulness as the open or receptive attention to and and positively related to measures of well-being. Brown
awareness of present events and experience. This enhanced and Ryan (2003) have found that higher MAAS scores
form of attention is uniquely oriented to present moment were related to lower levels of depression, anxiety, negative
and promotes a sustained consciousness of internal or affectivity and higher levels of positive affectivity, vitality,
external experiences. According to their conceptualization, life satisfaction, self-esteem, optimism, and self-actualization.
mindfulness is the opposite of being on “automatic pilot” The scale has demonstrated convergent and discriminant
which is a state of mind where thoughts, emotions, and validity with various psychological constructs like well-being,
sensations are experienced without much awareness (Segal experiential avoidance, emotion regulation, and impulsivity
et al. 2002). Accordingly, mindfulness can be measured by (Baer et al. 2006; Brown and Ryan 2003). Therefore, another
assessing to what degree one can be mindfull with regard to aim of the present study was to examine the relationships
one’s daily activities. Mindful Attention Awareness Scale between mindfulness as measured by MAAS and other
(MAAS) includes items like “I rush through activities related psychological constructs.
without being really attentive to them.”, or “I find it
difficult to stay focused on what’s happening in the
present.” These statements give descriptions of “mindless- Methods
ness” in which the mind is on autopilot and internal and
external experiences occur without intentional attention Participants
being paid to them.
MAAS has been validated in different populations and Two adult samples consisting a total of 100 participants
demonstrated to possess good psychometric qualities were chosen for the present study. The ethnic background
(Carlson and Brown 2005; Jerman et al. 2009; MacKillop of all participants was Caucasian. The first sample
and Anderson 2007; Michalak et al. 2008). Previous studies consisted of elementary school teachers which constituted
examining the psychometric properties of the MAAS tend 74% of the participants. The second sample which
to be based on western populations. In a recent study by constituted the 26% of the sample consisted of white collar
Ghorbani et al. (2009), the psychometric properties of municipal employees who worked as architects, engineers,
MAAS was examined in a non-Western population using and lawyers. The mean age of the participants was 36.1
an Iranian sample, and the findings of this study provided (SD=9.06), and the ages of the participants varied between
evidence regarding the cross-cultural assessment of mind- 23 and 64. 49% of the whole sample consisted of women.
fulness. The main difference betweeen aformentioned Other demographic characteristics of the participants are
Western and non-Western cultures may be their differential shown in Table 1.
emphasis on individualism and collectionism. Individual-
ism and collectivism has been conceptualized as different
“syndromes” which have implications for the attitutes, Table 1 Characteristics of the sample (N=100)
beliefs, or self-definitions of individuals constituting the
Characteristics N %
societies (Triandis 1993). Mindfulness stems from Buddhist
thought, where the path to the end of the suffering involves Gender
the individuals’ self-transcendence. This path is achieved Female 49 49
through continuous performance of various contemplative Male 51 51
practices (i.e., mindfulness meditation) in which the Marital status
experiences of the self are the main focus of the practice. Married 52 52.5
The self-focus included in mindfulness may have more Single 47 47.5
overlapping implications with individualism in which the Level of education
centrality of the autonomous individual is emphasized High school graduate 3 3.1
(Triandis 1993). However, the findings of Ghorbani et al. College graduate 95 96.9
(2009) suggest that mindfulness as measured by MAAS Workplace
shows a pattern of measurement invariance. Therefore, one Elementary school 74 74
aim of the present study was to investigate the psychomet- Municipality 26 26
ric properties of MAAS in a non-Western collectivist
Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9 3

Measures and Variables reduce the awareness of unwanted subjective experiences

like thoughts, emotions or bodily sensations. Thought
MAAS The original Mindful Attention and Awareness suppression is a cognitive form of experiential avoidance
Scale consist of 15 items which are rated on a six-point which involves cognitive efforts aimed at reducing the
Likert scale from 1 (almost always) to 6 (always never). awareness of unpleasant thoughts by trying to suppress
The total score of the MAAS is obtained by calculating the them. Expressive suppression (Gross 1998) which involves
mean of the responses from the 15 items. Higher scores on the suppression of the expressive aspects of emotional
the scale suggest higher levels of mindfulness. Good experience, has also been associated with experiential
internal consistency was found for the original MAAS in avoidance (Feldner et al. 2003; Karekla et al. 2004). In
a student sample (α=0.82, n=327) and in a general adult mindfulness emotional experiences as well as thoughts, are
sample (α=0.87, n=239). Test–retest reliability of the observed as the impermanent events of subjective experi-
MAAS was also good (r=0.81; Brown and Ryan 2003). ence, and allowed to come and go. Therefore we predicted
that mindfulness would be negatively correlated with both
General Health Questionnaire 12-item Version (GHQ-12), forms of experiential avoidance. Thought suppression was
Well-being It has been suggested that mindfulness is a key measured by 15-item White Bear Suppression Inventory
component of subjective well-being and mindfulness which was designed to measure the tendency to suppress
promotes well-being and positive affectivity in a direct thoughts (Wegner and Zanakos 1994). The original form of
way (Brown and Ryan 2003) and MAAS has been WBSI has good internal consistency (α=0.89) and ade-
validated as an appropriate measurement tool for examining quate test–retest correlation (r=0.80). The psychometric
the relationship between mindfulness and well-being properties of Turkish version of WBSI employed in the
(Carlson and Brown 2005). In an undergraduate sample, present study are also good (α=0.92, r=0.92, Ağargün et
Howell et al. (2008) found that mindfulness was a direct al. 2004). Expressive suppression was measured by four-
predictor of well-being. On the basis of these findings, we item Suppression subscale of Emotion Regulation Ques-
predicted that higher levels of mindfulness as measured by tionnaire (ERQ, Gross and John 2003) which assesses the
MAAS would be associated with better subjective well- tendency to suppress expressive features of emotional
being. In the present study, 12-item GHQ (Goldberg 1972) experiences. The original Supression subscale of ERQ has
was used to measure well-being. GHQ-12 is a frequently good internal consistency (α=0.82). The internal consis-
used measure of general subjective well-being and higher tency of the Turkish version of the Suppression subscale of
scores on GHQ-12 suggests the probability of psycholog- ERQ which was employed in the present study is also high
ical disturbance. The Turkish version of GHQ-12 used in (α=0.93, Yurtsever 2008).
the present study possesses good internal consistency (α=
0.78) and good test–retest reliability (r=0.84, Kılıç 1996). The Reappraisal Subscale of the Emotion Regulation
Questionnaire, Reappraisal Mindfulness is associated with
MMPI Impulsivity Scale, Impulsivity It has been proposed the cultivation of cognitive reappraisal which is an adaptive
that by providing heightened awareness and acceptance form of emotional regulation (Gross and John 2003; Mauss
mindfulness decreases impulsive reactions (Witkiewitz et et al. 2007; Ray et al. 2010). It has been suggested that
al. 2005). Through cultivation of mindfulness, impulsive mindfulness facilitates the reappraisal of emotional cues
internal experiences are observed without being reacted and promotes adaptive regulation of emotions (Linehan et
upon and impulsive reactions diminish as they are allowed al. 2007). The results of a recent study have yielded that
to let go. Therefore, we predicted that mindfulness as increases in mindfulness was associated with appraisal
measured by MAAS would be associated with lower levels change (Garland et al. 2009). On the basis of these findings,
of impulsivity. The 21-item Minnesota Multiphasic Person- we predicted that mindfulness as measured by MAAS
ality Inventory (MMPI)-Impulsivity adapted from MMPI would be positively correlated with cognitive reappraisal. In
by Gough in 1957 was used to assess impulsivity. The the present study, cognitive reappraisal was measured by
Turkish version of the scale used in the present study has the Turkish version of Reappraisal Subscale of Emotion
been validated in Turkish population and showed to posses Regulation Questionnaire (Gross and John 2003). The
adequate internal consistency (α=0.73; Batıgün and Şahin six-item Reappraisal subscale of ERQ assesses the ability
2003). to regulate emotions by changing the appraisals of
emotional experiences. The Cronbach alphas for the
White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI) and the original subscale and the Turkish version are α=0.84
Suppression Subscale of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and α=0.89 respectively indicating good internal consis-
Experiential Avoidance Experiential avoidance (Hayes et al. tency for both versions of the scale (Gross and John 2003;
1996) refers to implicit or explicit avoidance attempts to Yurtsever 2008).
4 Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9

Procedure did not attend had taken leave of absence for personal
reasons. Prior to the administration of research forms, all
Prior to the beginning of the study, the first author of the subjects submitted written consent of participation on
development study of the original Mindful Attention voluntary basis. The research forms were administered by
Awareness Scale was contacted via e-mail and his consent the author herself, and following the completion of the
was taken regarding the adaptation of the original scale into battery tests, the research forms were collected from the
Turkish. The scale then was translated into Turkish participants. The test battery consisted of a short demo-
independently by two clinical psychologists and a psychi- graphic form, MAAS, and questionnaires measuring the
atrist. Later, independent translations were assessed jointly variables in question with regard to their relations with
by the same professionals according to the accuracy, clarity, mindfulness. The participants were expected to use aliases
and comprehensibility of the translation. After a mutual and were not expected to specify their names on the
agreement was reached on the translation of the items, an questionnaires. Following the completion of the battery
independent board of three mental health professionals tests, the research forms were collected from the partic-
assessed the translation according to the accuracy between ipants. By the help of municipal officials and Prevention of
the English and Turkish forms of the scale. With respect to Abseentism Project supervisor, the subjects from both
recommendations, appropriate corrections were made in the samples were contacted via e-mail for the second admin-
translation of the items and a final version of the scale was istration of MAAS and expected to be present in the same
formed. group settings. Three weeks after the initial completion of
The first sample constituted of elementary school research forms, second administration of MAAS was
teachers who had participated into a project related to carried out in the same samples. The second battery test
preventing absenteeism in elementary schools in Turkey. consisted of MAAS only. The MAAS forms were admin-
The project has been supervised by one of the colleagues of istered by the author herself and were collected after
the author, who accepted to offer help for the recruitment of completion.
the subjects. An invitation for participation to this study
was made during project meetings, and the teachers who Statistical Analysis
indicated their wish to participate were recruited as
subjects. The subjects were asked for their presence on Prior to statistical analysis, continuous and noncontinuous
the date determined for the administration of the forms, and variables were examined for their skewness, kurtosis, and
74 teachers attended to the group setting where the forms missing data. Educational level was negatively skewed due to
were administered by the author herself. Prior to adminis- relatively higher educational background of the present
tration of research forms, the subjects submitted written samples. All other demographic variables were normally
consent indicating that their participation into the study was distributed. Continuous variables were not skewed and met
on voluntary basis. After the completion of the battery tests, the assumptions of normality. Out of 7,300 answers given to
the research forms were collected from the participants. The 73 questions by 100 participants, 129 answers were missing
second sample constituted of the employees of the which constituted 1.77% of the complete data. Limited
municipality which governed the district where the author missing data from the continuous variables were assumed to
herself resided. The officials of the municipality were be at random, and the expectation–maximization algorithm
contacted by the author along with a petition indicating a was employed for the generation of missing data from MAAS
request of assistance for the recruitment of the subjects. items using SPSS Missing Value Analysis software. The data
After one and a half month, the municipality officials then were analyzed using factor analysis, one-way ANOVA,
contacted the author stating their affirmative response for correlational analysis, reliability analysis, and t test.
assistance. Later, the municipality officials were contacted
in person, and the procedure of recruitment was discussed.
Following this discussion, the officials made a written Results
announcement to four directorates of the municipality about
participation to the study and requested that the voluntary The mean score of the whole MAAS was 4.1 (SD=0.77),
employees indicate their names to the Human Resources and the means of the items varied between 3.43 (SD=1.40)
(HR) department. Thirty employees applied to HR depart- and 4.87 (SD=1.32). Means and standard deviations of
ment, and those who applied were asked to attend to MAAS items are presented in Table 2. An independent
administration procedure, which was going to be held in the samples t test was calculated to assess whether the scores
conference hall in 1 week. On the day of administration, 26 obtained by the MAAS varied according to gender. No
employees were present at the conference hall. HR significant differences were found between the MAAS
department officials stated that the four employees who scores of men and women indicating that measured
Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9 5

Table 2 Means and standard deviations for Turkish version of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (N=100)

No. Items M SD

1 Bazı duygular yaşıyor ve bir süre bunun farkına varmamış olabiliyorum. 4.28 1.38
I could be experiencing some emotion and not be conscious of it until sometime later.
2 İtina etmediğimden, dikkatsizlikten ya da o sırada başka bir şey düşündüğümden eşyaları kırdığım ya da etrafa saçtığım olur. 4.69 1.30
I break or spill things because of carelessness, not paying attention, or thinking of something else.
3 Bir şey olurken, o anda olanlara odaklanmakta güçlük çekerim. 4.22 1.20
I find it difficult to stay focused on what’s happening in the present.
4 Gideceğim yere, yol boyunca yaşadıklarıma dikkat etmeden, hızlıca yürümeye meyilliyimdir. 3.43 1.40
I tend to walk quickly to get where I’m going without paying attention to what I experience along the way.
5 Gerçekten dikkatimi çekmediği sürece, fiziksel gerginlik veya rahatsızlık hislerinin farkına varmam. 3.80 1.35
I tend not to notice feelings of physical tension or discomfort until they really grab my attention.
6 Birinin adını neredeyse bana ilk söylendiği anda unuturum. 3.84 1.38
I forget a person’s name almost as soon as I’ve been told it for the first time.
7 Ne yaptığımın pek farkında olmadan otomatik yaşıyor gibiyim. 4.40 1.23
It seems I am “running on automatic” without much awareness of what I’m doing.
8 Ne yaptığımın farkında olmadan günlük işlere koştururum. 4.17 1.29
I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.
9 Başarmak istediğim hedefe öyle odaklanırım ki, ona ulaşmak için o an ne yaptığımın farkına bile varmam. 4.11 1.33
I get so focused on the goal I want to achieve that I lose touch with what I am doing right now to get there.
10 İşleri veya görevleri, otomatik olarak, ne yaptığımın farkına varmadan yaparım. 4.38 1.40
I do jobs or tasks automatically, without being aware of what I’m doing.
11 Kendimi, bir kulağımla karşımdakini dinleyip, aynı anda başka bir şey yaparken bulurum. 3.86 1.36
I find myself listening to someone with one ear, doing something else at the same time.
12 Arabayı bir yerlere otomatik pilotta gibi sürer, sonra oraya neden gittiğime şaşırırım. 4.87 1.32
I drive places on “automatic pilot” and then wonder why I went there.
13 Kendimi, gelecek ya da geçmişle uğraşırken bulurum. 3.52 1.42
I find myself preoccupied with the future or the past.
14 Kendimi dikkatimi vermeden bir şeyler yaparken bulurum. 4.24 1.28
I find myself doing things without paying attention.
15 Ne yediğimin farkında olmadan atıştırırım. 4.68 1.39
I snack without being aware that I’m eating.

Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, Brown and Ryan 2003

mindfulness levels were independent of gender. To assess it was 0.78 for the second half which consisted of seven
whether MAAS scores varied according to age, we items. The corrected item–total coefficients varied between
conducted a between-subjects ANOVA on MAAS scores 0.17 and 0.64. The item deleted Cronbach’s alpha values,
with different age groups as independent variables (<25, and corrected item–total coefficients are presented in
26–40, 41–55, and 55<). Although the participants aged Table 3.
between 41 and 55 tend to have higher mean MAAS The internal structure of the MAAS was examined first
scores. This difference did not reach statistical significance, by exploratory factor analysis using maximum likelihood
and no significant differences were found between the method and promax rotation. Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin index
MAAS scores of different age groups indicating that was 0.78, which indicated that the data were suitable for
mindfulness levels assessed by MAAS were independent factor analysis. The results of the initial analysis yielded six
of age. factors with eigenvalues over 1 explaining 60.7% of the
variance. The first factor had an eigenvalue of 5.04 and
Internal consistency and factor structure explained 33% of the variance. Subsequent five factors had
eigenvalues between 1.01 and 1.60. Items 6, 7, and 8 loaded
The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and split-half reliability on first factor, items 10, 12, 14, and 15 loaded on second
were calculated to examine the internal consistency of factor, items 2, 3, 4, and 5 loaded on the third factor, items
MAAS. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the whole scale 11 and 13 loaded on the fourth factor, item 1 loaded on fifth
was 0.85. The Guttman split-half reliability for the whole factor, and item 9 loaded on the sixth factor. Then, the item
scale was 0.70. The first half, which consisted of eight groupings examined for their content. It was seen that
items, had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.79, whereas clustering of the items under factors did not follow a
6 Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9

Table 3 Item deleted

Cronbach’s alpha values, factor Item no. CD F IC Relationships between mindfulness and other related
loadings, and item–total corre- constructs
lations for the Turkish version 1 0.85 0.48 0.39
of the Mindful Attention 2 0.84 0.54 0.54 Correlations between MAAS scores and other psycholog-
Awareness Scale (N=100) 3 0.84 0.56 0.63 ical constructs are presented in Table 4. All correlations
4 0.84 0.40 0.52 were significant in expected directions except reappraisal
5 0.85 0.36 0.39 which was uncorrelated with MAAS scores. As predicted,
6 0.86 0.21 0.17 the MAAS scores significantly negatively correlated with
7 0.83 0.73 0.63 scores on GHQ-12 suggesting that higher levels of
8 0.83 0.71 0.62 mindfulness is associated with lower levels of psycholog-
9 0.85 0.35 0.39 ical disturbance. MAAS significantly negatively correlated
10 0.84 0.53 0.54 with both measures of experiential avoidance. Both WBSI
11 0.85 0.30 0.37 and ERQ-Suppression scores were significantly negatively
12 0.84 0.39 0.45 correlated with MAAS suggesting that individuals with
13 0.84 0.41 0.49 higher levels of mindfulness also adopt less experientially
CD Cronbach’s alpha if item 14 0.83 0.59 0.64 avoidant strategies. Impulsivity scores were significantly
was deleted, F factor loading, IC 15 0.84 0.49 0.55 negatively correlated with MAAS suggesting that more
item total correlation
mindful individuals also tend to act less impulsively.

meaningful and coherent pattern, and separate factors could Discussion

not be identified based on an analysis of content. According
to Zwick and Velicer (1986), using the Kaiser–Guttman The present study aimed to investigate the psychometric
criteria while determining the factors to retain may lead to properties of the MAAS in Turkish population and explore
the overestimation of the factors. Previous studies examin- the relationships of mindfulness with other related psycho-
ing the psychometric properties of MAAS have consistently logical constructs. The results showed that the Turkish
reported a unidimensional structure (Carlson and Brown version of MAAS possesses good psychometric qualities.
2005; MacKillop and Anderson 2007; Jerman et al. 2009). Mean MAAS scores obtained in the present study was
Therefore, at the second step, a confirmatory factor analytic comparable to previous studies (Brown and Kasser 2005;
procedure was employed by using maximum likelihood MacKillop and Anderson 2007; Schroevers et al. 2008).
method with promax rotation and setting the number of Also, consistent with previous studies, no gender differ-
factors to be extracted to 1. At the end of this procedure, the ences were found between the total MAAS scores for men
factor loadings of all items on a single factor were 0.30 and
above, except for item 6. The relatively lower factor
loading found for item 6 is consistent with previous studies, Table 4 The relationships between mindfulness, well-being, impulsivity,
which reported similar pattern for this item (MacKillop and reappraisal, and experiential avoidance (N=100)
Anderson 2007; Jerman et al. 2009). On the basis of the Variable Mindfulness (MAAS)
consistent pattern of item 6 and adequate to high factor
loadings found in the present analysis for other items, we Well-being
decided to retain the single factor structure of MAAS. GHQ-12 −.43a
Factor loadings of items are presented in Table 3. Impulsivity
MMPI-Impulsivity −.43a
Test–retest reliability Cognitive reappraisal
ERQ-R 0.04
To assess test–retest reliability, a second administration of Experiential avoidance
MAAS was carried out in the same sample after a 3-week ERQ-S −.35a
interval. Data from 22 participants (22%) could not be WBSI −.37a
obtained due to unwillingness of the participants to complete
a
the questionnaire or a mismatch between the aliases that were Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed)
used by the participants during the first and the second GHQ-12 General Health Questionnaire 12-item version, MMPI
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, ERQ-S Emotion Regu-
administrations of the scale. Pearson correlation was calcu-
lation Questionnaire-Suppression Subscale, WBSI White Bear Sup-
lated using the data from 78 participants. The retest pression Inventory; ERQ-R Emotion Regulation Questionnaire-
coefficient for the total scale was 0.83 (p<0.001). Reappraisal Subscale
Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9 7

and women. Internal consistency and split-half reliability different experientially avoidant strategies still need further
analysis showed that the Turkish version of MAAS has investigation.
good internal consistency and the results of the analysis We had predicted that mindfulness would be negatively
were comparable to previous studies that investigated the correlated with impulsivity and this prediction was sup-
psychometric properties of the scale in different populations ported. MAAS-measured mindfulness had a significant
(Jerman et al. 2009; MacKillop and Anderson 2007). Test– negative correlation with impulsivity. Some mindfulness-
retest coefficients indicated that Turkish MAAS possesses based therapy approaches target specific disorders charac-
good test–retest reliability and thus the temporal reliability terized by impulsive behaviors like substance abuse
of the scale was confirmed. disorders or borderline personality disorder (Linehan
The Turkish version of the MAAS has demonstrated a 1993; Witkiewitz et al. 2005). Results of these interventions
single factor structure and the unidimensional structure of indicate the benefits of mindfulness in reducing impulsive
the original MAAS reported by Brown and Ryan (2003) behaviors (Bowen et al. 2009; Van den Bosch et al. 2005)
was, thus confirmed. Items 7, 8, and 14 had the highest and the present findings also add further support to the
factor loadings and this pattern was in line with previous contributing role of mindfulness training in the alleviation
studies which reported relatively higher loadings for these of impulsivity.
items (Jerman et al. 2009; MacKillop and Anderson 2007). Contradictory to the predictions, the relationship be-
Item 6 had the lowest factor loading and internal consis- tween mindfulness as measured by MAAS and cognitive
tency of the whole scale increased when this item was reappraisal was nonsignificant. One possible explanation
deleted. Item 6 describes being forgetful with regard to for this unanticipated finding might stem from the theoret-
daily communication thus the content of this item might ical basis of MAAS. According to Brown and Ryan (2003),
reflect a reduced retrieval capacity of memory, rather than only present-centered attention and awareness are funda-
an inability direct attention to present moment experiences. mental to mindfulness. Therefore, the items of MAAS
Examination of the relationship between this item and other reflect these fundamental aspects of mindfulness, and other
measures of memory retrieval may provide clarification to proposed qualities of mindfulness such as acceptance or
this issue. nonjudgment (Baer et al. 2006) are not included in MAAS
Predictions regarding the relationships of mindfulness with as dimensions. Acceptance and nonjudgment are reflective
other related psychological constructs were largely supported. qualities of mindfulness which involve shifts in preconcep-
Higher mindfulness as measured by MAAS had a significant tions; therefore these facets of mindfulness might be more
relationship with well-being. This finding is consistent with strongly related with cognitive reappraisal. Another reason
previous studies that have reported similar findings regarding for this unexpected finding may be related with the quality
the relationship between mindfulness and increased well- of reappraisal measured in the present study. Results of the
being (Carlson and Brown 2005; Nyklíček and Kuijpers previous studies had demonstrated that mindfulness is
2008). Taken together with the previous findings, present associated with a certain type of reappraisal namely positive
results suggest that increased awareness resulting from reappraisal which involves giving positive meanings to
focusing attention to daily actions as well as internal events (Walach et al. 2008; Garland et al. 2009). The
experiences such as emotions, thoughts, or bodily sensations reappraisal measured in the present study reflected the
has an incremental effect on well-being. ability to reconstrue an emotion eliciting experience but not
We found support for the prediction regarding the necessarily in a way to reach to a positive inference.
relationship between mindfulness and experiential avoid- Therefore, the unique relationship between mindfulness and
ance. Mindfulness as measured by MAAS was significantly positive reappraisal might explain the null finding in the
negatively correlated with experiential avoidance. Although study.
the magnitude of the correlations was not high, the strength Some limitations of the study should also be noted. One
of the correlations was comparable to previous findings limitation of the study is the relatively smaller sample size
which have demonstrated negative correlations with similar which might reduce the statistical power of the present
magnitudes between measures of experiential avoidance findings. Also present results are based on non-clinical
and mindfulness as measured by MAAS (Baer et al. 2006). participants. The nature or the strength of the relationships
Together with previous findings present results provide between mindfulness and other psychological or pyschopa-
further support for beneficial effects of mindfulness in thological constructs explored in the present research may
reducing experiential avoidance. It must be noted that reveal different patterns in clinical populations. Therefore,
experiential avoidance embodies different avoidance strat- the replication of the present findings in larger samples, and
egies on cognitive or emotional levels and the present also in clinical populations, is warranted. Another limitation
findings are limited to thought suppression and emotional is the cross-sectional nature of the study and thus the
suppression. The relationships between mindfulness and causality of the presented relationships cannot be concluded.
8 Mindfulness (2012) 3:1–9

Future studies that will allow the demonstration of the changes Ghorbani, N., Watson, P. J., & Weathington, B. L. (2009). Mindfulness in
in psychological measures as a function of changes in Iran and the United States: cross-cultural structural complexity and
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mindfulness will be valuable for mindfulness research. Psychology, 28, 211–224. doi:10.1007/s12144-009-9060-3.
In sum, although not without limitations, the results of Goldberg, D. P. (1972). The detection of psychiatric illness by
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