1

Chapter 1
Introduction to soil ecology

Soil organisms are an integral part of agricultural ecosystems. The presence of a

range of soil organisms is essential for the maintenance of healthy productive soils.
An excessive reduction in soil biodiversity, especially the loss of species with unique
functions, may have catastrophic effects, leading to the long-term degradation of soil
and the loss of agricultural productive capacity. As a consequence, more land would
be needed for agricultural production to meet demands.
The overlooking and depletion of the beneficial functions performed by soil
organisms in agricultural ecosystems as a result of inappropriate soil
biological management is contributing to increased rates of land degradation,
nutrient depletion, fertility decline, water scarcity, and yield reductions. All
these factors have a negative impact on the livelihoods of people who
depend directly on agriculture for their subsistence.
One of the main gaps in most agricultural management systems is their
failure to consider the option of managing soil biological processes and, in
particular, using practices that favour the activity of soil macrofauna as a
means to maintain and improve soil fertility. Although not readily visible,
relatively more attention has been placed in research and development on
the functions of soil micro-organisms – both their positive effects on nutrient
cycling and uptake, and the negative effects of soil borne pests, including
nematodes (microfauna), and pathogens.
The main aims of this manual are to provide land users and technical people on
the ground with: (i) an easy-to-use guide to the main activities of soil macrofauna in
agriculture; and (ii) a set of exercises to reveal their activities and importance
through a more ecological view of soils. The focus is placed on the visible soil
organisms as these can be seen and monitored by farmers. Moreover, they also
tend to be representative of soil life as a whole, including the non-visible
components which are more difficult for farmers to learn about and understand.

LAND MANAGEMENT: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

Sufficiency in global food supply is dependent on the intensification of
agriculture. As intensification occurs, chemical and mechanical inputs alter,
and often substitute, the biological regulation of soil processes.
Inadequate soil management is the principal factor behind the worldwide decline
in agricultural productivity. Most modern cropping systems require substantial
regular inputs of nutrients to replace those removed through harvesting and burning
of residues as well as through leaching and erosion. They also
2 Soil macrofauna field manual – technical level

require appropriate tillage and weed management practices to reduce risks of

soil compaction and erosion and weed competition; and increasingly no- or
reduced-tillage practices are being promoted. In the same way, continued
grazing in pastoral environments soon leads to soil degradation through nutrient
depletion and compaction unless appropriate legume-grass combinations and
grazing rotations are used. In addition, losses and stresses imposed by chemical
contamination through use of herbicides and pesticides, as well as chemical
imbalances through soil acidification or salinisation may result in impaired soil
biological functioning. Faced with such pressures, soils are a threatened
resource. The maintenance or amelioration of soil fertility is an essential factor in
the development of sustainable and productive agricultural systems in the long-
term. This requires the integration of knowledge of biological processes into the
design of land-management systems (Lavelle and Spain, 2001).
Many systems of agricultural management are not sustainable in the longer
term because of the pressures they place on the soil. Production levels may
frequently be set on the basis of economic goals rather than the capacity of the
soil to withstand particular stresses. Conversely greater attention in agricultural
systems to managing the soil biological processes, through providing a beneficial
environment for soil macrofauna, can restore soil health and improve soil fertility.

Factors in soil formation and functioning and their effects at different levels
Soil formation depends on five main factors: climate; parent material;
topography; and time; as well as living organisms (see Figure 1). With the
exception of time, the soil-forming factors are considered as interdependent
with multiple feedback effects occurring between them (Chesworth, 1992).
Furthermore, a hierarchy exists with climate playing a dominant role over
parent materials and topography.
The soil-forming factors operate
wherever soil and soil-forming
FIGURE 1
Hierarchy of determinants of soil processes that
materials occur, although their
provide ecosystem services relative influences differ between
soils and with location on the earth’s
Climate Scale surface. The soil-forming factors do
2' not influence the soil directly but act
1 000s of years, km
Clay + nutrients
through the medium of soil
100s of years, ha
processes. These processes act in
Vegetation and potentially different combinations in
resource quality each environment. Their many
2'
Years. 10 m
combinations and degrees of
Macro-organisms expression are reflected in the wide
3'
Micro-Organisms Days, mm
Biological interactions
diversity of soils found on the
surface of the earth (Lavelle and
Soil processes Spain, 2001).
Source: after Lavelle et al. (1993).
Chapter 1 – Introduction to soil ecology 3

Climate
The regional climate is the dominant factor affecting the formation of all soils
(Birkeland, 1984). It interacts with and conditions the effects of the other factors in
determining the biota that can survive in particular environments and the seasonality
of its activities. Through its control of temperature and moisture regimes, climate
determines the phase of the soil water and the intensity of water fluxes. It thereby
controls the transport of solid particles and dissolved materials within developing
soils, over their surfaces and laterally in the landscape.

Parent material
Parent material is the basic inorganic material from which the soil is formed.
Depending on its physical, chemical and mineralogical composition, it will have a
strong influence on the composition and texture of the resulting soil. The type of
the parent rock affects soil formation (Brewer, 1954; 1964), particularly through:
the amount of clay that can be potentially formed by in situ weathering –
this varies with the nature of the parent rock and intensity of water fluxes
(Macias and Chesworth, 1992);
the amount of alkali, notably sodium (Na) and potassium (K), of alkaline-
earth metals, largely calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), and of iron (Fe)
that can be released by weathering;
the ease of release of the above minerals;
the permeability of the parent rock.

Time
Soils undergo extended and complex series of reactions and processes during
formation from their parent materials. The net effect of these eventually leads to
the differentiation of fully-developed profiles. This occurs at widely variable rates
depending largely on parent materials and environment. In a general way, soils
can be divided into those forming over short cycles and long cycles (Duchaufour,
1982). The short-cycle soils develop over periods ranging from less than 10 3 to
104 years. The long-cycle soils require periods of from 10 5 to 106 years for
development. In any case, the long time necessary for soil formation means that
it can be considered a non-renewable resource.

Organisms
The organisms (or biota) are a major factor in soil formation and their effects
determine many differences between soils. The various soil organisms affect
certain soil processes in different ways, as described in the section on
functional classification in Chapter 2. Soil macrofauna play a particularly
important role in soil aggregation and porosity as a consequence of their
burrowing and mixing activities. This in turn affects the environment (aeration,
soil moisture, etc.) for other soil organisms.
4 Soil macrofauna field manual – technical level

Soil ecosystem
Soils are the part of the earth’s surface, which forms a narrow interface
between the atmosphere and the lithosphere. Soils are made up of water,
gases and mineral matter together with a diverse range of organisms and
materials of biological origin. Organic materials in and on the soil are broken
down and transformed –mainly by soil organisms– into nutrient elements,
which are, in turn taken up by plants and micro-organisms.
Soil organisms are the main mediators of soil functioning at different
scales. These functions can be pictured as having a hierarchical relationship.
Figure 1 illustrates the hierarchical organization of the determinants of soil
processes: climate, soil characteristics – especially the abundance and types
of clays and nutrients – and the quality of the organic materials input (Lavelle
et al., 1993; Beare et al., 1995). The series of factors affecting soil functioning
are determined by both spatial and temporal scales..
Of major importance in ecosystem and soil development and maintenance are
the so-called “ecosystem engineers” – as these species control, either directly or
indirectly, the availability of resources to other species (Jones et al., 1997). These
organisms physically modify, maintain and create new habitats for other organisms.
One effect of such organisms is to create higher habitat diversity, which may in turn
increase species diversity (Lavelle and Spain, 2001). An example of physical
ecological engineers is plant roots that create large voids (spaces) in the soil through
root decay (Jones et al., 1997). Other ecosystem engineers are the termites and
earthworms that play a major role in moving, mixing and aerating the

FIGURE 2
Diagram of a soil food-web

Saprophagous
meso and macro-
Predatory Predatory arthropods
nematodes microarthropods
Saprophagous
microarthropods
Protozoa Bacterial feeding Fungal feeding Fungal feeding
Litter
nematodes nematodes arthropods
transformers

Bacteria Fungi Predatory meso-

and macroarthropods

Resource base
Ants

Termites

Earthworms
Ecosystem
engineers
Source: Adapted from Wardle (2002).
Chapter 1 – Introduction to soil ecology 5

soil through their burrowing. Other organisms including higher plants and animals
also play substantial roles in this respect (see section below on macrofauna).
The functioning of the soil system is also determined by:
the decomposition rates of dead organic materials, and the balance
between mineralization, which releases nutrients available to plants and
microorganisms, and humification, which forms reserves of soil organic
matter (SOM) and colloidal organic compounds;
the degree of synchronization of nutrient release with plant demand;
the soil physical structure, which determines the rates and patterns of gas
exchange, soil water movement into and through the soil, and erosion rates.
The texture of the soil (% of sand, silt and clay) which influences the
activity of soil organisms and hence the soil biological functioning.
Texture is an important characteristic of soil because it influences many aspects
of soil fertility, especially the amount of water held by the soil, its capacity to retain
plant nutrients, and the ability of roots to develop and grow through the soil. Soils
with a high percentage of clay are said to be “heavy” soils and have a capacity to
retain water due to the small pore spaces and high surface tension forces. Soils with
a high percentage of sand are considered “light” soils, and tend to hold very little
water. Water infiltrates rapidly into sandy soils and is readily drained through the
large pores spaces, unless they also contain a lot of organic matter.
This document focuses on the soil macrofauna – the visible soil
organisms, in particular the so-called group of ecosystem engineers, as
illustrated in the bottom right box in Figure 2. It is intended to be used as a
training guide for which a number of practical exercises are provided.
 7

Chapter 2
Soil life and biodiversity

Soil is a still, porous, semi-aquatic medium within which temperature and moisture
conditions are highly buffered. Soils were among the first terrestrial environments to
be colonized because they possess environmental conditions that are intermediate
between aquatic and aerial media (Lavelle and Spain, 2001).
Soil is a large reservoir of biodiversity, often little known. Soil communities are
among the most species-rich compartments of terrestrial ecosystems (Anderson,
1975; Usher et al., 1979; Giller, 1996). It is believed that there are twice as many
species of organisms living in soil than there are in tropical rainforest canopies. Soil
organisms carry out a range of processes that are important for soil health and
fertility in soils of both natural ecosystems and agricultural systems. They perform
and regulate a major proportion of the organic matter transformations and of the
carbon (C) and nutrient fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems (Swift et al., 1979).
The diversity of life in soil, known as soil biodiversity, is an important but
poorly understood component of terrestrial ecosystems. Soil biodiversity is
comprised of the organisms that spend all or a portion of their life cycles
within the soil or on its immediate surface (including surface litter and
decaying logs) (Table 1).
The easiest and most widely used system for classifying soil organisms is
to group them by size into three main groups: macrobiota, mesobiota and
microbiota (Wallwork, 1970; Swift et al., 1979).
Microbiota comprises microorganisms and microfauna. Microorganisms are
the smallest of the soil animals ranging from 20 to 200 μm in length (< 0.1 mm in
diameter). They are extremely abundant and diverse. They include: algae,
bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, yeasts, myxomycetes and actinomycetes that are
able to decompose almost any existing natural material. Microorganisms
transform organic matter into plant nutrients that are assimilated by plants.
Microfauna includes small Collembola and mites, nematodes, and protozoa,
among others, that generally live in the soil-water film and feed on microflora, plant
roots, other microfauna and sometimes larger organisms (e.g. entomopathogenic

TABLE 1
Soil biodiversity: categories and characteristics
Category Characteristics Organisms
Permanent Entire life cycle in the soil Mites, springtails (Collembola), earthworms
Temporal Part of life cycle in the soil Insect larvae
Periodical Frequently enter into the soil Some insects and larvae
Transitory An inactive phase in the soil (egg, pupa and Some insects
hibernation) but not an active period
Accidental Animals fall down or are transported by runoff Insect larvae
8 Soil macrofauna field manual – technical level

nematodes, that feed on insects and other larger

invertebrates). Microfauna form the link between
the primary decomposers (i.e. microorganisms) and
the larger fauna in the detritus food-web in the soil.
They are also important to the release of nutrients
immobilized by soil microorganisms. The main soil
animals in this group are protozoa (Plate 1).
Plate 1 The mesofauna is the next largest group and the
Protozoa.
animals range in size from 200 μm to 10 mm. in
length (0.1–2 mm in diameter). These include mainly
microarthropods (Plate 2), such as pseudoscorpions,
protura, diplura, springtails, mites, small myriapods
(Pauropoda and Symphyla) and the worm-like
enchytraeids. Mesofauna organisms have limited
burrowing ability and generally live within soil
pores, feeding on organic materials, microflora,
microfauna and other invertebrates.
Plate 2 This module focuses specifically on soil
Microarthropods
macrofauna communities. The macrofauna contains
the largest soil invertebrates. Although the term soil
macrofauna is not well defined, for the purposes of this training material it will
be defined at a higher taxonomic level using the broad criterion:
“A soil macrofauna taxon (group) is an invertebrate group found within
terrestrial soil samples which has more than 90 percent of its specimens
(individuals) in such samples visible to the naked eye”
(IBOY workshop 2000).
Soil macrofauna groups include organisms like earthworms, millipedes,
centipedes, ants, Coleoptera (adults and larvae), Isopoda, spiders, slugs,
snails, termites, Dermaptera, Lepidoptera larvae and Diptera larvae (see
photos in the Annexe - Identification Key on Soil Macrofauna).
In terms of their abundance and their soil forming roles, earthworms,
termites and ants are the most important macrofauna components of soils
(Plate 3). Indeed, the importance of their activities has caused them to be
called “ecosystem engineers” (Stork and Eggleton, 1992; Jones et al., 1997).
They burrow and are important in mixing the soil
– known as bioturbation. Macroarthropods and
Mollusca are constant inhabitants of litter and, to a
lesser extent, of soils, but they have generally more
specific ecological roles. Thus, most live in the litter
or in the upper few centimetres of soil;
saprophagous arthropods play a major role in the
breakdown of surface litter.
Plate 3
Earthworm.
Chapter 2 – Soil life and biodiversity 9

Most soil animals occur in the top 30 cm of soil, although some also occur at
depth. Soil animals may move to lower soil layers when conditions at the surface are
harsh. Most soil animals occur in the surface layer because this layer contains the
most food (C and nutrients) in the form of organic matter and other organisms.
In both natural and agricultural systems, soil organisms perform vital
functions in the soil. The interactions among organisms enhance many of
these functions, which are often controlled by the enormous amount of
organisms in soils. These functions range from physical effects, such as the
regulation of soil structure and edaphic (in soil) water regimes, to chemical
and biological processes such as degradation of pollutants, decomposition,
nutrient cycling, greenhouse gas emission, carbon sequestration, plant
protection and growth enhancement or suppression (Table 2).
To reduce the huge complexity of organisms that live in the soil, a division
of soil organisms into functional groups has been proposed.

TABLE 2
Essential functions performed by soil organisms
Functions Organisms involved
Maintenance of soil structure Bioturbating invertebrates and plant roots, mycorrhizae and some other
microorganisms
Regulation of soil hydrological Most bioturbating invertebrates and plant roots
processes
Gas exchange and carbon Mostly microorganisms and plant roots, some C protected in large
sequestration (accumulation in soil) compact biogenic invertebrate aggregates
Soil detoxification Mostly microorganisms
Nutrient cycling Mostly microorganisms and plant roots, some soil and litter feeding
invertebrates
Decomposition of organic matter Various saprophytic and litter-feeding invertebrates (detritivores), fungi,
bacteria, actinomycetes and other microorganisms
Suppression of pests, parasites and Plants, mycorrhizae and other fungi, nematodes, bacteria and various
diseases other microorganisms, Collembola, earthworms, and various predators
Sources of food and medicines Plant roots, various insects (crickets, beetle larvae, ants, termites),
earthworms, vertebrates, microorganisms and their by-products
Symbiotic and asymbiotic relationships Rhizobia, mycorrhizae, actinomycetes, diazotrophic bacteria and various
with plants and their roots other rhizosphere microorganisms, and ants
Plant growth control (positive and Direct effects: plant roots, rhizobia, mycorrhizae, actinomycetes,
negative) pathogens, phytoparasitic nematodes, rhizophagous insects, plant
growth promoting rhizosphere microorganisms, biocontrol agents
10 Soil macrofauna field manual – technical level

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL MACROFAUNA

A functional group consists of a group of organisms that have the same
function and similar impact on soil (Gitay and Noble, 1997). There is no single
classification system because the criteria used to classify soil organisms and
the degree of subdivision applied are a function of the questions being
addressed. A simple classification is proposed here to assist users of this
manual in better understanding the main types of organisms and
subcategories according to their main visual characteristics and functions.
The functions that soil organisms in the macrofauna category carry out depend
largely on the efficiency of their digestive systems (which themselves depend on
their interactions with soil microorganisms, e.g. bacteria) and on the occurrence and
abundance of the biological structures that they produce in the soil. Using these two
criteria, three large functional groups of invertebrates can be distinguished:
micropredators, litter transformers, and ecosystem engineers (Lavelle, 1997).
The micropredator group contains the smallest invertebrates, protozoa and
nematodes. They do not produce organo-mineral structures (Lavelle, 1996,
1997), and their principal effect is to stimulate the mineralization of soil
organic matter (SOM) (Coûteaux et al., 1991; Ingham et al., 1985).
In the litter-transformer group, mesofauna and some macrofauna organisms
are involved in litter decomposition (Lavelle, 1996). When these invertebrates re-
ingest their excretions, which serve as incubators for bacteria (Swift et al., 1979),
they assimilate metabolites liberated by microbial actions.
The “ecological engineers” or “ecosystem engineers” (Jones et al., 1994) are
those organisms that produce physical structures through which they can modify the
availability or accessibility of a resource for other organisms. Among the
innumerable life forms that inhabit soils, only a small number of macroinvertebrates
(earthworms, termites and ants) are distinguished by their capacity to excavate soil
and produce a wide variety of organo-mineral structures, such as excretions, nests,
mounds, macropores, galleries and caverns. Their structures have been described
as “biogenic structures” (Anderson, 1995). Their activities and biogenic structures
can modify the abundance or structure of their communities (Jones et al., 1994,
1997). The functional role of these structures is thought to be important because
they represent sites where certain pedological processes occur: stimulation of
microbial activity; formation of soil structure; SOM dynamics; and exchange of water
and gases (Lavelle, 1997).
Table 2 summarizes these functional groups in relation to the ecosystem
services they provide. Soil organisms contribute to the regulation of several
critical functions in soil:
Decomposition and nutrient cycles, hence organic matter dynamics.
Soil structure: The activities of certain organisms affect soil structure, porosity
and aggregation – especially the “soil engineers” such as worms and termites –
through mixing soil horizons and organic matter and increasing porosity.
Chapter 2 – Soil life and biodiversity 11

Carbon sequestration and gas exchange: The activities of certain

organisms determine the carbon cycle – the rates of carbon
sequestration and greenhouse gases (GHGs).
Soil hydrological processes, in relation to effects on soil structure and
porosity (see above).
Control of pests and diseases: Certain soil organisms can be detrimental
to plant growth, e.g. the buildup of nematodes under certain cropping
practices. However, they can also protect crops from pest and disease
outbreaks through biological control and reduced susceptibility.
Soil detoxification: Soil organisms can also be used to reduce or eliminate
environmental hazards resulting from accumulations of toxic chemicals or
other hazardous wastes. This action is known as bioremediation.
Plant production: Plant roots, through their interactions with other soil
components and symbiotic relationships, especially Rhizobium bacteria
and Mycorrhiza, play a key role in the uptake of nutrients and water, and
contribute to the maintenance of soil porosity and organic matter
content, through their growth and biomass.
The loss of biodiversity is a dramatic manifestation of the poor management
of natural resources (Solbrig, 1992). The biological impoverishment caused by
inappropriate management could affect the continuous dynamic functioning of
ecosystems (Lubchenco et al., 1991). It is important to preserve biodiversity in
order to maintain the integrity of the processes that sustain the ecosystem
services, such as primary productivity, nutrient cycling and consumption of
oxygen (Baskin, 1994). Biodiversity is also important to maintaining resilience
(Spratt, 1997), i.e. the soil capacity to recuperate its initial situation after a natural
or human-induced perturbation. Thus, a system that is functioning properly is
one that will persist despite natural environmental fluctuations (Palmer et al.,
1997). There are plausible arguments for an increase in stability increase in
diversity such as greater numbers of functionally interchangeable species or
species groups, each susceptible to slightly different perturbations, or greater
segregation of species into compartments that interact little if at all. In this
regard, the removal of any species may increase the susceptibility of the system
to the perturbation which may be due to a natural event, such as climatic
variability, or human induced, for example toxicity of an agrochemical or effects
of severe compaction due to repetitive tillage.
The following two exercises, Exercises 1 and 2, are proposed for assisting
farmers, farmer field schools, extension staff and researchers – to recognise and
list the properties of living organisms, to identify functional groups and compare
soils in terms of soil life and soil biological activity. It can be conducted to
diagnose the soil life and health on a specific farm or as a training exercise.
12 Soil macrofauna field manual – technical level

EXERCISE 1: IS THE SOIL A LIVING THING?

(Adapted from: Living Soils Manual (Exercise 20) by W. Settle)

Background
This is a quick introductory exercise. The task is simply to list the basic
characteristics that define living organisms, in contrast to non-living things,
and to determine if soil can be considered a living thing. The second task is to
introduce the concept of a functional group.

Goal
To recognize and list the properties of living organisms.

Time required
15–20 minutes.

Materials
Newsprint, tape and pens.

Procedure
1. Facilitator/trainer to initiate the discussion by asking: “Is the soil a living
or a dead thing?”
2. Participants contribute to making a list of characteristics that uniquely
define living organisms.
3. Discussion on what characteristics of soils suggest that they are “alive”.

Questions to discuss and points to emphasize

1. While the list may be long, it should be emphasized (and included, if not
already listed), the following: (i) feeding; (ii) growth; (iii) breathing (respiration); (iv)
reproduction; (v) elimination of wastes; and (vi) death.
2. Which of these characteristics can be said to be true for soils? While the
soil itself is a composite of both living and non-living things, it nevertheless shares
several characteristics of a living entity. Principally, (i) it breathes, (ii) it needs to be fed,
(iii) it creates waste products, and (iv) in many respects, it can “die” (ask the group if they
know of any examples in which soils have been damaged and degraded to the point of
being “dead”?)
3. How many living organisms are there in the soil? Encourage the group
to list how many organisms they distinguish in the soil.
The amount of living organisms in 1 ha of soil down to 20 cm in depth will
depend on where it is sampled, when and under which land-use practice. Pose
the question: how many kilograms of insects, worms, bacteria and fungi they
believe are in a typical hectare of soil. To date, most participants have seriously
underestimated how much living material exists in the soil (especially bacteria
and fungi). Values will be different for the tropical and temperate zones (and
depend greatly on the amount of organic matter in the soil).
Chapter 2 – Soil life and biodiversity 13

EXERCISE 2: SOIL LIFE AND BIODIVERSITY

Background
The text in the section on soil life and biodiversity should serve trainers as a
basic text for organizing this exercise. This exercise will also be used as the
basis of the section about soil health.

Goals
To put together a list with the name of organisms living in soils in order to
quantify the important soil biodiversity.
To associate them to their functions (beneficial, neutral and harmful). This
should be useful to introducing the concept of functional group and to
identifying key functional groups.

Time required
30 minutes.

Materials
Paper, pens and blackboard.

Procedure
1. Facilitator/trainer to ask trainees to give the names of all the organisms that
they know that live in soil and to make a list putting together all the responses.
2. When the list has been completed, ask if they are they beneficial, harmful or
neutral.
3. Note down the responses beside each name on the list. This should enable the
trainer to divide the original list in three parts: beneficial, harmful and neutral animals,
to include those organisms that can be beneficial and harmful at the same time or
animals difficult to class.
4. Ask: What do the organisms do in the soil? Why they are beneficial, detrimental
or neutral? Participants justify their answers by providing an explanation of what they
do, i.e. the function they perform.
5. Note the responses for every organism in the list in order to reorganize the last
groupings to establish assemblages of functional groups. At this stage, the concept of
functional groups should be introduced.

Questions to discuss and points to emphasize

1. Do you think soil is a rich diverse environment or is it poorer than other environments?
The trainer can give some information about the species richness in soil compared with other
environments and explain how the diversity of organisms is related to the diversity of soil
habitats and resources.
14 Soil macrofauna field manual – technical level

2. Do you think diversity is important to soil? Why? Develop the idea that a
soil with a higher diversity is more likely to function than a poorer soil because: (i) it is
a guarantee that all the activities necessary to soil function will be realized; and (ii)
soil should be able to better resist to external aggressions (natural or human
induced). The trainer could also introduce the idea that diversity is also related to the
existence of a balance between animals through predation and competition that can
protect soil from harmful effects of pests.
3. How do you relate the presence of beneficial or harmful organisms to
the health of the crop or the plants? Examples: nematodes and root damage;
earthworms and aggregates of different size.