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Soil Forming Factor: Human Impacts; Urbanization and Agriculture

ENVL 3432 Soil Science Judith Turk December 5, 2012

2 Soil Forming Factor: Human Impacts; Urbanization and Agriculture Soils undergo processes that determine their organic layer composition, pedogenic processes, pedon layout, horizon designation, moisture, salinity, soil composition, and color (iron and aluminum oxides). They are also derived from an infinite variety of materials that have been subjected to a wide variety of climates. Soil development is influenced by the topography on which soils occur, the plant and animal life for which they support and the amount of time they have been exposed to under these conditions (Factors of soil Formation). These processes that are underwent are the products caused by either one of six of the soil forming factors. The six soil forming factors are climate, time, topography, biota, parent material, and human impacts. All these factors play a specific role in the soil make up and ultimately the formation of the soils. To understand soil forming factors a basic understanding of soil formations and pedogenic processes are key. The definition of soils according to the NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) is the unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the Earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants (NRCS 2006). Soils then are broken up in to vertical sections exposing sets of horizons know as the soil profile. The profile is then further broken up into soil horizons. The horizons are broken up into O, A, E, B, C, and R (soils generally follow that order)(NRCS 2006). After these soils are broken into these sections composition of the soils are next determined and are broken up into four major components mineral matter, organic matter, air and water (NRCS

3 2006). The next sets of soil classifications are physical characteristics such as soil texture, color, bulk density, and structure (NRCS 2006). All of these soil classifications and classes are effected by the soil forming factors. The first five soil forming factors are the bases of human impacts on soils and allows us to understand how large natural processes effect the soil. Humans play a dominant role in the natural soil forming factors. For example humanities impact on technology and fossil fuels emit greenhouse gasses and result in fluctuating climate and temperatures. Also topography has changed with urbanization of native lands and mining that intern flattens the land and disrupts natural flow of water and topography of the land. As humans impact these natural processes the only way to truly know human impacts you first have to know the natural soil formation first. The following soil forming factor definitions are out of Facors of Soil Formation online text. Climate is a major factor in determining the kind of plant and animal life in the soil, determines amount of water available for weathering minerals, transport minerals, and through temperature determines chemical weathering (Factors Soil Formation). Time is required for horizon formation. The longer a soil surface has been exposed to soil forming agents like rain and growing plants, the greater the development of the soil profile (Factors Soil Formation). Topography causes localized changes in moisture and temperature. When rain falls on a landscape, water begins to move downward by the force of gravity, either through the soil or across the surface to a lower elevation (Factors Soil Formation). Biota or Living organisms affect the amount of organic matter in the soil and break up organic material into decomposed minerals (Factors Soil Formation). Parent

4 material refers to organic (such as fresh peat) and mineral material in which soil formation begins (Factors Soil Formation). As the human population increases our effects on the environment and natural resources intern increases. Soils are the bases of life and its with out a doubt human have a large impact on soils and the formations that create soil characteristics. As the population increases we need more land and more food to support humanities existence. Human impacts can be broken down into agricultural effects and urbanization effects as soil forming factors. Both of these factors result in compressed soils, high salinity measurements, poor drainage, and cultivation of soils, loss of bio organisms in and on the soils, and loss of organic layers. With the human population climbing at a steady growth to over seven billion we need more land and more homes. Before these homes and industries immerge native forestlands need to be cleared. This clearing is known as deforestation. Deforestation is the destruction or clearing of forested lands, usually for the purposes of expanding agricultural land or for timber harvesting (Hogan 2010). With the rise in deforestation you are changing the composition and ecological make up of the environment in which the soils are formed. Deforested regions are often subject to accelerated rates of soil erosion, increased surface runoff and sedimentation of streams and rivers, reduced infiltration and ground water recharge (Hogan 2010). Soil erosion and surface runoff can result in destruction of organic layer, and a lack of distinct horizons. With the disruption of vegetation especially on sloped land this can have a large impact on the soil horizons. Once all the vegetation is removed and tree roots become up rooted this loosens the soil and

5 gives a slide like slope for the soil minerals and parent material. This transport of soil layers is called a catena (Weil and Brady 2010). As deforestation continues you will get either a accumulation of a large A horizon at the base of land slopes or what you see in a lot of deforestation catenas a buried horizon. A buried horizon is where you typically have an A horizon on the top layer at the bottom of the slope but since there was rapid erosion down slope a C horizon could form on top and change the horizon designation of the soil (Weil and Brady 2010). Industry and urbanization have a profound impact on soils because soils in natural settings have native formations due to land and vegetation that shape the soils and minerals for which it is characterized. As industry and homes are designed construction workers carry different minerals, soil types, and invasive species of plants and animals (Sandor, Burras, Thompson). This affect of land filling and transportation of nonnative soils results in mixed layers, blended horizons, lack of organic and parent material, and ultimately irregular pedon views. As these horizons become mixed and blended from other soils brought by landfilling and construction a loss of native distinct soils changes. For example you could get a sandy loam filled into an originally dominated clay loam soil. As the layers become disrupted and form irregular patterns from urbanization the morphology is equally altered by the change in topography and natural hydrological cycles. If you look at both of these issues as two separate scenarios you can see the contrast in soil formation. In scenario one you have a turf or synthetic lawn and on the other hand with scenario two you have a lawn that was mowed regularly, fertilized and watered. Each of these scenarios would result in

6 two completely different soil climates. In the turf synthetic lawn you have heattrapping turf that has disrupted permeability and is less dependent on water. This results in a soil with low moisture content and high heat capacity from trapped sunlight. Scenario two you will have a soil that has a high moisture content, low heat capacity, high thermal capacity, and will have chemical input from the fertilizers applied to the lawn (Sandor, Burras, Thompson). This difference in both scenarios shows that human impacts on soils can be as miniscule as the difference between your soils and the neighbors soil next door. Just as you get surface runoff with deforestation you can get the same effect in urban settings when you have impermeable surfaces such as black top, concrete, and synthetic lawns. This runoff occurs because these surfaces are impermeable and water cannot penetrate these areas and instead runs into storm water drains or off into the sides of roads or waterways. Runoff can consist of trash, motor oil, road salts and many more. This runoff of chemicals and human manufactured products changes the chemical and mineral composition of the soils and can have a profound effect on the soil structure. Road salts are one of the major concerns in surface runoff. Road salts (NaCl) are used as deicers for roads to ensure safe travel. Research in the Storm Water journal showed levels of NaCl exceeding 200 mg/l as far as 200 m from roadsides. The EPA has set the Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) for chloride at 250 mg/l in drinking-water supplies (Wegner and Yaggi 2001). It is found that as little as 90 mg/l can cause disruptions in the soil (Wegner and Yaggi 2001). Road salts can disrupt soils by changing soil structure, impeding aeration, and decreasing

7 the soils water holding capacity (Wegner and Yaggi 2001). Salinity in soils are measured by Electrical Conductivity (EC). EC is higher when there is higher salinity in soils. High EC can cause problems such as impeding plant growth and create a higher water holding capacity for soils (Wegner and Yaggi 2001). This effect causes plants or crops to dehydrate and die because their roots can pull enough water out of the soils because the saline content is holding the water too tight due to the rise in soil water holding capacity (Provin and Pitt 2012). With this problem growing in soils all around the country the most common chemical treatment is the use of gypsum to fix saline-sodic or sodic soils (Provin and Pitt 2012). The processes works with the idea that soils contain free carbonates and you can add acids to the soil to form gypsum. This newly formed gypsum will react with the soil to remove the sodium (Provin and Pitt 2012). The processes is said to be slow but can be done in three steps. AS stated in the online article Managing Saline Soils the steps are listed; 1. Treat the surface first, and then continue to the lower depths. 2. Apply an amendment to the soil surface and disk it in. 3. Add 10 to 12 inches of water. When correcting saline soils, you must add enough water to dissolve as well as maintain the calcium concentrations in solution and to move the salts and sodium through the soil (Provin and Pitt 2012). As urbanization continues a need for food also grows larger. Agriculture is a large part of human impact on soil as a soil-forming factor because it directly correlates with the soils. The first part of agriculture is the practices of tillage farming. Tillage has been an important aspect of technological development in the evolution of agriculture, in particular in food production (NRMED 1993). Tilling the

8 soil is a practices that will result in seedbed preparation, water and soil conservation and also control weed growth in the soil by breaking up the roots (NRMED 1993). The effects of soils by tillage have various physical, chemical and biological effects according to the natural resources management and environmental departments these effects can be both beneficial and degrading, depending on how they are implemented (NRMED 1993). The effects of these practices can cause many physical changes in the soil from soil aggregation, temperature, water infiltration and retention (NRMED 1993). Even though tillage of soils results in good crop yield the best use of tillage is to be used as sparingly as you can to produce desired crop yield. Tillage can be broken up into two different practices conservation tillage and conventional tillage (NRMED 1993). Both of these practices have their own perks to them and have a distinct effect on the crop yield, which is ultimately determined by soil quality and mineral content. Conservation tillage is broken up into a no till practice Strip tillage, ridge till, reduced tillage, and mulch tillage (NRMED 1993). These practices are based around the idea of less soil disruption and adding of organic nutrients to the soil to control weeds and produce rich soils. Conventional tillage is broken into two separate practices mechanized tillage which carried out by mechanical plowing and traditional tillage using manual labor, and native tools (NRMED 1993). All of these agricultural techniques are still being implemented to this day and determine crop yield and soil conditions. In conclusion provided by the Natural Resources Management and Environment Department it is said that conservation

9 tillage prevents degradative processes and restores and improves the soil quality and productivity (NRMED 1993). Even though conservation tillage is the best choice for soil quality you still have to match your tillage procedure to the particular site, and the soil type (NRMED 1993). As the practices of conservation tillage are used the theory of this practices is to limit the use of both herbicides and pesticides. According to the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences there is an estimated 4.6 million tons of pesticides sprayed worldwide (Wenjun, FuBin, and Ou 2011). There are also currently about 500 pesticides. The majority of the pesticides used consist of oregano chlorine pesticides, some herbicides and pesticides containing mercury; arsenic and lead are highly poisonous to the environment (Wenjun, FuBin, and Ou 2011). All of these chemicals have a profound effect on soils and their soil forming processes. Pesticides such as DDT which was banned December 31st 1972 (EPA 2012) are still currently persisting and harming soils. In Charlotte Gerbers article Effects of Pesticides on Soil Micro-Organisms she states that the pesticides that are most widely used can kill more than their intended targets. Some of these non intended targets can consist of import microorganisms in the soils (Gerber 2006). These microorganisms that are killed by persistent pesticide use in soils are the same microorganisms that are key contributors to the break down and formation of organic material in the soil that aid plant growth (Gerber 2006). There are other options besides harmful chemical pesticides that will not only provide safe healthy soil but will give back organic material and nutrients to the soils. For example some of these organic pesticides are cayenne pepper spray, soap spray, tobacco powder,

10 pyrethrin, neem, and sapodilla (Gerber 2006). All of these organic pesticides are made of minerals that will keep pests out of your plants but will break down quick enough to avoid chronic toxicity in your soils. This shows that there are alternative decisions to chemical pesticides that can better your soil quality. As soils continue to go through these soil forming processes there will always be forming factors that change the rate, structure, mineral composition, and parent material of the soil. With human impacts being an extra forming factor to the original five soil forming factors (climate, biota, time, parent material, and topography) it plays a profound roll in all of these soil-forming factors. Humans and cultural activity can either decide to benefit or harm the environment around them whether it is in agricultural practices or urban sprawl to support the ever-growing human population. Soil is no exception to humanities impact on the environment. Improvements in soil qualities can be reached by decreasing chemical pesticide use, practicing conservation farming, refrain from clear-cut deforestation, and have a more conscious mind of how humanity affects the soil forming process. As far as the population continues to grow and the demand for food continues human impacts will always be a dominant soil-forming factor that will contribute to the characteristics of a soil that is affected by humans.

11 References

Brady, Nyle. Weil, Ray. 2010. Elements Of The Nature and Properties Of Soils. 3rd ed. NJ: Pearson Education Inc. DDT Ban Takes Effect. 2012. EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved Nov 18, 2012 (http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.html) Factors Of Soil Formation Retrieved Nov. 18, 2012 (http://faculty.msmary.edu/ envirothon/current/guide/factors_of_soil_formation.htm) Gerber, Charlotte. 2006. Effects of Pesticides on Soil Micro-Organisms. Love to know Garden. Retrieved Nov 20 2012 (http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki /Effects_of_Pesticides_on_Soil_Micro-Organism) Hogan, Michael. 2010, The Encyclopedia of Earth. Biomes: Deforestation. http://www.eoearth.org/members/ (Retrieved 2012) Provin, Tony and Pitt, J.L. 2012. Managing Soil Salinity. Agri Life Extension E-60:701. Sandor, Jonathan. Burras, Lee. Thompson, Michael. Human Impacts on Soil Formation. Soils- Fundamental Concepts. 2006. NRCS Soil: Fundamental Concepts. Retrieved Nov. 12, 2012 (http://urbanext.illinois.edu/soil/concepts/concepts.pdf ) Soil Quality Indicators. 2011. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved Nov. 17,2012 (http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/assessment/files/ EC_sq_chemical_indicator_sheet.pdf) Soil Tillage in Africa: Needs and Challenges. 1993. Natural Resources Management and Environmental Departments. Retrieved Nov. 18, 2012 (http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1696e/t1696e08.htm#TopOfPage )

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Wegner, William. And Yaggi, Marc. 2001. The Journal for Surface Water Quality Professionals: Stormawater. Environmental Impacts of Road Salt and Alternatives in the New York City Watershed. 13:8. Zhang, Wenjun. Jiang, FuBin. Ou, JianFeng. 2011. Global Pesticide Consumption and Pollution: With China as a Focus. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 1(2): 125-144.