Assignment # 2

Submitted to:
Sir Dr. Muhammad Yasir Javaid
Submitted by:
Ahsan Ali
Subject:
Heat and Mass Flow Processes
Roll no:
15761
Semester:
6th (B)
Department:
Mechanical Engineering Technology

Government College University Faisalabad

Q.No.6
Heat exchangers: Types, overall heat transfer coefficient, heat
exchanger analysis.
Heat Exchanger:
Suppose you have a gas central heating furnace (boiler) that heats hot-water radiators in
various rooms in your home. It works by burning natural gas, making a line or grid of hot gas
jets that fire upward over water flowing through a network of pipes. As the
water pumps through the pipes, it absorbs the heat energy and heats up. This arrangement is
what we mean by a heat exchanger: the gas jets cool down and the water heats up.

A heat exchanger is a device that allows heat from a fluid (a liquid or a gas) to pass to a second
fluid (another liquid or gas) without the two fluids having to mix together or come into direct
contact. If that's not completely clear, consider this. In theory, we could get the heat from the
gas jets just by throwing cold water onto them, but then the flames would go out! The essential
principle of a heat exchanger is that it transfers the heat without transferring the fluid that
carries the heat.

Heat exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat between two or more fluids—i.e.,
liquids, vapors, or gases—of different temperatures. Depending on the type of heat exchanger
employed, the heat transferring process can be gas-to-gas, liquid-to-gas, or liquid-to-liquid and
occur through a solid separator, which prevents mixing of the fluids, or direct fluid contact.
Other design characteristics, including construction materials and components, heat transfer
mechanisms, and flow configurations, also help to classify and categorize the types of heat
exchangers available. Finding application across a wide range of industries, a diverse selection
of these heat exchanging device is designed and manufactured for use in both heating and
cooling processes.

Types of Heat Exchanger:

All heat exchangers operate under the same basic principles. However, these devices can be
classified and categorized in several different ways based on their design characteristics. The
main characteristics by which heat exchangers can be categorized include:

 Flow configuration

 Construction method

 Heat transfer mechanism

Types of Heat Exchangers by Flow Configuration
There are four basic flow configurations:

 Countercurrent Flow

 Co-current Flow

 Crossflow

 Hybrid flow

Countercurrent Flow:
Countercurrent flow heat exchangers, also known as counter flow heat exchangers, are
designed such that the fluids move antiparallel (i.e., parallel but in opposite directions) to each
other within the heat exchanger. The most commonly employed of the flow configurations, a
counter flow arrangement typically exhibits the highest efficiencies as it allows for the greatest
amount of heat transference between fluids and, consequently, the greatest change in
temperature.

Figure 1. Countercurrent flow.
Co-current flow:
In co-current flow heat exchangers, the streams flow parallel to each other and in the same
direction as shown in Figure 2, This is less efficient than countercurrent flow but does provide
more uniform wall temperatures.

Figure 2. Co-current flow.

Crossflow:
Crossflow heat exchangers are intermediate in efficiency between countercurrent flow and
parallel flow exchangers. In these units, the streams flow at right angles to each other as shown
in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Crossflow.

Hybrid flow:
Hybrid flow heat exchangers exhibit some combination of the characteristics of the previously
mentioned flow configurations. For example, heat exchanger designs can employ multiple flow
passes and arrangements (e.g., both counter flow and crossflow arrangements) within a single
heat exchanger. These types of heat exchangers are typically used to accommodate the
limitations of an application, such as space, budget costs, or temperature and pressure
requirements.

Figure 4. Hybrid flow.

Types of Heat Exchangers by Construction:

In this section heat exchangers are classified mainly by their construction, Garland (1990),
(see Figure 5). The first level of classification is to divide heat exchanger types into recuperative
or regenerative. A Recuperative Heat Exchanger has separate flow paths for each fluid and
fluids flow simultaneously through the exchanger exchanging heat across the wall separating
the flow paths. A Regenerative Heat Exchanger has a single flow path, which the hot and cold
fluids alternately pass through.

Figure 5. Heat exchanger classifications.

Regenerative heat exchangers:

In a regenerative heat exchanger, the flow path normally consists of a matrix, which is heated
when the hot fluid passes through it (this is known as the "hot blow"). This heat is then released
to the cold fluid when this flows through the matrix (the "cold blow"). Regenerative Heat
Exchangers are sometimes known as Capacitive Heat Exchangers. A good overview of
regenerators is provided by Walker (1982).
Regenerators are mainly used in gas/gas heat recovery applications in power stations and other
energy intensive industries. The two main types of regenerator are Static and Dynamic. Both
types of regenerator are transient in operation and unless great care is taken in their design
there is normally cross contamination of the hot and cold streams. However, the use of
regenerators is likely to increase in the future as attempts are made to improve energy
efficiency and recover more low-grade heat. However, because regenerative heat exchangers
tend to be used for specialist applications recuperative heat exchangers are more common.

Recuperative heat exchangers:

There are many types of recuperative exchangers, which can broadly be grouped into indirect
contact, direct contact and specials. Indirect contact heat exchangers keep the fluids
exchanging heat separate by the use of tubes or plates etc. Direct contact exchangers do not
separate the fluids exchanging heat and in fact rely on the fluids being in close contact.
Direct vs. Indirect Heat Exchanger:
Recuperative heat exchangers employ either direct contact or indirect contact transfer
processes to exchange heat between fluids.
In direct contact heat exchangers, the fluids are not separated within the device and heat
transfers from one fluid to another through direct contact. On the other hand, in indirect heat
exchangers, the fluids remain separated from one another by thermally conductive
components, such as tubes or plates, throughout the heat transfer process. The components
first receive heat from the warmer fluid as it flows through the heat exchanger, and then
transfer the heat to the cooler fluid as it flows through. Some of the devices which employ
direct contact transfer processes include cooling towers and steam injectors, while devices that
employ indirect contact transfer processes include tubular or plate heat exchangers.

Static vs. Dynamic Heat Exchanger:

There are two main types of regenerative heat exchangers—static heat exchangers and
dynamic heat exchangers. In static regenerators (also known as fixed bed regenerators), the
heat exchanger material and components remain stationary as fluids flow through the device,
while in dynamic regenerators the material and components move throughout the heat
transfer process. Both types are at risk of cross-contamination between fluid streams,
necessitating careful design considerations during manufacturing.
In one example of the static type, warmer fluid is run through one channel while cooler fluid
runs through another for a fixed period of time at the end of which, through the use of quick-
operating valves, flow is reversed such that the two fluids switch channels. An example of the
dynamic type typically employs a rotating, thermally conductive component (e.g., a drum)
through which warmer and cooler fluids continuously flow—albeit in separate, sealed-off
sections. As the component rotates, any given section alternately passes through the warmer
steam and cooler streams, allowing for the component to absorb heat from the warmer fluid
and transfer the heat to the cooler fluid as it passes through. Figure 6, below, depicts the heat
transfer process within a rotary-type regenerator with a countercurrent flow configuration.
Figure 6 – Heat Transfer in a Rotary-Type Regenerator
Types of Heat Transfer Mechanism:
There are two types of heat transfer mechanisms employed by heat exchangers:

 single-phase heat transfer

 two-phase heat transfer.

In single-phase heat exchangers, the fluids do not undergo any phase change throughout the
heat transfer process, meaning that both the warmer and cooler fluids remain in the same state of
matter at which they entered the heat exchanger. For example, in water-to-water heat transfer
applications, the warmer water loses heat which is then transferred to the cooler water and
neither change to a gas or solid.

On the other hand, in two-phase heat exchangers, fluids do experience a phase change during
the heat transfer process. The phase change can occur in either or both of the fluids involved
resulting in a change from a liquid to a gas or a gas to a liquid. Typically, devices that employ a
two-phase heat transfer mechanism require more complex design considerations than ones that
employ a single-phase heat transfer mechanism. Some of the types of two-phase heat exchangers
available include boilers, condensers, and evaporators.

Types of Heat Exchangers:

Based on the design characteristics indicated above, there are several different variants of heat
exchangers available. Some of the more common variants employed throughout industry
include:

 Shell and tube heat exchangers

  Double pipe heat exchangers

 Plate heat exchangers

 Condensers, evaporators, and boilers

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers:

The most common type of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchangers are constructed of
a single tube or series of parallel tubes (i.e., tube bundle) enclosed within a sealed, cylindrical
pressure vessel (i.e., shell). The design of these devices is such that one fluid flows through the
smaller tube(s), and the other fluid flows around its/their outside(s) and between it/them
within the sealed shell. Other design characteristics available for this type of heat exchanger
include finned tubes, single- or two-phase heat transfer, countercurrent flow, co-current flow,
or crossflow arrangements, and single, two, or multiple pass configurations.

Some of the types of shell and tube heat exchangers available include helical coil heat
exchangers and double pipe heat exchangers, and some of the applications
include preheating, oil cooling, and steam generation.

Figure 7. Shell and tube exchanger.

Double Pipe Heat Exchangers:

A form of shell and tube heat exchanger, double pipe heat exchangers employ the simplest
heat exchanger design and configuration which consists of two or more concentric, cylindrical
pipes or tubes (one larger tube and one or more smaller tubes). As per the design of all shell
and tube heat exchangers, one fluid flows through the smaller tube(s), and the other fluid flows
around the smaller tube(s) within the larger tube.

The design requirements of double pipe heat exchangers include characteristics from the
recuperative and indirect contact types mentioned previously as the fluids remain separated
and flow through their own channels throughout the heat transfer process. However, there is
some flexibility in the design of double pipe heat exchangers, as they can be designed with co-
current or countercurrent flow arrangements and to be used modularly in series, parallel, or
series-parallel configurations within a system. For example, Figure 4, below, depicts the transfer
of heat within an isolated double pipe heat exchanger with a co-current flow configuration.

Figure 8 – Heat Transfer in a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Plate Heat Exchangers:

Also referred to as plate type heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers are constructed of several
thin, corrugated plates bundled together. Each pair of plates creates a channel through which
one fluid can flow, and the pairs are stacked and attached—via bolting, brazing, or welding—
such that a second passage is created between pairs through which the other fluid can flow.

The standard plate design is also available with some variations, such as in plate fin or pillow
plate heat exchangers. Plate fin exchangers employ fins or spacers between plates and allow for
multiple flow configurations and more than two fluid streams to pass through the device. Pillow
plate exchangers apply pressure to the plates to increase the heat transfer efficiency across the
surface of the plate. Some of the other types available include plate and frame, plate and shell,
and spiral plate heat exchangers.
 Figure 9. Plate and frame exchanger.

Condensers, Evaporators, and Boilers:

Boilers, condensers, and evaporators are heat exchangers which employ a two-phase heat
transfer mechanism. As mentioned previously, in two-phase heat exchangers one or more
fluids undergo a phase change during the heat transfer process, either changing from a liquid to
a gas or a gas to a liquid.

Condensers are heat exchanging devices that take heated gas or vapor and cool it to the point
of condensation, changing the gas or vapor into a liquid. On the other hand,
in evaporators and boilers, the heat transfer process changes the fluids from liquid form to gas
or vapor form.

Overall heat transfer coefficient:

The overall heat transfer coefficient is employed in calculating the rate of heat transfer   from
one fluid at an average bulk temperature T1 through a solid surface to a second fluid at an
average bulk temperature T2 (where T1 > T2). The defining equation is generally only applicable
to an incremental element of heat transfer surface dA for which the heat transfer rate is d  ,
and the equation is strictly valid only at steady state conditions and negligible lateral heat
transfer in the solid surface, conditions generally true enough in most practical applications.
The defining equation is

where U is referenced to a specific surface (see below).

In the particular situation of heat transfer across a plane wall of uniform thickness, U is related
to the individual film heat transfer coefficients, α1 and α2, of the two fluids by the equation

where δw is the thickness of the wall and λw is the thermal conductivity of the wall.

If there are fouling deposits on the wall, they have a resistance to heat transfer, R 1 and R2, in
units of m2 K/W, and these resistances must be added in (see Fouling and Fouling Factors)

For the special but very important case of heat transfer through the wall of a plain round tube,
the different heat transfer areas on the inside and outside surfaces of the tube need to be
considered. Let dAi be the inside incremental area and dAo be the outside. Then (including
fouling resistances Rfi and Rfo inside and out):

where Ui is termed the "overall heat transfer coefficient referenced to (or based on) the inside
tube heat transfer area", and ri and ro the inside and outside radii of the tube.

Alternatively, the overall coefficient may be based on the outside heat transfer area, giving

where Uo is termed the "overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside tube heat
transfer area." Note that

These ideas may be extended to more complicated surfaces such as finned or composite tubes,
but it is then necessary to add further resistance terms (and the area ratio corrections) for the
fins or imperfect metal-to-metal contact.

Generally, in order to use these equations in heat transfer applications, the basic equation must
be integrated:
where AT is the total area required to transfer   T and T1, T2 and sometimes U must be
expressed as functions of the heat already transferred from one end up to a given point in the
heat transfer device. This is the basic design equation for most heat exchangers.

Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficient
-U-
Type Application

Btu/(ft2 oF
W/(m2  K)
h)

Gases at atmospheric pressure inside and outside

5 - 35 1-6
tubes

Gases at high pressure inside and outside tubes 150 - 500 25 - 90

Liquid outside (inside) and gas at atmospheric

15 - 70 3 - 15
Tubular, heating or pressure inside (outside) tubes
cooling
Gas at high pressure inside and liquid outside
200 - 400 35 - 70
tubes

Liquids inside and outside tubes 150 - 1200 25 - 200

Steam outside and liquid inside tubes 300 - 1200 50 - 200

Steam outside and cooling water inside tubes 1500 - 4000 250 - 700
Tubular,
condensation Organic vapors or ammonia outside and cooling
300 - 1200 50 - 200
water inside tubes

Tubular, evaporation steam outside and high-viscous liquid inside tubes, 300 - 900 50 - 150
natural circulation
 Overall Heat Transfer
Coefficient
-U-
Type Application

Btu/(ft2 oF
W/(m2  K)
h)

steam outside and low-viscous liquid inside tubes,

600 - 1700 100 - 300
natural circulation

steam outside and liquid inside tubes, forced

900 - 3000 150 - 500
circulation

Cooling of water 600 - 750 100 - 130

Cooling of liquid light hydrocarbons 400 - 550 70 - 95

Air-cooled heat
Cooling of tar 30 - 60 5 - 10
exchangers

Cooling of air or flue gas 60 - 180 10 - 30

Cooling of hydrocarbon gas 200 - 450 35 - 80

Heat Exchanger Analysis:

The flow in the heat exchanger is considered under steady-state and fully insulated at the outer
surface. Consider an infinitesimal part of the heat exchanging tube of area dA, where
temperatures of hot and cold fluid are Th and Tc, respectively. The figure below shows the
temperature profile along the direction of flow in parallel flow and counter flow heat
exchangers.
 Figure 10: Temperature profiles in parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers

The profile of temperature variation depends upon the heat capacity of the fluid. The profiles
are different for both types of heat exchangers, therefore, expressions of LMTD are also
different, derived as follows. heat exchange from infinitesimal area dA at any point of the heat
exchanger is given by

dQ = U.dA(Th – Tc)

Where ‘U’ is the overall heat exchanger coefficient and ‘A’ is the heat transfer area of the heat
exchanger. this heat is taken from hot fluid and given to cold fluid. the temperature of hot fluid
reduces, while that of the cold fluid increases.

There are two types of problems associated with designing of heat exchangers:

1. Designing Heat Exchanger: When the desired temperature at inlets and outlets of both
the fluids is known and a number of tubes required in the heat exchanger are to be
calculated, then logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD method is used.
2. Determining the Capacity: When the heat exchanger is given and one wants to know
the heat exchange capacity, so this is a reverse problem. then, effectiveness-number of
transfer units (NTU) method is used.

Q.No.8

Radiation: Processes and properties: Basic concepts,

blackbody radiation, radiation properties, gray surface.
Radiation: Processes and Properties
➢ Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as a result of its finite temperature.

➢ The emission of thermal radiation is associated with the excitation of electrons that
constitute the matter.

➢ In contrast to heat transfer by conduction and convection, heat transfer by thermal

radiation does not require the presence of a material medium.

➢ Radiation may be viewed as the propagation of electromagnetic waves. The frequency

(ν)and wavelength (λ) of the propagating radiation are related by   c  (1) where c is the
speed of light in the medium.

➢ The complete electromagnetic spectrum is shown in figure 12.3 of the textbook. The
collection of radiations termed thermal radiation occupies the range λ = 0.1 – 100 μm of the
spectrum.

➢ The thermal radiation emitted by a surface encompasses a range of wavelengths. The

magnitude of the radiation varies with wavelength (see figure 12.4). Thus, we use the term
spectra to refer to the nature of the dependence of the magnitude on wavelength.

Radiation Intensity:
➢ Radiation that leaves a surface can propagate in all possible directions. The intensity of
radiation may vary with direction, thus creating a directional distribution.

➢ The rate at which the radiation leaving a surface is intercepted by another surface is related
to the radiation intensity. The relationship is given by equation 12.6 of the textbook.

➢ A special case is that of diffuse emitter. A diffuse emitter is a surface for which the intensity
of the emitted radiation is independent of direction. [This is the case we shall concentrate on in
this course. Thus, we shall treat the intensity of radiation as a function of wavelength only.]

➢ The total emissive power, E (W/m2) of a surface is the rate at which radiation is emitted per
unit area at all possible wavelengths and in all possible directions.

➢ Just as a surface emits radiation, radiation from surrounding bodies is also incident on the
surface. The intensity of the incident radiation is also a function of the wavelength and the
direction. If the incident radiation is diffuse, then it is a function of wavelength only.

➢ The total irradiation, G (W/m2) is the rate at which radiation is incident per unit area from all
directions and at all wavelengths.
➢ The total radiant energy leaving a surface is composed of the radiation emitted by the
surface and the reflected portion of the irradiation (see figure 12.10). This is represented by the
term radiosity. The total radiosity J (W/m2) is the rate at which radiation leaves a unit area of
the surface at all wavelengths.

Emission from Real Surfaces:

➢ The blackbody is an ideal surface. It is used as reference in describing emission from a real
surface.

➢ The emissivity of a surface is defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface to
the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature.

➢ Emissivity is a function of wavelength and direction (but directional average is usually

considered).

➢ The total, hemispherical emissivity, which represents an average over all possible directions
and wavelengths,

Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission by Real Surfaces:

➢ Consider a semitransparent medium on which radiation of wavelength λ is incident, as

shown below.

▪ Portions of the irradiation Gλ may be reflected, absorbed, and transmitted. It follows that

G  G,ref  G, abs  G, tr

▪ For most engineering applications, the medium is opaque to the incident radiation. In this
case, Gλ,tr = 0.
▪ The properties that characterize the absorption, reflection, and transmission depend on
surface material and finish, surface temperature, and the wavelength and direction of the
incident radiation.

Absorptivity:

➢ The absorptivity is a property that determines the fraction of the irradiation absorbed by a
surface.

➢ The total, hemispherical absorptivity represents an average over all possible directions and
wavelength.

Reflectivity:

➢ The reflectivity is a property that determines the fraction of the incident radiation reflected
by a surface.

➢ With respect to the reflection of the incident ray, surfaces may be idealized as diffuse or
specular.

 Diffuse surface is the surface for which the intensity of the reflected radiation is
independent of the reflection angle.
 Specular surface is the surface for which all the reflection is in one direction, with the
reflection angle equal to the incident angle (see figure 12.21).

➢ No surface is perfectly diffuse or specular.

Black Body Radiation:

Heat transfer through radiation takes place in form of electromagnetic waves mainly in the
infrared region. Radiation emitted by a body is a consequence of thermal agitation of its
composing molecules. Radiation heat transfer can be described by reference to the 'black
body'.
The black body is defined as a body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its surface. Actual
black bodies don't exist in nature - though its characteristics are approximated by a hole in a
box filled with highly absorptive material. The emission spectrum of such a black body was first
fully described by Max Planck.

A black body is a hypothetical body that completely absorbs all wavelengths of thermal
radiation incident on it. Such bodies do not reflect light, and therefore appear black if their
temperatures are low enough so as not to be self-luminous. All black bodies heated to a given
temperature emit thermal radiation.

The radiation energy per unit time from a black body is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature and can be expressed with Stefan-Boltzmann Law as

q = σ T4 A                                       (1)

where

q = heat transfer per unit time (W)

σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant

T = absolute temperature in kelvins (K)

A = area of the emitting body (m2)

The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant in Imperial Units

σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4)

    = 1.714 10-9 ( Btu/(h ft2  oR4) )

    =  1.19 10-11 ( Btu/(h in2 oR4) )

Grey Bodies:
For objects other than ideal black bodies ('gray bodies') the Stefan-Boltzmann Law can be
expressed as

q = ε σ T4 A                                    (2)

where

ε = emissivity coefficient of the object (one - 1 - for a black body)

For the gray body the incident radiation (also called irradiation) is partly reflected, absorbed or
transmitted.

The emissivity coefficient is in the range 0 < ε < 1, depending on the type of material and the
temperature of the surface.

 oxidized Iron at 390  oF (199  oC) > ε = 0.64

 polished Copper at 100  oF (38  oC) > ε = 0.03

Net Radiation Loss Rate:

If a hot object is radiating energy to its cooler surroundings the net radiation heat loss rate can
be expressed as

q = ε σ (Th4 - Tc4) Ah                                     (3)

where

Th = hot body absolute temperature (K)

Tc = cold surroundings absolute temperature (K)

Ah = area of the hot object (m2)

Heat loss from a heated surface to unheated surroundings with mean radiant temperatures are
indicated in the chart below. 
Q.No.8

Radiation exchange between surfaces: View factor, blackbody

radiation exchange, radiation exchange between gray
surfaces.
Radiation exchange between surfaces:
The theory for radiation exchange between surfaces described in the present seminar is based
on two assumptions. Surfaces form an enclosure and surfaces are separated by a
nonparticipating media. Radiatively nonparticipating media has no effect on the transfer of
radiation between surfaces. There is no scattering, no emission and no absorption. Such
medium is vacuum, and also other monatomic and most diatomic gases at low and moderate
temperatures, at temperatures before ionization and dissipation occurs. In fact, in many
engineering applications media doesn’t affect the radiation heat transfer.

The energy balance on the opaque surface is: . Absorption depends on

irradiation, which depends on emission from other surfaces including those far away from the
observed surface. To make total radiative energy balance we must consider the entire
enclosure, which is assumed to be closed. Thus, all radiation contributions are accounted for.
An open enclosure is in practice closed by introducing artificial surfaces. For example, opening
can be considered as a surface with zero reflectivity and as a radiation source when presenting
environmental radiation. Enclosure may be composed of complex geometries which can bring
lots of difficulties in calculations. Therefore, the enclosure may be idealized by inventing
alternative simple surfaces and by assuming surfaces to be isothermal with constant (average)
heat flux values across them, as indicated in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Real and idealized enclosure.

Radiation exchange between surfaces in addition to their radiative properties and temperatures
strongly depends on the surface geometries, orientations and separations distance. This all
leads to development of geometric function known as view factor.

View Factor
View factor can be also called configuration factor, shape factor, form factor. View factor is
dimensionless factor that determines how much of a surface is visible to another surface and is
a pure geometric property. Definition: The view factor is defined as the fraction of the radiation
leaving surface that is intercepted by surface .

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2: (a)Radiation exchange between two surfaces, (b)interpretation of solid angle, (c)
geometry used to obtain emissive power

The rate at which radiation leaves and is intercepted by may be expressed as:

(6)

Where is the intensity of radiation leaving surface by emission and reflection and
is solid angle subtended by when viewed from . Solid angle is defined as the
projection of the surface onto a plane normal to the direction vector, divided by the distance
squared (see Fig. 2b)

(7)
Radiative intensity is defined as radiative energy flow per unit solid angle and unit area
normal to the rays.

(8)

From Eq. 6 it follows that:

(9)

Total emitted energy from into hemisphere above per unit surface area is (see Fig. 2c):

(10)

Similarly, can be written for radiosity, which is total radiative energy leaving from into
hemisphere above per unit surface area. In general, radiosity includes both emissions and
reflections.

(11)

Assuming that surface emits and reflects diffusely it follows:

(12)

The total rate at which radiations leaves surface and is intercepted by may then be
obtained by integration over the two surfaces. Assuming that the radiosity is uniform over
the surface

(13)

From the definition of the view factor (Eq. 5) it follows that:

(14)

Similarly, the view factor is defined

(15)
This equation may be used to determine the view factor associated with any two surfaces that
are diffuse emitters and diffuse reflectors and have uniform radiosity.

View factor relations

The view factor also satisfies two useful relations.

Reciprocity relations (law of reciprocity) From (Eq. 14) and (Eq. 15) it follows:

(16)

Summation relation (summation rule)

Summation relation follows directly from the definition of the view factor. From the
requirement that the enclosure must be closed it follows that sum of all view factors must be
summed up in one. Summation relation for enclosure of surfaces is:

(17)

In the sum is also view factor , which needs special consideration. If the plane is convex, no
radiation leaving will strike itself so . If the surface is concave, it sees itself and part of
radiation leaving will be intercepted by itself so .

These two relations aren’t just for determining the analytical solution but are also important for
the verification of the numerical solution. Reciprocity relation is used to check the accuracy of
individual view factor and law of conservation of energy is verified with the summation rules.

To calculate radiation exchange in the enclosure of surfaces a total of view factors are
required. The view factors on surfaces can be written in matrix form:

However, all view factors do not need to be calculated directly. Most of them can be calculated
by using view factor relations. view factors may be obtained from the equations of the
summation relations and view factors may be obtained from the reciprocity relations.
When the enclosure in the model is divided into surfaces that can’t sees itself so , the
total number of view factors, that must be calculated directly is then:

(18)

So view factor must be calculated directly. In some cases, the use of symmetry can

additionally reduce the number of view factor that must be calculated directly.
Methods for the evaluation of view factor :

The calculation of radiative view factor between any of two finite surfaces requires solving of
the double area integral, or fourth-order integration. Such integrals are difficult to evaluate
analytically except for very simple geometries. For more complicated geometries, the view
factors are calculated by numerical integration. Such integrations can be computationally
expensive, depending on the complexity of the geometry. Because of that, mathematical
methods were developed for evaluation of the view factor. There are several tables and charts
for frequently used geometries. The most complete tabulation is given in a catalogue by Howell
[4]. A shorter list of integration methods is provided in [1]. In this seminar direct surface
integration and inside sphere method are briefly presented.

Radiation Exchange Between Two Isothermal Black Surfaces:

The net radiant exchange between two isothermal black surfaces is given by

where Ebl = m T14 and Eb2 = m T} arc the blackbody radiative nodes and 1112 = I/AI F12 11/442
F21 = R21 is the spatial radiative resistance between the two surfaces. The units of R12 and R21
arc m—2

The previous relation can bc expressed in the following form:

i which clearly reveals the non-linear nature of radiative heat exchange. The radiative exchange
between two isothermal black surfaces can be represented by a simple thermal circuit
consisting of two nodes: Eb1; Eb2 separated by a single radiative resistance R12. The throughput is
Q12.

Radiation Exchange Between Two Isothermal Gray Surfaces:

The net radiant exchange between two isothermal gray surfaces whose areas arc Al, .A2
respectively and whose emissivitics arc €1, €2 respectively is given by

where the total radiative resistance now consists of three resistances in series:
 RTotal = Rs1 + R12 + Rs2

The gray surface resistances are given by:

The general gray surface radiant exchange expression gives the following expressions for two
infinite parallel planes, two long concentric circular cylinders, and two concentric spheres.
Reference:
Q.No.6
https://www.explainthatstuff.com/how-heat-exchangers-work.html

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308464270_Heat_Exchanger_Types_and_Classifications

https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/process-equipment/understanding-heat-exchangers/

http://www.thermopedia.com/content/832/#HEAT_EXCHANGERS_FIG6

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/heat-transfer-coefficients-exchangers-d_450.html

http://thermopedia.com/content/1007/

https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/heat-exchanger-analysis/

Q.No.7
http://www.uuooi.org/english/download.php?id=12363&sid=4f87f2d3b7f0091880fbd2d2215c37fc

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/radiation-heat-transfer-d_431.html

Q.No.8
http://mafija.fmf.uni-
lj.si/seminar/files/2015_2016/Thermal_radiation_heat_transfer_between_surfaces_Luka_Klobucar.pdf

https://mafiadoc.com/radiation-exchange-between-black-and-gray-
surfaces_5a2a03a91723dd98af8721a7.html