Heat transfer coefficient

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The heat transfer coefficient, in thermodynamics and in mechanical and chemical engineering, is used
in calculating the heat transfer, typically by convection or phase transition between a fluid and a solid:

where
Q = heat flow in input or lost heat flow , J/s = W
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2K)
A = heat transfer surface area, m2
= difference in temperature between the solid surface and surrounding fluid area, K
From the above equation, the heat transfer coefficient is
the proportionality coefficient between the heat flux, that is heat flow per unit
area, q/A, and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat (i.e., the
temperature difference, T).
The heat transfer coefficient has SI units in watts per squared meter -kelvin: W/
(m2K).
Heat transfer coefficient is the inverse of thermal insulance. This is used for building
materials (R-value) and for clothing insulation.
There are numerous methods for calculating the heat transfer coefficient in different
heat transfer modes, different fluids, flow regimes, and under
different thermohydraulic conditions. Often it can be estimated by dividing
the thermal conductivity of the convection fluid by a length scale. The heat transfer
coefficient is often calculated from the Nusselt number (a dimensionless number).
There are also online calculators available specifically for heat transfer fluid
applications.
An understanding of convection boundary layers is necessary to understanding
convective heat transfer between a surface and a fluid flowing past it. A thermal
boundary layer develops if the fluid free stream temperature and the surface
temperatures differ. A temperature profile exists due to the energy exchange
resulting from this temperature difference.

Thermal Boundary Layer

The heat transfer rate can then be written as,

And because heat transfer at the surface is by conduction,

These two terms are equal; thus

Rearranging,

Making it dimensionless by multiplying by representative length L,

The right hand side is now the ratio of the temperature

gradient at the surface to the reference temperature gradient.
While the left hand side is similar to the Biot modulus. This
becomes the ratio of conductive thermal resistance to the
convective thermal resistance of the fluid, otherwise known as
the Nusselt number, Nu.

Alternative Method (A simple method for determining the overall heat transfer
coefficient)
A simple method for determining an overall heat transfer coefficient that is useful to find the heat transfer
between simple elements such as walls in buildings or across heat exchangers is shown below. Note that
this method only accounts for conduction within materials, it does not take into account heat transfer
through methods such as radiation. The method is as follows:

Where:

= the overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

= the contact area for each fluid side (m2) (with A_1 and A_2 expressing either surface)

= the thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK)

= the individual convection heat transfer coefficient for each fluid (W/m2 K)

= the wall thickness (m)

As the areas for each surface approach being equal the equation can be written as the transfer coefficient
per unit area as shown below:

or

NOTE: Often the value for

is referred to as the difference of two radii where the inner and outer radii
are used to define the thickness of a pipe carrying a fluid, however, this figure may also be considered as
a wall thickness in a flat plate transfer mechanism or other common flat surfaces such as a wall in a
building when the area difference between each edge of the transmission surface approaches zero.
Component Wt. %
C 0.37 0.44
Fe 98.6 99
Mn 0.6 0.9
P Max 0.04
S Max 0.05
Material Notes:
Typical uses include machine, plow, and carriage bolts, tie wire, cylinder head studs, and machined parts, U-bolts,
concrete reinforcing rods, forgings, and non-critical springs.
Physical Properties Metric English Comments
Density 7.845 g/cc 0.283 lb/in3 Chemical composition of 0.435% C, 0.69% Mn, 0.20% Si, annealed at 860C
(1580F).
Mechanical Properties

Hardness, Brinell 149 149

Hardness, Knoop 169 169 Converted from Brinell hardness.
Hardness, Rockwell B 80 80 Converted from Brinell hardness.
Hardness, Vickers 155 155 Converted from Brinell hardness.
Tensile Strength, Ultimate 525 MPa 76100 psi
Tensile Strength, Yield 290 MPa 42100 psi
Elongation at Break 18 % 18 % in 50 mm
Reduction of Area 40 % 40 %
Modulus of Elasticity 200 GPa 29000 ksi Typical for steel
Bulk Modulus 140 GPa 20300 ksi Typical for steels
Poissons Ratio 0.29 0.29 Typical For Steel
Izod Impact 49 J 36.1 ft-lb as rolled, 45 J (33 ft-lb) annealed at 790C (1450F), 65 J (48 ft-lb) normalized at 900C
(1650F)
Shear Modulus 80 GPa 11600 ksi Typical for steels
Electrical Properties
Electrical Resistivity 1.71e-005 ohm-cm 1.71e-005 ohm-cm 20C (68F)
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 0.0001111 ohm-cm 0.0001111 ohm-cm 800C (1470F)
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 0.0001149 ohm-cm 0.0001149 ohm-cm 900C (1650F)
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 0.0001179 ohm-cm 0.0001179 ohm-cm 1000C
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 2.21e-005 ohm-cm 2.21e-005 ohm-cm 100C (212F)
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 2.96e-005 ohm-cm 2.96e-005 ohm-cm 200C (390F)
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 4.93e-005 ohm-cm 4.93e-005 ohm-cm 400C (750F)
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 7.63e-005 ohm-cm 7.63e-005 ohm-cm 600C (1110F)
Electrical Resistivity at Elevated Temperature 9.32e-005 ohm-cm 9.32e-005 ohm-cm 700C (1290F)
Thermal Properties

CTE, linear 20C 11.3 m/m-C 6.28 in/in-F Composition of 0.40% C, 0.11% Mn, 0.01% P, 0.03% S, 0.03% Si,
0.03% Cu.; 20-100C (68-212F)
CTE, linear 20C 12.1 m/m-C 6.72 in/in-F Composition of 0.40% C, 0.11% Mn, 0.01% P, 0.03% S, 0.03% Si,
0.03% Cu.; 20-200C (68-390F)
CTE, linear 250C 12.2 m/m-C 6.78 in/in-F Composition of 0.40% C, 0.11% Mn, 0.01% P, 0.03% S, 0.03% Si,
0.03% Cu; 20-300C (68-570F)
CTE, linear 250C 13.3 m/m-C 7.39 in/in-F Composition of 0.40% C, 0.11% Mn, 0.01% P, 0.03% S, 0.03% Si,
0.03% Cu; 20-400C (68-750F)
CTE, linear 500C 13.9 m/m-C 7.72 in/in-F Composition of 0.40% C, 0.11% Mn, 0.01% P, 0.03% S, 0.03% Si,
0.03% Cu; 20-500C (68-930F)
CTE, linear 500C 14.2 m/m-C 7.89 in/in-F Composition of 0.40% C, 0.11% Mn, 0.01% P, 0.03% S, 0.03% Si,
0.03% Cu; 20-600C (68-1110F)
CTE, linear 500C 14.8 m/m-C 8.22 in/in-F Composition of 0.40% C, 0.11% Mn, 0.01% P, 0.03% S, 0.03% Si,
0.03% Cu; 20-700C (68-1290F)
CTE, linear 1000C 14.7 m/m-C 8.17 in/in-F Typical steel
Specific Heat Capacity 0.486 J/g-C 0.116 BTU/lb-F 50-100C (122-212F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.515 J/g-C 0.123 BTU/lb-F 150-200C (300-390F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.528 J/g-C 0.126 BTU/lb-F 200-250C (390-480F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.548 J/g-C 0.131 BTU/lb-F 250-300C (480-570F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.569 J/g-C 0.136 BTU/lb-F 300-350C (570-660F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.586 J/g-C 0.14 BTU/lb-F 350-400C (660-750F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.624 J/g-C 0.149 BTU/lb-F 750-800C (1380-1470F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.649 J/g-C 0.155 BTU/lb-F 450-500C (750-930F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.708 J/g-C 0.169 BTU/lb-F 550-600C (1020-1110F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 0.77 J/g-C 0.184 BTU/lb-F 650-700C (1200-1290F)
Specific Heat Capacity at Elevated Temperature 1.583 J/g-C 0.378 BTU/lb-F 700-750C (1290-1380F)
Thermal Conductivity 50.7 W/m-K 352 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 100C (212F)
Thermal Conductivity 51.9 W/m-K 360 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 0C
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 24.7 W/m-K 171 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 800C

Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 29.8 W/m-K 207 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 1200C (2190F)
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 30.1 W/m-K 209 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 700C (1290F)
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 32.9 W/m-K 228 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 1000C (1830F)
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 33.9 W/m-K 235 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 600C (1110F)
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 38.2 W/m-K 265 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 500C (930F)
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 41.7 W/m-K 289 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 400C (750F)
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 45.7 W/m-K 317 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 300C (570F)
Thermal Conductivity at Elevated Temperature 48.1 W/m-K 334 BTU-in/hr-ft2-F 200
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this
information at your own risk.
ROYMECH

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Thermos Index
Heat Transfer

Introduction..... Symbols..... Heat transfer by conduction..... Heat transfer by

radiation..... Heat transfer by Convection..... Heat Exchangers.....
Introduction
This page provides notes on heat transfer that may be useful to mechanical engineers. The
subject is very complicated and any user who requires accurate heat transfer values is
advised to refer to quality reference documents or use specialised software.
When a hot surface us surrounded by an area which is colder energy in the form of heat will
be transferred from the hot surface to the cooler area. The rate of this transfer is depended
on the temperature difference and the process will continue until both the surface and the
surroundings are at the same temperature. This process in called heat transfer and takes
place by one or more of the following methods
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction takes place in solids, liquids, and gases. Solids offer the least resistance to
transfer of heat by conduction. Conduction requires physical contact between material
through which the heat is transferred. A materials temperature is related to the motion of
the constituent molecules. The conduction process involves the molecule moving at higher
velocities transferring their kinetic energy to the adjacent molecures which have lower
kinetic energy.

Convection results in a gas or liquid. The fluid adjacent to a hot surface heats up as a result
of conduction. The density of this fluid is reduced and it therefore rises to be replaced by a
colder fluid of higher density. This process continues resulting in convective flow producing
an enhanced transfer of heat throughout the fluid.
The transfer of heat energy by radiation can occur in a vacuum , unlike conduction and
convection. Heat radiation is the same form of wave energy transfer as light, radio, and xray wave energy. The rate of emmission of heat energy is related to the temperature
difference, the distance between the surfaces, and the emissivity of the surfaces. Bright
reflective surfaces have the lowest emissivity values.
Notes on thermal insulation systems are found on webpage.Thermal Insulation

Symbols

e = Emissivity of
Radiating surface
e = Emissivity of
Surroundings
Q = Heat Flow Rate (W )
= Stefan Boltzman
t = inside(hot)temperature,( K )
constant = 5,673 x 10-8 W
t = inside surface (hot)temperature,
m-2 K-4
(K)
= fluid density (kg / m3)
t = outside(cooler)temperature,( K )
= fluid viscosity (kg /
t = outside surface
m.s)
(cooler)temperature,( K )
= coeff. of vol expansion
A = Area,( m 2 )
(1 /K)
U = Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient,
= Temperature difference
( W m -2K -1)
(k)
R = Thermal Resistance, ( W -1.K )
c = specific heat (J/kg.K )
Q = Radiated transferred energy (W)
a = velocity of Sound
Q = Conducted transferred energy (W)
(m/s)
Q = Convective transferred energy
h = heat transfer
(W)
coefficient (W /m2 K)
T = Temperature or radiating body (K)
k = Thermal conductivity
T Temperature or Suroundings (K)
(W/mK)
A = Area of Radiating surface (m2)
v = Fluid velocity (m/s)
A =Area of Receiving surface (m2)
L = characteristic
dimension
g = accelaration due to
gravity (m/s2 )
1

S1

S1

co
cv

1
2

1
2

Heat Transfer by Conduction

dQ = kA(-dt/dx)
Q = (k.A /x). (t -t )
U = k/x
co

co

Therefore Q = U.A(t -t )
Thermal resistance R = 1 / U.A
1

The heat has to pass through the surface layers on both sides of the wall<b< p="">
</b<>

q = A.h (t - t ) = k.A(t -t ) / x = Ah (t -t )
U = 1 / (1/h + x/ k + 1/ h )
R = 1/ A.h + 1/ A.h + x/ A.k = R + R + R
s1

s1

s1

s1

s2

s2

s2

s2

s1

s2

Table Showing Various values for k at 20 oC

Metal

k=W Misc.solids
m-1K-1

Aluminium

237

Antimony

18.5

Beryllium

218

Brass

110

Cadmium

92

Cobalt

69

Constantan

22

Copper

398

Gold

315

Iridium

147

Cast Iron

55

Pure Iron

80.3

Wr't Iron

59

Lead

35.2

Magnesium

156

Molybdenum 138
Monel

26

k =Wm1 -1
K

Liquids

k=
Wm1 -1
K

Asphalt

1.26

Bitumen

0.17

Br'ze Block

0.15

Brickwork

0.6

Brick-Dense

1.6

Carbon

1.7

Conc-LD

0.2

Conc-MD

0.5

Conc-HD

1.5

Firebrick

1.09

Glass

1.05

Glass -Boro.

1.3

Ice

2.18

Limestone

1.1

Mica

0.75

Cement

1.01

Air

0.024

Parafin Wax

0.25

Ammonia

0.022

Porcelain

1.05

Argon

0.016

Benzene

0.16

Carb Tet'ide

0.11

Acetone

0.16

Ether

0.14

Glycerol

0.28

Kerosene

0.15

Mercury

Methanol

0.21

Machine Oil

0.15

Water

0.58

Sodium

84

Gases

k=
Wm 1
K -1

Carbon Dio

0.015

Carbon Mon

0.023

Helium

0.142

Hydrogen

0.168

0.048

Methane

0.030

Straw-Comp

0.09

Nitrogen

0.024

Cotton Wool

0.029

Oxygen

0.024

PolystyreneExp'd

0.03

Water Vap.

0.016

Felt

0.04

Glass Wool

0.04(20o C

Kapok

0.034

Nickel

90.5

Platinum

73

Silver

427

C.Steel

50

St.Steel

25

Balsa

Tin

67

Zinc

113

Plastics

Sand

Insulation

0.06
k=Wm1K-1

Acrylic

0.2

Nylon 6

0.25;

Polythene
High Den

0.5

Magnesia

0.07

PTFE

0.25

Plywood

0.13

PVC

0.19

Rock Wool

0.045

Sawdust

0.06

Slag Wool

0.042

Wood

0.13

Sheeps Wool

0.038

Cellulose

0.039

Heat Transfer by Radiation

Q r = radiated energy (W)
T 1 = Temperature or radiating body (K)
T 2 Temperature or Suroundings (K)
A 1 = Area of Radiating surface (m2)
A 2 =Area of Receiving surface (m2)
e 1 = Emissivity of Radiating surface
e 2 = Emissivity of Surroundings
= Stefan Boltzman constant = 5,673 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
hr = heat Transfer coefficient for radiation (Wm-2K-1)
Heat radiation from a body to the surroundings

Q r = e1 (T14 - T24 ) A1

Heat radiation including the effect of the surroundings

Q r = ( e1 T14 - e2T24 ) A1
Now the heat transfer using the heat transfer coefficient =

Qr=hrA1(T1-T2)

therefore

h r = e 1 (T 1 + T 2 )( T

+T

Emissivity Values
Refer to link Emissivity Values for better table

Surface
Material

Emmissity

Surface Material

Emmissity

AluminiumOxidised

0.11

Tile

0.97

AluminiumPolished

0.05

Water

0.95

Aluminium
anodised

0.77

Wood-Oak

0.9

Aluminium
rough

0.07

Paint

0.96

Asbestos
Board

0.94

Paper

0.93

Black Body
-Matt

1.00

Plastics

0.91 Av

Brass -Dull

0.22

Rubber-Nat_Hard 0.91

BrassPolished

0.03

Rubber _Nat_Soft 0.86

Brick -Dark

0.9

Steel_Oxidised

0.79

Concrete

0.85

Steel Polished

0.07

CopperOxidised

0.87

St.SteelWeathered

0.85

Copper
-Polished

0.04

St.Steel-Polished

0.15

Glass

0.92

Steel Galv. Old

0.88

Plaster

0.98

Steel Galv new

0.23

Heat Transfer by Convection

Convective heat transfer occurs between a moving fluid and a solid surface.
The rate of convective heat transfer between a surface and a fluid is given by the Newtons
Law of Cooling;

The symbols involved in convective heat transfer are listed below

The dimensionless groups involve in convective heat transfer are listed below

Figures identifying characteristic Dimension L

It is customary to express the convection coefficient (average or local), in a non-dimensional
form called the Nusselt Number.

Natural convection
Nu = C(Gr.Pr)

C and n are tabled below

Note: Convection heat transfer values are very specific to the geometry of the surface and
the heat transfer conditions - These example equations are very general in nature and should
not be used for serious calcs. The links below provide much safer equations..

Surface

(Gr.Pr)

Vertical
Plates/Cylinders

10 4 to 10 9 0.59

0.25

10 9 to 10 12 0.13

0.33

Horizontal Pipes

10 3 to 10 9 0.53

0.25

10 5 to 2 x
10 7

0.54

0.25

2 x10 7 to 3
0.14
x10 10

0.33

3 x10 5 to 3
0.27
x10 10

0.25

Horizontal Plates
Heated Face up or
Cooled Face Down
Horizontal Plates
Heated Face up or
Cooled Face Down

Forced Convection

Laminar flow over Plate

Fully Developed pipe flow

Nu = 3,66 +
0,0866(D/L)Re.Pr / (1+0.04[D / L(Re.Pr)]
Turbulent Flow Over Flat Plate
Turbulent Flow In Pipe

1/2

Nu = 0,664(Re)

2/3

(Pr)

Nu = 0,036Pr

Nu = 0,023Pr

0.4

Re

1/3

1/3

Re

0.8

0.8

D = Diameter, L = Length, mean film temperature properties assumed

Typical Values of Heat Transfer Coefficient h = W.m

-2

-1

Free Convection Over Various Shape - Air

Free Convection Over Various Shape - Water

Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Air

Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Water

9000

Heat Exchangers

2 - 23
300 - 1700
6 - 1400
1100 -

Heat exchangers normally transfer energy from a hot fluid to a colder fluid.
The energy out.

The energy in =

If the fluids are the same with the same specific heat.
The mass flowrate x the temp drop of the hot fluid = the mass flow rate x the temp rise of
the cold fluid.

Typical Values for Overall Heat transfer U are

Plate Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 1000 > 4000 W. m.-2K.-1

Shell and Tube, liquid inside and outside tubes U range150 > 1200 W. m. -2K.-1.

Spiral Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 700 > 2500 W. m.-2K.-1

Thermodynamic /Heat Transfer Links

1.
2.

Thermodynamics..NASA - Glenn Research center at Series of informative notes on

Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics..Interesting Article

3.

Designing Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger..Notes on Designing Heat Exchangers

4.

Watlow.. Heat Losses From various Surfaces ->Reference -> Heat Transfer

5.

APV_Phewizard... Free Plate Heat Exchanger Software for specify plate HX

6.

Emissivity Values... A table of emissivity values

7.

Cheresources... Various heat transfer values -Useful

8.

Spirax Sarco...Excellent Reference Site . Learning centre includes heat transfer reference
information

This page is being developed

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Last Updated 13/09/2011

http://rpaulsingh.com/problems/Ex4_11.htm

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient, or U-value, refers to how well heat is
conducted over a series of mediums. Its units are the W/(m 2C) [Btu/(hrft2F)].
In the following article, we will discuss how to calculate the U value to evaluate the heat
transfer of steam and hot water through different types of mediums.

Steam vs. Hot Water

The overall heat transfer coefficient is influenced by the thickness and thermal
conductivity of the mediums through which heat is transferred. The larger the
coefficient, the easier heat is transferred from its source to the product being heated. In
a heat exchanger, the relationship between the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) and
the heat transfer rate (Q) can be demonstrated by the following equation:

where
Q = heat transfer rate, W=J/s [btu/hr]
A = heat transfer surface area, m2 [ft2]
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2C) [Btu/(hr-ft2F)]
TLM = logarithmic mean temperature difference, C [F]

From this equation we can see that the U value is directly proportional to Q, the heat
transfer rate. Assuming the heat transfer surface and temperature difference remain
unchanged, the greater the U value, the greater the heat transfer rate. In other words,
this means that for a same kettle and product, a higher U value could lead to shorter
batch times.
Several equations can be used to determine the U value, one of which is:

where
h = convective heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2C) [Btu/(hr-ft2F)]
L = thickness of the wall, m [ft]
= thermal conductivity, W/(mC) [Btu/(hr-ftF)]

Heat transfer through a metal wall

The convective heat transfer coefficient (h), sometimes referred to as the film
coefficient, is often used when calculating heat transfer between a fluid and a solid. In
the case of a heat exchanger, heat transfer basically occurs from fluid 1 (source of heat)
to solid (metal wall) to fluid 2 (product being heated). In the event that heat transfer
occurs through several solids, the above equation can be adapted by supplementing the
solid's thickness (L) divided by its thermal conductivity ().
To simplify the calculation, the following values may be used as a reference for the
convective heat transfer coefficients:
Fluid
Convective heat transfer coefficient (h)

Water

about 1000 W/(m2C) [176 Btu/(hr-ft2F)]

Hot Water

1000 6000 W/(m2)C [176 - 1057 Btu/(hrft2F)]

Steam

6000 15000 W/(m2C) [1057 - 2641 Btu/(hrft2F)]

Example
Two jacketed kettles made of carbon steel ( = 50 W/(mC) [28.9 Btu/(hr-ftF)] ) with an
inner wall thickness of 15mm [0.049 ft] are used to heat water. One uses hot water as
the heat source, while the other uses steam. Assuming heat transfer coefficients of
1000 W/m2C [176 Btu/(hr-ft2F)] for the water being heated, 3000 W/m2C [528 Btu/(hrft2F)] for hot water, and 10000 W/m2C [1761 Btu/(hr-ft2F)] for steam, let's calculate
the U values for both heating processes.
Carbon Steel Jacketed Kettle
Hot water:

U = 612 W/(m2C)
Steam:

U = 714 W/(m2C)
In this case, steam could theoretically improve the U-value by 17%. Let's now imagine
the same kettle is lined with glass 1mm [0.0033 ft] thick ( = 0.9 W/(mC) [0.52 Btu/(hrftF)]). Including these values into the above U-value equation gives the following:
Glass-lined Jacketed Kettle
Hot water:

U = 364 W/(m2C)
Steam:

U = 398 W/(m2C)
In this case, the U-value is only improved by 9%, which shows how a poor thermal
conductor such as glass can greatly interfere with heat transfer. So in a carbon steel
kettle, for example, changing the heat source from hot water to steam can potentially
improve the U-value by several 10s of percent. However, the same effect would not be
expected in a glass-lined kettle.
Nevertheless, certain circumstances require that a kettle remain unchanged. For
example, some processes require kettles made of a certain material to prevent

reactivity with the product. If such is the case and the heat transfer rate needs to be
improved, changing the heat source from hot water to steam may provide the needed
solution.