Clin Physiol Funct Imaging (2016) 37, pp518–524 doi: 10.1111/cpf.

12327

The lactate and ventilatory thresholds in resistance

training

Luis Mate
Jose
-Mun
~oz1, Rau ~ o2

l Dom
ınguez1, Juan H. Lougedo1 and Manuel V. Garnacho-Castan
1
Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Alfonso X el Sabio University, Madrid, and 2TecnoCampus, College of Health Sciences, University of
Pompeu Fabra, Matar
o-Maresme, Barcelona, Spain

Summary

Correspondence Purpose This study was designed to identify the lactate threshold (LT) and first
Jos
e Luis Mat
e-Mu~noz, Laboratory of Biomechanics
ventilatory threshold (VT1) in a graded resistance half-squat test and determine
and Exercise Physiology, Department of Physical
Activity and Sport Sciences, Alfonso X El Sabio
whether both thresholds are produced at the same workload. A further goal was
University, Avda. de la Universidad n° 1, building to compare the visual inspection and algorithm adjustment methods of detecting
C, 3rd floor, office C-A15, 28690 Villanueva de both thresholds during graded resistance exercise.
la Ca~nada, Madrid, Spain Methods Twenty-four young men completed two test sessions 48 h apart; (i) the
E-mail: [email protected] one-repetition maximum (1RM) was determined, (ii) an incremental load test
Accepted for publication was performed to locate LT and VT1. VT1 was calculated in three different ways
Received 29 August 2015; based on pulmonary ventilation, the ventilatory equivalent of oxygen or the end-
accepted 22 October 2015
tidal oxygen pressure (as VT1-VE, VT1-VE
VO2 1 or VT1-PetO2, respectively).
Key words Results LT and VT1 were located at the same intensity of exercise during the
aerobic capacity; algorithm adjustment method; incremental load test. Using the algorithm method, the LT and VT1-VE were esti-
anaerobic threshold; graded exercise test; strength mated at 24
8  4
8% 1RM (50
6  10
5 kg) and 23
7  4
8% 1RM (48
4 
training; visual inspection method 10
0 kg), respectively; the difference between the two values being non-significant
(P = 0
127). In addition, positive correlation was observed between the two
thresholds (r = 0
761; P<0
001; intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) (0
864).
The visual inspection and algorithm adjustment methods provided similar LT and
VT1 values (r > 0
796; ICC > 0
885).
Conclusions The LT and VT1 were readily located during the incremental load half-
squat test at similar workloads using both the visual inspection and algorithm
adjustment methods. Both thresholds served to define two physiological stages (I,
II) corresponding to the zones described for endurance exercise. Thus, both LT
and VT1 could be used to prescribe the same intensity of resistance half-squat
exercise.

increase in the ventilatory equivalent for oxygen (VE
VO2 1 )

Introduction
produced in the absence of a concomitant increase in the ven-
Graded exercise tests (GXT) are used to assess aerobic capacity tilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide (VE
VCO2 1 ); and, (ii)
during endurance-type training (Bosquet et al., 2002; Faude the first increase produced in the end-tidal oxygen pressure
et al., 2009). In these tests, performance in a given endurance (PetO2) (Meyer et al., 2005).
exercise may be measured in terms of biological variables such Resistance exercises are widely used to improve several
as blood lactate concentrations or ventilatory variables. Such neuromuscular aspects of sports performance (Fry, 2004).
measures have been widely used for this purpose (Bosquet Also, in both healthy individuals and subjects with some sort
et al., 2002). The lactate threshold (LT) marks the point when of disease, resistance training (RT) improves cardiorespiratory
blood lactate concentrations start to rise exponentially from and cardiometabolic fitness (Garber et al., 2011), reducing
resting values (Davis, 1985) while the ventilatory threshold 1 the risk of all-cause mortality (FitzGerald et al., 2004; New-
(VT1) is determined as the point when pulmonary ventilation man et al., 2006; Gale et al., 2007), lowering the number of
(VE) increases disproportionally with respect to oxygen con- cardiovascular events (Tanasescu et al., 2002; Gale et al.,
sumption (VO2) (Wasserman et al., 1973). The scientific liter- 2007) and minimizing the risk of developing functional limi-
ature proposes further criteria to detect VT1: (i) the first tations (Brill et al., 2000; Manini et al., 2006). However, so

518 © 2016 Scandinavian Society of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd 37, 5, 518–524

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Lactate threshold in resistance training, J. L. Mate ~oz et al. 519

far, we have insufficient data on the dose–response relation- prior to each session, participants avoided eating or smoking,
ship between muscular fitness and health benefits (Garber and drinks were restricted to water.
et al., 2011). With the objective of defining the threshold or The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee
adequate intensity of exercise at which RT will produce car- of the Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences of
diorespiratory and metabolic improvements, researchers have the University and adhered to the tenets of the Declaration of
started to assess the workload intensities corresponding to LT Helsinki.
and VT in resistance exercises. Recent investigations have
addressed physiological responses to resistance exercise exe-
Half-squat technique
cuted at the intensity of the LT (Barros et al., 2004; Moreira
et al., 2008; de Sousa et al., 2012; Garnacho-Casta~ no et al., The subjects positioned themselves under the barbell in stand-
2015a,b), which may be determined using different methods ing position with the knees and hips fully extended and legs
(de Sousa et al., 2011). In these studies, the LT was identified spread at shoulders width. The bar was placed on the upper
in different study populations as produced at workloads back (trapezius muscle) approximately at the level of the acro-
~27–36% of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the leg mion. The subject flexed the knees and hips (eccentric action)
press (LP) (Barros et al., 2004; Oliveira et al., 2006; Moreira to lower the bar in a controlled manner until 90° flexion of the
et al., 2008; Rocha et al., 2010; Sim~ oes et al., 2010, 2013, knees. From this position, the propulsive (concentric) muscle
2014; de Sousa et al., 2012), ~30–32% 1RM in bench press action was initiated until a full extended knees and hips. The
(Oliveira et al., 2006; Moreira et al., 2008), 28
9–32
2% 1RM knee flexion of 90% required was set using a goniometer.
in biceps curl (elbow flexion) exercises (Barros et al., 2004)
and 23
35% 1RM in half-squat (HS) (Garnacho-Casta~ no et al.,
Session 1: one-repetition maximum
2015a). However, few studies have addressed the use of the
threshold VT1 in resistance exercise (de Sousa et al., 2012). Maximal strength (1RM) was determined for the HS test fol-
In only a single study, VT1 (determined as the rise in pul- lowing the method described by Baechle et al. (2000). After a
monary ventilation) was compared with LT in LP, and a standard warm-up consisting of 5-min constant running and
strong link identified between the two variables (de Sousa 5 min of joint movements and ballistic stretching, subjects
et al., 2012). To our knowledge, however, no investigation undertook a specific warm-up (one set of 3–5 HS repetitions
has yet compared the thresholds LT and VT1 in HS resistance lifting light loads). The 1RM test was then started after a
exercise. This study was designed: (i) to identify LT and VT1 2-min rest period. Weights lifted were gradually increased
in HS by executing a resistance GTX and establish whether until the 1RM, executing three to five sets of one repetition
both thresholds are produced at the same workload; and (ii) each. In the first set, the load used was 50% of the estimated
to determine whether the visual inspection and algorithm 1RM; in the second and third sets, it was 70% and 90% of
adjustment methods assign LT during graded resistance exer- this value, respectively. For subsequent sets, the weight was
cise to the same workload. adjusted until the 1RM. The 1RM was defined as the heaviest
load the subject could lift only once. The rest period between
each attempt was 4 min.
Methods
Subjects Session 2: graded exercise test
After signing an informed consent form, 24 undergraduates of After a standard warm-up followed by a specific warm-up as
the degree course in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences par- described for session 1, subjects executed a discontinuous
ticipated in this study. Subject characteristics were as follows: GXT HS test as described by Garnacho-Casta~ no et al. (2015a,
age 21
5  1
8 years, height 180
1  5
2 cm, body mass b). The test was performed at intensities relative to the 1RM
81
9  8
7 kg and body mass index 25
2  2
1 kg
m 2). determined in session 1, starting at 10% 1RM and increasing
Elite athletes and subjects taking medication or performance this load in steps as 20, 25, 30, 35, 40% of 1RM, selected
enhancing drugs were excluded from the study. As inclusion according to the results of investigations that have located the
criteria, participants had at least 6 months of experience with aerobic-anaerobic threshold for RT at 25–35% of the 1RM
resistance training and a 1RM in the HS of at least 150 kg (Moreira et al., 2008; Sim~ oes et al., 2010). Each step lasted
(mean 1RM = 203
7  42
2 kg). 1 min and included 30 repetitions of 2 s each (1 s eccentric
Each participant completed two sessions of HS exercises phase, 1 s concentric phase). During a 2-min rest period
separated by 48 h. In session 1, the individual’s 1RM was between each step, blood samples (5 ll) for lactate determi-
determined and in session 2, LT and VT1 were established in nation were collected by finger pricking 30 s after each work
a discontinuous incremental test in which the load was gradu- period. This rhythm was set by a metronome. Lactate levels
ally increased in small percentages relative to the 1RM. During were determined using a portable lactate analyzer (Lactate Pro
the course of the study, the participants were instructed to LT-1710; Arkray Factory Inc., KDK Corporation, Siga, Japan)
refrain from sport or other forms of exercise. During the 2 h (Mclean et al., 2004).

© 2016 Scandinavian Society of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd 37, 5, 518–524

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520 Lactate threshold in resistance training, J. L. Mate ~oz et al.

calculating LT, VT1-VE, VT1-VE
VO2 1 and VT1-PetO2, and cor-

Lactate threshold
relations among the four thresholds confirmed by the Bland
The LT was detected using two different established methods and Altman method (Bland & Altman, 1986). All data are pro-
(Moreira et al., 2008; Sim~ oes et al., 2010; de Sousa et al., vided as their mean (M) and standard deviation (SD). All sta-
2011): the visual inspection method and the algorithm adjust- tistical tests were performed using the software package
ment method. The first procedure consists of visually detect- MedCalc version 14.10.2 (Bvba, Mariakerke, Belgium). Signifi-
ing the start of the exponential increase in a plot of blood cance was set at P<0
05.
lactate concentration against workload (Wasserman et al.,
1973). Using this method, two experienced observers inde-
Results
pendently determined the LT in each subject. When there was
disagreement between the observers, the opinion of a third The thresholds LT and VT1 (according to the three criteria)
observer was sought. For the algorithm adjustment method, obtained using the visual inspection and algorithm adjustment
the 2-segment regression analysis protocol described by de methods are provided in Table 1.
Sousa et al. (2011) was followed. In Table 2, the LT obtained is compared with each of the
VT1 detected (VT1-VE, VT1-VE
VO2 1 and VT1-PetO2) using
the algorithm method and these latter thresholds are com-
Ventilatory threshold
pared among each other. With the algorithm method, the lac-
During the GXT, respiratory gas exchange data were continu- tate and ventilatory thresholds (LT and VT1-VE), were
ously recorded using a previously calibrated breath-by-breath calculated at 24
8  4
8% 1RM (50
6  10
5 kg) and
system (Vmax spectra 29; Sensormedics Corp., Yorba Linda, 23
7  4
8% 1RM (48
4  10
0 kg), respectively, with no
California, USA). The variables measured were those proposed significant differences detected between the two values
in the literature to establish VT1: VE, VE
VO2 1 and PetO2 (t = 1
582, P = 0
127) (Figs 1 and 2).
(Meyer et al., 2005; Herrero et al., 2007; San Juan et al., Further, there was positive correlation between the LT and
2007). These variables were recorded as the mean of readings VT1-VE, and this correlation was significant (r = 0
761;
taken per 30 s to establish the minute of work and thus calcu- P<0
001). The ICC was 0
864, indicating a strong relationship
late the mean for each phase. Using both the visual inspection given |r| > 0
70. When the same algorithm adjustment
and algorithm methods, the VT1 was determined in 3 ways: method was used to compare LT with VT1-VE
VO2 1 , corre-
(i) as the workload at which the VE starts to exponentially sponding loads were 24
8  4
8% 1RM (50
6  10
5 kg) and
increase (VT1-VE), (ii) as the workload corresponding to the 23
5  4
6% 1RM (47
8  9
9 kg), respectively, again with
first increase in the ventilatory equivalent of O2 produced no significant differences (t = 2
046, P = 0
052) and with
in the absence of a concomitant increase in VE
VCO2 1 strong positive correlation (r = 0
768; P<0
001; ICC = 0
869).
(VT1-VE
VO2 1 ) and (iii) as the workload corresponding to In our Bland and Altman study, a bias (mean of differences
the first increase produced in the end-tidal partial pressure of between measures) of 1
08 for confidence limits of 95%
oxygen (VT1-PetO2). (4
7  6
8%) was detected in a plot of LT against VT1-VE,
with points for all subjects falling within this confidence
interval (Fig. 3).
Statistical analysis
The remaining comparisons of LT against the different ven-
The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to check data normality. To tilatory thresholds returned a systematic bias close to zero and
compare workloads between LT and VT1 we used the Student all values within the 95% confidence interval with the excep-
t-test. Intraclass correlation (ICC) and Pearson’s correlation tion of the odd outlier. This indicates the acceptable reliability
coefficients were used to assess the relationship between the of the measurements used to obtain the different ventilatory
visual inspection and algorithm adjustment methods of thresholds in this study population.

Table 1 Lactate and ventilatory thresholds determined by the visual inspection and algorithm adjustment methods.

Visual inspection Algorithm adjustment

% 1RM Kg % 1RM Kg

LT 25
41  4
6 51
8  10
7 24
82  4
8 50
6  10
5

VT1 VE 24
37  4
5 49
6  10
2 23
74  4
8 48
4  10
0
VT1 VE
VO2 1 22
70  4
4 46
2  9
6 23
49  4
6 47
8  9
9
VT1 PetO2 23
54  4
8 48
0  9
9 23
67  4
6 48
2  10
0

1RM, 1 repetition maximum; Kg, kilograms; LT, lactate threshold; PetO2, end-tidal pressure of oxygen; VT1, ventilatory threshold; VE, pulmonary
ventilation; VE
VO2 1 , ventilatory equivalent for oxygen.

© 2016 Scandinavian Society of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd 37, 5, 518–524

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Lactate threshold in resistance training, J. L. Mate ~oz et al. 521

Table 2 Comparing LT with VT1 determined according to the different criteria using the algorithm adjustment model.

Pearson
T Student correlation Bland & Altman
ICC
t CI (95%) P R P ICC Systematic Bias CI (95%)

%LT Alg versus % VT1-VE Alg 1
582 2
47 to 0
33 0
127 0
761 0
000 0
864 1
08  2
9 4
68 to 6
83
%LT Alg versus % VT1-VE VO2 1 Alg 2
046 2
67 to 0
01 0
052 0
768 0
000 0
869 1
33  3
2 5
04 to 7
69
%LT Alg versus % VT1-PetO2 Alg 1
321 0
65 to 2
93 0
199 0
592 0
002 0
743 1
14  4
2 7
32 to 9
61
%VT1 VE Alg versus % VT1-VE VO2 1 Alg 0
380 1
66 to 1
146 0
707 0
751 0
000 0
857 0
25  3
0 5
79 to 6
29
%VT1 PetO2 Alg versus % VT1-VE Alg 0
076 1
87 to 2
01 0
940 0
528 0
008 0
690 0
07  4
6 9
11 to 9
25
%VT1 PetO2 Alg versus % VT1-VE VO2 1 Alg 0
282 1
56 to 1
19 0
780 0
749 0
000 0
857 0
19  3
3 6
69 to 6
32

Alg, algorithm; CI, confidence interval; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; PetO2, end-tidal pressure of oxygen; LT, lactate threshold; VT1, venti-
latory threshold; VE, pulmonary ventilation; VE
VO2 1 , ventilatory equivalent for oxygen.

9 10
8 9
8
7 VT1-VE = 23·7% 1RM
LT = 24·8% 1RM 7
[ LACTATE ] (mmol·l–1)

VE (L·min–1)
6
6
5 5
4 4
3
3
2
2
1
1 0
0 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 Relative work intensity (%)
Relative work intensity (%)
Figure 2 Determining VT1 from VE by the algorithm adjustment
Figure 1 Determining LT by the algorithm adjustment method.
method.

The results of the study in which we compare the use of 6

+1·96 SD
the visual inspection and algorithm adjustment methods to
4
identify LT and VT1-VE, VT1-VE
VO2 1 and VT1-PetO2 are 4·7

shown in Table 3. No significant differences (Student’s t-test) 2

between any of the values obtained using the two methods
Mean
LT - VT1-VE

were observed. In addition, ICCs were high (LT = 0
918; 0

15 20 25 30 35
VT1-VE = 0
885; VT1-VE
VO2 1 = 0
904; VT1-PetO2 = 0
963),
–2 –1·08
and the lowest Pearson’s coefficient r was 0
8 (LT = 0
848;
VT1-VE = 0
796; VT1-VE
VO2 1 = 0
828; VT1-PetO2 = 0
929). –4

–6 –6·8
Discussion –1·96 SD
–8
Mean of LT and VT1-VE
The main finding of this study was that LT and VT1 (calcu-
Figure 3 Bland & Altman plot showing agreement between LT and
lated from three different variables) were located at the same VT1 –VE.
intensity of exercise during an incremental load resistance
exercise test (half-squat). This indicates that these two thresh- ship between LT and VT1 has also been detected in several
olds are positively correlated such that the break points in studies examining endurance exercise performance through
both blood lactate concentrations and pulmonary ventilation GTX (Tanaka et al., 1983; Aunola & Rusko, 1986; McLellan &
in this exercise modality occur at a similar workload or inten- Gass, 1989; Anderson & Rhodes, 1991; Burke et al., 1994;
sity (LT: 24
8% 1RM and VT1: ~23
5–23
7% 1RM as deter- Dickhuth et al., 1999). The LT, or exponential increase in
mined by the algorithm adjustment method). This observation blood lactate concentrations from resting levels that occurs
is consistent with the lack of significant differences detected during incremental exercise, marks the onset of metabolic
by other authors between LT and VT1 in another resistance acidosis (Davis, 1985). This rise in blood lactate leads to a
exercise, the leg press (27
1%  3
7 and 30
3  7
9% of disproportionate increase in carbon dioxide production
1RM, respectively) (de Sousa et al., 2012). A strong relation- (VCO2) with respect to oxygen consumption due to the

© 2016 Scandinavian Society of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd 37, 5, 518–524

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522 Lactate threshold in resistance training, J. L. Mate ~oz et al.

Table 3 Comparing the visual and algorithm methods of detecting the lactate and ventilatory thresholds.

Pearson
T Student correlation ICC Bland & Altman

t CI (95%) P R P ICC Systematic bias CI (95%)

%LT Alg versus %LT Visual 1
125 0
50 to 1
70 0
272 0
848 0
000 0
918 0
595  2
6 5
78 to 4
59
%VT1 -VE Alg versus % VT1- VE Visual 1
021 0
64 to 1
89 0
318 0
796 0
000 0
885 0
625  3
0 6
62 to 5
37
%VT1 -VE VO2 1 Alg versus % VT1-VE 1
451 1
90 to 0
33 0
160 0
828 0
000 0
904 0
783  2
6 4
51 to 6
07
VO2 1 Visual
%VT1- PetO2 Alg versus % VT1-PetO2 Visual 0
379 0
61 to 0
89 0
708 0
929 0
000 0
963 0
137  1
8 3
41 to 3
69

Alg, algorithm; CI, confidence interval; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; PetO2, end-tidal partial pressure of oxygen; LT, lactate threshold;
VT1, ventilatory threshold; VE, pulmonary ventilation; VE
VO2 1 , ventilatory equivalent for oxygen.

buffering effect of bicarbonate on the protons arising from tion methods, respectively): 28–32
2% 1RM (Barros et al.,
the disassociation of lactate (Wasserman et al., 1973). The 2004), 36
6% 1RM (Oliveira et al., 2006), 31
0–36
7% 1RM
increased partial pressure of VCO2 activates the carotid bodies (Moreira et al., 2008), 31
6–32
3% 1RM (Rocha et al., 2010),
to produce the disproportionate increase in VE, which is 30% 1RM (Sim~ oes et al., 2010), 23
3–31
6% 1RM (de Sousa
related to the workload corresponding to the so-called VT1-VE et al., 2011), 27
1% 1RM (de Sousa et al., 2012), 28% 1RM
(Wasserman et al., 1975; Meyer et al., 2005). As VO2 shows a (Sim~ oes et al., 2013), and ~30% de 1RM (Sim~ oes et al.,
linear relationship with the intensity of exercise at the inten- 2014). This could be because the exercise stimulus for the HS
sity of LT, the rise in VE unaccompanied by a concomitant is greater than in the LP, given the larger number of muscle
rise in VO2, would explain the correlation observed between groups involved as a consequence of the work of synergistic
VT1-VE and VT1-VE
VO2 1 (Davis et al., 1979). The two latter and stabilizing muscles needed to maintain the position and
forms of the ventilatory threshold are also related to VT1- support the loaded barbell. It should also be considered that
PetO2, which represents the lowest partial pressure of O2 the LP exercise is executed while lying at 45° whereas the HS
before this starts to rise. Accordingly, VT1-PetO2 reflects an involves standing, compromising the cardiovascular system
intensity of exercise at which the consumption of oxygen is more.
more efficient (Davis et al., 1976). Hence, the thresholds LT Our half-squat VT1-VE, VT1-VE
VEO2 and VT1-PetO2 values
and VT1 in HS determined using this discontinuous incremen- determined using the algorithm and visual inspection methods
tal protocol could separate two physiological stages: stage I, in were also lower than those of the single study reporting LP
which the intensity of exercise depends essentially on an aero- VT1 values (de Sousa et al., 2012) (22
7–24
4% 1RM versus
bic-type metabolism; and stage II, when blood lactate levels 30
3% 1RM).
increase in response to a greater role of anaerobic glucose In future studies, it should be determined whether different
breakdown to take on the greater workload. In this second physiological variables remain stable during a constant load
stage, PetO2 starts to increase along with VE and VCO2, with- HS test conducted at the intensities of LT and VT1. Further,
out a parallel rise produced in VO2 (Meyer et al., 2005). These using the method proposed here to prescribe a constant work-
work intensity zones correspond to the zones described for an load at the intensity of LT, the maximal lactate steady state
endurance exercise by Skinner & McLellan (1980) and other (MLSS) could be calculated through the triphasic model for a
recent studies (Binder et al., 2008; Hofmann & Tschakert, resistance exercise defined by Skinner & McLellan (1980). This
2010). Based on the workloads obtained, resistance training model has two inflexion points (aerobic and anaerobic thresh-
zones could be prescribed targeting a specific metabolism olds) differentiating three aerobic work zones.
depending on the objective pursued both in high level athletes According to the second objective of our study, we tried to
and untrained healthy adults or individuals with some disease. establish whether identifying LT and VT1 using the visual
Either of the two thresholds could be used to reflect the inspection method would return the same workload as the
zones, although VT1 has the benefit that it can be determined mathematical algorithm adjustment method. We opted for this
non-invasively, while the method used to obtain lactate con- method over other mathematical models such as the log–log
centrations, albeit minimally invasive, is less cumbersome and or QLac, as this procedure has been found to be more accu-
costly. rate to obtain the LT (de Sousa et al., 2011). Our findings
Recent investigations have examined the physiological indicate that the use of the visual inspection or algorithm
response to resistance exercise conducted at an intensity adjustment methods to calculate LT and VT1 provides similar
corresponding to LT. Several authors have reported higher LT results with high intraclass correlation and Pearson coeffi-
values determined in incremental LP protocols than the LT val- cients. The LT appears at around 25% 1RM and VT1 at 24%
ues obtained during HS exercise in our study (24
8% and 1RM. De de Sousa et al. (2011) also noted good agreement
25
4% 1RM for the algorithm adjustment and visual inspec- between the visual inspection and algorithm adjustment meth-

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Lactate threshold in resistance training, J. L. Mate ~oz et al. 523

ods for LT (26
9  5
2% versus 27
8  3
6% 1RM, respec- (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP) and tumour necrosis factor
tively) in a LP exercise. These data are also consistent with (TNF)], while increasing lean mass and muscle strength (Rata-
observations in aerobic exercises such as the cycle ergometer mess et al., 2009). Improvements in these last two factors have
whereby LT is located at the same workload using the visual been related to a lower risk of suffering an adverse cardiores-
inspection and log–log methods (Davis et al., 2007). piratory event (Ratamess et al., 2009). High intensity RT exer-
Both the visual inspection methods and algorithm adjust- cise until exhaustion (80–90% 1RM) has been linked to an
ment procedures have their pros and cons. The latter is a excessive blood pressure increase (Williams et al., 2007).
more exact method allowing for the location of LT or VT1 at However, the low intensity of RT exercise performed at the
any workload, whereas with the inspection method, thresh- LT or VT would have no such impact and would therefore
olds can only be determined for the precise workloads at also be suitable for individuals with cardiovascular disease,
which measurements were obtained. However, some degree provided they undertake correct breathing and avoid the Val-
of competence or experience is required for the algorithm cal- salva manoeuver.
culations. The inspection method is also more subjective and On the other hand, half-squat RT works large muscle
depends on the experience of the investigators to calculate LT groups of the lower limbs, improving functional performance
and VT1. It is also a much easier procedure. and avoiding the risk of falls, especially in older subjects.

Practical applications Conclusion

Workloads for RT corresponding to the LT could be an ideal In conclusion, our findings indicate that:
training stimulus to control blood glucose in individuals with 1 The thresholds LT and VT1 were readily located during an
type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2). This is because at work inten- incremental load HS test. Breakpoints of both thresholds were
sities above that of the LT, the catecholamine and glucagon produced at similar workloads and marked two physiological
response increases, inducing liver glucogenolysis and gluco- stages (I, II) corresponding to the zones described in the liter-
neogenesis and raising glucose production over its absorption. ature for endurance exercise.
Thus, the work intensity corresponding to the LT will opti- 2 Both the visual inspection and algorithm adjustment meth-
mize muscle glucose uptake (Berg, 1995). In older subjects ods served to identify LT and VT1 at the same intensity of
who are obese and have DM2, aerobic exercise is often a chal- exercise. This suggests that although the simpler inspection
lenge that is hard to overcome. Thus, RT at LT or VT intensity method is more subjective, it could be used to identify target
could be an effective option to improve insulin resistance, and work zones.
reduce visceral fat stores while gaining lean mass, strength 3 Both LT and VT1 could be used to prescribe the same inten-
and cardiorespiratory capacity. sity of resistance HS exercise.
It should also be considered that one of the main objectives
in healthy adults as well as elderly subjects is to delay the
advance of sarcopenia. This is all the more important given Acknowledgments
the rise in obesity that has accompanied the recent change
This work was supported by a grant from the Universidad
produced in lifestyle habits (Dempsey et al., 2014), determin-
Alfonso X El Sabio Foundation (ref. # UAX/1.010.509).
ing that sarcopenia may commence at 30 years of age in
sedentary individuals (Jansen et al., 2000). Resistance training
at an intensity equivalent to the LT or VT, besides regulating Conflict of interest
blood [glucose], could be a useful therapeutic tool in these
The authors have no conflict of interest.
subjects to reduce the waist:hip ratio, body mass index, fat
mass and proinflammatory cytokine levels [interleukin-6

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