vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvi

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 REQUIREMENT OF A DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM 2
1.2.1 Need for Compensation 3
1.2.2 Shunt Compensation 4
1.2.3 The Ideal Compensator 6
1.2.4 Power Loss and Voltage Improvement 7
1.2.5 Benefits of Reactive Power Compensation 8
1.2.6 Typical Placement Studies 10
1.2.7 Considerations in Locating Capacitors 11
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS 13
1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW 14
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS 21

2 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM LOAD FLOW 23

2.1 INTRODUCTION 23
2.2 LOAD FLOW SOLUTION USING
NEWTON – RAPHSON METHOD 24
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.2.1 Advantages of Newton Raphson

Method 28
2.3 THREE PHASE LOAD FLOW SOLUTION
FOR UNBALANCED RADIAL SYSTEM 29
2.3.1 Case:1 (Radial Main Feeder) 29
2.3.2 Case:2 (Lateral Feeder) 30
2.3.3 Algorithm for Load Flow Solution
(Balanced) 32
2.3.4 Algorithm for Three – Phase
Unbalanced Load Flow 35
2.4 CONCLUSION 37

3 FUZZY EXPERT SYSTEM AND EVOLUTIONARY

ALGORITHMS 38
3.1 INTRODUCTION 38
3.2 OVERVIEW OF FUZZY LOGIC 38
3.2.1 Fuzzy inferencing and De-Fuzzification
Techniques 40
3.3 EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMS 41
3.3.1 Overview of Particle Swarm Optimization 42
3.3.1.1. Basics of PSO 43
3.3.2 Overview of HPSO 47
3.3.2.1 Basics of HPSO 47
3.3.3 Overview of MAPSO 48
3.3.3.1 Basics of Multi Agent System (MAS) 49
3.3.3.2 Implementation of MAPSO 50
3.3.4 Modified MAPSO (MOD-MAPSO) 53
3.3.5 Overview of Differential Evolution 53
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.4 CONCLUSION 57

4 CAPACITOR LOCATION USING FUZZY EXPERT

SYSTEM 58
4.1 INTRODUCTION 58
4.2 FUZZY BASED CAPACITOR LOCATION 58
4.3 ALGORITHM FOR CANDIDATE NODE
IDENTIFICATION BY USING FES 61
4.4 CASE STUDIES 62
4.5 CONCLUSION 67

5 CAPACITOR ALLOCATION USING

EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMS WITH
CONSTANT LOAD CONDITIONS 68

5.1 INTRODUCTION 68
5.2 THE OBJECTIVE FUNCTION 69
5.2.1 Savings Function 71
5.3 PSO ALGORITHM FOR OPTIMAL
CAPACITOR SIZING 72
5.4 HPSO ALGORITHM FOR OPTIMAL
CAPACITOR SIZING 72
5.5 MAPSO ALGORITHM FOR OPTIMAL
CAPACITOR SIZING 73
5.6 MOD-MAPSO ALGORITHM FOR OPTIMAL
CAPACITOR SIZING 74
5.7 DE ALGORITHM FOR OPTIMAL
CAPACITOR SIZING 75
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.8 CASE STUDIES 75

5.8.1 Case (i) 15-bus Radial Distribution System 76
5.8.2 Case (ii) IEEE 34 bus Radial Distribution
System 82
5.8.3 Capacitor Allocation as per manufacturer
data sheet 87
5.9 CONCLUSION 91

6 CAPACITOR ALLOCATION WITH DYNAMIC

LOAD CONDITIONS 92

6.1 INTRODUCTION 92
6.2 THE OBJECTIVE FUNCTION 93
6.3 ALGORITHM FOR CAPACITOR ALLOCATION
FOR VARYING LOAD 95
6.4 TEST SYSTEMS 96
6.5 ANNUAL LOAD FORECAST DATA 98
6.6 CAPACITOR ALLOCATION ON 15-BUS
SYSTEM 100
6.7 CAPACITOR ALLOCATION ON 34-BUS
SYSTEM 105
6.8 CAPACITOR ALLOCATION ON 69-BUS
SYSTEM 112
6.9 CONCLUSION 117
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 118

7.1 SUMMARY 118

7.2 GENERAL CONCLUSION 120
7.3 FUTURE SCOPE 121

APPENDIX 1 LINE AND LOAD DATA OF

15 BUS TEST SYSTEM 123
APPENDIX 2 LINE AND LOAD DATA OF
IEEE 34 BUS TEST SYSTEM 124
APPENDIX 3 LINE DATA OF 69 BUS TEST
SYSTEM 125
APPENDIX 4 PRICE LIST OF 12.47kV
CAPACITOR BANK 128

REFERENCES 130

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 136

CURRICULUM VITAE 139

 xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.1 Membership function for Power Loss Index 59

4.2 Membership function for Bus Voltage 60
4.3 Membership function for Sensitivity Index 60
4.4 Decision matrix for determining suitable capacitor
location (Ploss Vs Voltage) 60
4.5 Fuzzy result for 15 bus radial distribution system 63
4.6 Output of load flow program for IEEE 34 bus
Radial Distribution System 65
4.7 Output of Fuzzy expert system for IEEE 34 bus
Radial Distribution System 66
5.1 Parameters of PSO, HPSO, MAPSO and DE 76
5.2 Capacitor sizing results for 15 bus system with
Constant load 77
5.3 Power loss before and after capacitor placement
For 15 bus system with constant load 78
5.4 Average power loss before and after capacitor placement
For 15 bus system with constant load 78
5.5 Voltage profile at buses before and after capacitor
Placement for 15 bus system with constant load 79
5.6 Average voltage profile before and after capacitor
Placement 79
5.7 Comparative results of power loss and average voltage
Profile for 15 bus system with constant load 80
 xiii

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.8 Savings analysis for 15 bus system with constant load 81

5.9 Power loss at buses, after capacitor placement for IEEE
34-bus Radial Distribution System with constant load 83
5.10 Voltage at buses after capacitor placement for IEEE
34-bus Radial Distribution System with constant load 84
5.11 Capacitor sizing results for IEEE 34-bus RDS with
Constant load 86
5.12 Summary of IEEE 34 bus RDS with constant load 86
5.13 Comparison of various methods and saving for IEEE
34 bus RDS with constant load 87
5.14 Capacitor sizing results for 34 bus system based on
manufacturer’s data sheet 88
5.15 Net saving parameters for 34 bus system based on
manufacturer’s data sheet 88
5.16 Power loss at buses for 34 bus system after capacitor
placement based on manufacturer’s data sheet 89
5.17 Voltage at buses for 34 bus system after capacitor
Placement based on manufacturer’s data sheet 90
5.18 Summary of IEEE 34 bus system based on
manufacturer’s data sheet 91
6.1 Simulation Parameters 93
6.2 Annual load data 100
6.3 Output of load flow program for 15-bus system 100
6.4 Output of fuzzy expert system for 15-bus system 101
6.5 Capacitor sizing result of 15-bus system 102
6.6 Comparison of total power loss and average voltage
Profile for 15-bus system 103
6.7 Savings analysis of 15-bus system 104
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TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

6.8 Output of load flow program for 34-bus system 106

6.9 Output of Fuzzy Expert System for 34-bus system 107
6.10 Capacitor sizing result for 34-bus system 109
6.11 Comparison of total power loss and average voltage
Profile for 34-bus system 111
6.12 Savings analysis for 34-bus system 112
6.13 Output of load flow program for 69-bus system 113
6.14 Capacitor sizing result for 69-Bus system 114
6.15 Comparison of Total power loss and average voltage
Profile for 69 Bus system 115
6.16 Savings analysis for 69-bus system 116
6.17 Summary of results 117
 xv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.1 One line diagram of a main distribution feeder 29

2.2 One line diagram of section of a lateral feeder 31
3.1 Input / Output mapping problem 39
3.2 Structure of the Environment 50
4.1 15-bus RDS 62
4.2 IEEE 34-bus RDS 64
5.1 Power loss in each bus for 15 bus system with
constant load 80
5.2 Voltage in each buses for 15 bus system with
constant load 80
5.3 Convergence characteristics of different
algorithm for 15 bus RDS 81
5.4 Power losses in each bus for IEEE 34 bus RDS
with constant 85
5.5 Voltage profile in each bus for IEEE 34 bus
RDS with constant load 85
6.1 15-Bus Radial distribution system 96
6.2 IEEE 34-Bus radial distribution system 97
6.3 69-Bus Radial distribution feeder 98
6.4 Daily load curve and Load duration curve 98
6.5 Operation status of daily load curve 99
6.6 Voltage profile for summer load high season 105
6.7 Power loss profile for summer load high
season 105
 xvi

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Symbols
Ynk - Admittances connected between nodes n and k
Vi - Bus Voltage at node i
Ke - Capacitor Energy Cost of Losses (0.06$/kWh)
Kcf - Capacitor Installation Cost (1000$)
Kc - Capacitor Marginal Cost (4$/kVAr)
s - Capacitor placement suitability membership function
Sn - Complex power for node ‘n’
K1,Kn,Kr - Constants
S - Cost function
Ii - Current flowing through the line ‘i’in Ampere
In - current injected at node ‘ n’
xd - Current position of the particle at the dth iteration
ELi - Energy loss in kW in load level ‘i’
XL - Inductive reactance in Ohms
max - Inertia weight factor-maximum
min - Inertia weight factor-minimum
o
n - Initial value of voltage angle
Vn0 - Initial value of Voltage magnitude at node ‘n’

J - Jacobian Matrix
Tj - Load Duration
QL - Load Reactive Power (kVAr)
PL - Load Real Power (kW)
PLj - Load Real Power at jth bus (kW)
vmax - Maximun value of particle velocity
p, v - Membership functions of the power loss index and voltage
Vi,G+1 - Mutant vector generated
 xvii

F - Mutation factor
Ncap - Number of Capacitor Locations
nk - Phase angle between the node ‘n’ and ‘k’
x - Position of the particle
φ - Power factor angle
Pj - Power loss during jth load level
Pl - Power loss in kW
r - Rate of energy(taken as $0.06/kWh)
Qci - Rating of Capacitor on bus ‘i'
Qcmax - Rating of capacitor-maximum
Qcmin - Rating of capacitor-minimum
IX - Reactive power component of current in Ampere
Qci - Reactive Power Injection from Capacitor to node i
Pp, Qp - Real and Imaginary Components for a Load Bus
Pi, Qi - real and reactive power flows into the sending end of branch i+1
connecting nodes i and i+1
Pp, [V]p - Real Power and Voltage for Generator Bus
IR - Real power component of current in Ampere
PLoss - Real Power Loss
Ri - Resistance of the line ‘i' in Ohms
Qns - Specified set value of reactive power at node ‘n’
Pns - Specified set value of real power at node ‘n’
V0 - Substation Bus Voltage Magnitude
Xi,G - Target vector
Tj - Time duration for jth load level
Qc - Total kVAr
Ui,G+1 - Trial vector
rand() - Uniform random value
v - Velocity of the particle
 xviii

vd - Velocity of the particle at dth iteration.

k - Voltage angle at bus ‘k’
n - Voltage angle at bus ‘n’
Vmax - Voltage at bus-maximum
Vmin - Voltage at bus-minimum
Vk - Voltage at node ‘k’
Vn - Voltage at node’n’
c1,c2 - Weighting factor of the acceleration term

Abbreviations

IKP - Annual rate of generation cost (taken as 0.2)

IKC - Annual rate of cost of capacitor (taken as 0.2)
IKF - Annual rate of cost of feeder, taken as 0.2
ANN - Artificial Neural Network
AVR - Automatic Voltage Regulator
KF - Benefits due to released feeder capacity (kVA)
KP - Benefits due to released demand(kW)
KE - Benefits Due to Saving in Energy (kWh)
CSI - Capacitor (Candidate) Suitability(Sensitivity)Index
CC - Capacitor cost
ICKC - Cost of capacitor (taken as $4/kVAr)
CKF - Cost of feeder(taken as $3.43/kVA)
CKP - Cost of generation (taken as $200/kW)
KC - Cost of Installation of Capacitor ($)
CR - Cross over
DE - Differential Evolution
EL - Energy loss
ELC - Energy loss cost
ES - Expert System
 xix

EHV - Extra High Voltage

FES - Fuzzy Expert System
GA - Genetic algorithm
HPSO - Hybrid Particle Swarm Optimization
MNIP - Mixed –Integer Nonlinear Optimization Problem
MAS - Multi agent system
MAPSO - Multi-Agent Particle Swarm Optimization
NS - Net savings($)
L - Number of Load Level
ONLTC - On-Load Tap changer
PSO - Particle Swarm Optimization
PLI - Power loss index
RDS - Radial distribution System
VAR - Reactive Volt Ampere
KP - Reduced demand(kW)
KF - Released feeder capacity(kVA)
KE - Saving in energy(kWh)
VD - Voltage Drop in Volts
VR - Voltage rise in Volts