Let's talk about meat:

changing dietary behaviour for the 21st century

by Sue Dibb & Dr. Ian Fitzpatrick

December 2014
Acknowledgements:
Eating Better is grateful to the UK Health Forum (Research and Information Services team) for un-
dertaking the literature review and to Dr Ian Fitzpatrick who was commissioned to analyse and re-
view the literature. We are also grateful for the advice of Dr Helen Crawley, Dr Angie Clonan, Dr Tara
Garnett, Andrew Darnton, Vicki Hird, Jen Elford, David Hall. Responsibility for the content of the re-
port remains with Eating Better.

We are also grateful to the Vegetarian Society for providing funding to enable Eating Better to com-
mission Dr Ian Fitzpatrick, to Friends of the Earth and the A-Team Foundation for funding Eating
Better’s 2013 and 2014 YouGov surveys. We are also grateful to funding from the Esmée Fairbairn
Foundation for core funding for Eating Better.

Website: www.eating-better.org
Contact: [email protected]

Eating Better: for a fair, green, healthy future (www.eating-better.org) is a growing UK-based
broad alliance that is calling for action by governments, the food industry and all those who can
make a difference, to help people eat a greater variety of plant-based foods and less and better meat
(red, white & processed); and to support farming that produces meat in ways that benefit the envi-
ronment, health, global food security and animal welfare.

Launched in July 2013, with the endorsement of celebrity chef and campaigner, Hugh Fearnley-
Whittingstall, Eating Better brings together a growing number of national supporting organisations
and partner networks from a diverse range of fields, collaborating towards a shared vision and goals.
These include interests and expertise from public health, environment, animal welfare, faith groups,
campaigning, research, international development and responsible food.

Eating Better’s vision is a world in which everyone values and has access to healthy, humane and
sustainable diets. High meat consuming countries and individuals have reduced their consumption
in line with health recommendations and GHG reduction targets. Meat is produced humanely and
sustainably, its production provides sustainable livelihoods, environmental benefits and it is con-
sumed in quantities consistent with good health and global resource use capacity.

Our mission is:

To raise awareness of why we need a shift to more plant-based eating and less and better
meat consumption.

To build support and lobby policy makers, businesses and others who can make a difference
that the time is right to incorporate Eating Better’s approach into their policies and prac-
tices.

To stimulate long-term cultural shifts by devising new ways of framing the ‘eat less meat’
message that are compelling, inclusive and attract public support.

Let's talk about meat: changing dietary behaviour for the 21st century,
by Sue Dibb & Dr. Ian Fitzpatrick is published by Eating Better, December 2014.
Copies can be downloaded at: http://www.eating-better.org/uploads/documents/Let’sTalkAboutMeat.pdf
 Contents

1. Executive Summary page 4

Key Findings page 4
Recommendations page 6

2. Introduction page 8

3. Background to behaviour change page 10

4. Meat consumption: Where are we now? Page 13

5. Drivers, opportunities and barriers Page 18

5.1 Habits Page 18
5.2 Cultural significance Page 18
5.3 Price/Cost Page 18
5.4 Convenience Page 19
5.5 Interest in health Page 19
5.6 Awareness of the environmental impacts Page 21
5.7 Concern for animal welfare Page 21
5.8 Interest in provenance and traceability Page 22
5.9 Knowledge about alternatives to meat Page 23
5.10 Food scares Page 24

6. Strategies for change Page 25

6.1 Policy response Page 25
6.2 Civil society response Page 25
6.3Business response Page 26
6.4 Research response Page 27

7. Conclusion Page 28

8. References Page 29

3
1. Executive Summary

Strong evidence now exists of the need to shift diets towards reduced levels of
meat-eating among high consuming countries like the UK to help address
climate change, promote public health and help feed the world more fairly and
humanely.

But understanding how to achieve this dietary behaviour change has not yet
received the attention it deserves.

This report intends to stimulate engagement and action towards addressing

this important question.

Eating Better has undertaken a review of relevant consumption patterns,

trends, and people’s attitudes and behaviours. We identify ten drivers that
could provide opportunities for encouraging dietary shifts. We also highlight
research and policy gaps and make recommendations.

Key findings:

 In 2014, a YouGov survey for Eating Better shows that more than
a third of people in the UK (35%) report they are willing to eat
less meat, with one-in-five (20%) saying they have cut back in the
last year. Despite this significant interest in eating less meat, our
evidence review found only very limited research to directly
understand the public’s knowledge, attitudes and behaviours
towards eating less meat, or that sought to understand how best
to achieve this dietary transition.

 This review has identified ten potential drivers for motivating

behaviour change towards Eating Better’s goal to encourage more
plant-based and ‘less and better’ meat eating. Promising drivers
include concern for health, concern for farm animal welfare and
cost savings of eating less meat.

 Concern for climate change, the environment and feeding the

world more fairly currently rate less highly as potential
motivators of behaviour change. There are low levels of
awareness of meat-eating having these impacts – only 28% of
people agree that livestock production has significant impacts on
the environment.

 Concerns about meat authenticity, provenance and safety -

brought to the public’s attention by the horsemeat scandal in
2013 and concerns about Campylobacter contamination in
chicken in 2014 - have impacted on consumer attitudes, but less
clearly on long-term purchasing behaviour.

4
  Habitual behaviours towards food choices and the strong cultural
and personal significance of meat eating for many are potential
barriers to change. Men in particular tend to be higher meat
consumers and less willing to consider eating less. By
comparison, women eat less red meat. Young people appear more
open to ‘flexitarian’ eating with the highest proportion of non-
meat eaters, potentially indicative of a generational shift in
attitudes and behaviours towards meat eating.

It is increasingly well understood that successful behaviour change requires a

systemic approach that goes beyond persuading or ‘nudging’ individuals to
change their behaviour, to include government policies and practices, new and
different business practices, and civil society initiatives working in synergy to
facilitate the desired behaviour change.

A broad range of civil society organisations is working to raise awareness and

encourage behaviour change towards less and/or better meat consumption.
However we found that the evidence for advocating reduced meat
consumption as part of healthy sustainable diets has not yet translated into
policies and practices from government to support consumer behaviour
change. In particular the UK, unlike some other countries, has not yet
published official healthy and sustainable dietary guidance - including advice
about reducing consumption of meat - that can be used by health
professionals, educators, businesses and the public.

We conclude that there is an important role for governments, public health

bodies, food businesses, researchers and civil society organisations to work
collaboratively towards understanding and testing the practical ways in which
dietary behaviours can be shifted onto more sustainable pathways.

5
Recommendations:

We recommend governments and public health bodies:

 Recognise the importance of integrating sustainability with
healthy eating policies and practices, and put in place strategies
to apply this within local, national and international contexts.
 Provide, and actively promote, information and advice on healthy
sustainable diets by updating the Eatwell Plate to include advice
on eating less and better meat.
 Ensure the National Curriculum includes education on healthy
and sustainable eating.
 Fund research to support successful behaviour change strategies.
 Monitor consumer diets and report on progress towards less and
better meat consumption.
 Ensure that public health, agriculture, trade, fiscal and other
relevant policies support and catalyse the transition towards
healthy sustainable food production and consumption.
 Convene experts and stakeholders with the purpose of sharing
knowledge and creating collaboration towards practical
approaches to achieving healthy sustainable diets.

We recommend that food businesses:

 should assess the ways in which they can support dietary change
to more plant-based and less and better meat eating through
menu planning, reformulation, choice editing, support for farmers
producing ‘better’ meat, and making low meat/meat-free options
more available, affordable and attractive.

We recommend that researchers and funding bodies:

 should prioritise and fund a suite of practical research projects
working with food businesses, civil society organisations and the
public to:
 develop new pilots and projects to test behavioural approaches
and evaluate initiatives towards reducing meat consumption.
 understand how best to engage different audiences for example
by gender, age, income, cultural or religious backgrounds,
geographical communities and at ‘moments of change’ such as
becoming a parent.

We recommend that civil society organisations:

 should work collaboratively to develop shared messaging and
campaigns, evaluate the impacts of initiatives towards less and
better meat eating and consider how to integrate messages on the
benefits of less and better meat eating into their communication
and lobbying activities.

6
Ten Drivers for Change

Driver Opportunities
1. Habits Non-meat or lower-meat choices to be good value, ac-
cessible and desirable tasty choices.

2. Cultural significance Opportunity to draw on traditional diets based on low

of meat eating meat/plant-based eating e.g. Mediterranean diet, Asian
and Middle Eastern cuisines.
3. Price/cost Lower meat diets can save money and enable ‘better’
meat choices within the same budget.

4. Convenience Food companies and the food service sector to offer

more non-meat and lower meat meal alternatives. Edu-
cation to increase cooking skills for plant-based eating.

5. Interest in health Promotion of strong public health messages on health

benefits of lower meat and plant-based diets. Myth
busting information provision on nutritional adequacy
of lower/non meat eating e.g. protein and iron. Reduc-
ing meat, rather than eliminating it completely to offer
nutritional reassurance.

6. Awareness of the en- Awareness raising campaigns, information, education

vironmental impacts and better labelling (where appropriate).

7. Concern for animal Opportunities to link animal welfare concerns to wider

welfare environmental and health concerns to encourage less
and better meat eating. Greater provision and promo-
tion of meat produced to higher animal welfare stan-
dards.
8. Interest in prove- Opportunity to connect people with where their food
nance and traceability comes from and the people that produce it, and offer
higher quality/taste, environmental, welfare standards
and better returns to producers/local economy. Food
retailers and caterers, to include ‘local’ distinctiveness
as part of ‘better’ meat offer.
9. Knowledge about Growth in meat replacement and meat alternative
alternatives to meat market provides opportunities to help consumers
transition to a lower meat diet.
10. Food scares Opportunity to raise awareness of ‘better’ meat
choices or meat alternatives.

7
2. Introduction

The way we feed ourselves is unhealthy and unsustainable¹. Feeding a grow-

ing, more affluent, aspirational and increasingly urban global population of 9
billion by 2050 healthily, fairly and sustainably simply isn’t possible unless we
make some changes.

We know there are no magic bullets. Reducing food waste and producing food
with less impact on the environment are both essential but not sufficient.
Modifying our eating patterns towards diets that are both healthy and sustain-
able must be a priority too. There is growing agreement on the principles that
underpin healthy sustainable diets².

Strong evidence now exists of the need to shift diets towards reduced levels of
meat-eating among high consuming countries like the UK to help address cli-
mate change, promote public health and help feed the world more fairly and
humanely.³ It is also clear that an environmentally sustainable level of meat
production will be substantially lower than is normal for high income con-
sumers today⁴.

But trends in meat production and consumption are not in keeping with this
goal. Average global meat consumption has almost doubled in the past 50
years, and production is predicted to double by 2050 to feed a growing and
more affluent global population⁵. And while UK meat consumption overall re-
mains fairly static, average UK consumption is twice the global average and
significant numbers of consumers eat more than the current health-related
recommendations for red and processed meat.

The purpose of this report is not to review the evidence for dietary change –
though it has been reviewed here⁶ and we summarise some of the main sus-
tainability benefits below. Rather it is to take as a starting point that dietary
change is necessary and to ask: how might a shift towards more plant-based
eating with less and better meat as part of healthier, more sustainable con-
sumption habits be best achieved?

To that end we have conducted a literature search and review of relevant re-
search and data sources including academic papers supplemented by research
from civil society, government and business. This report is underpinned by
evidence from the literature review. We also publish separately a full bibliog-
raphy of relevant sources that the literature search identified.ˁ

In analysing this literature we have sought to determine relevant consump-

tion patterns, trends, and people’s attitudes and behaviours towards eating
less and better meat and more plant-based foods; identify drivers that could
provide opportunities for encouraging dietary shifts; highlight research and
policy gaps and make recommendations for policy makers, public health au-
thorities, businesses, the research community, research funders and civil soci-
ety.

ˁ http://www.eating-better.org/uploads/documents/BehaviourChangeBibliography.pdf

8
We intend that our findings and recommendations inform future work that
Eating Better undertakes. Its purpose is also to stimulate further engagement
and collaboration towards the goal of encouraging dietary shifts towards less
and better meat consumption.

The literature search was conducted by the UK Health Forum. This involved
searching for published literature in databases, including both qualitative and
quantitative studies, grey literature such as qualitative research and reports
that are not published in journals and data sources. This search was
supplemented with sources proposed by members of the project’s Advisory
Panel. The scope included reports from 2003 to 2014 which were primarily
published in the UK. Evidence from other countries (English language only)
was also included where it was relevant or potentially comparable to UK
information. Within our time and budget resources we do not claim this is a
fully comprehensive data search.

Sustainability benefits of a less and better approach to meat

eating.

· Environmental sustainability: Meat production is a major hotspot gener-

ating some 14.5% of total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions⁷, using
70% of agricultural land, including a third of arable land needed also for
crop production, and is a key driver of deforestation, loss of wildlife and
land degradation, and water use. The 2014 IPCC report on climate change
emissions identified changing diets as a significant though undeveloped
area for action⁸.

· Public health: High levels of meat consumption particularly red and proc-
essed meats are associated with adverse health including heart disease,
cancers and diabetes. Modelling by researchers at Oxford University has
shown that eating meat no more than three times a week and replacing
meat with plant-based foods would prevent 45,000 early deaths a year in
the UK and save the NHS £1.2bn a year*.

· Fairer food systems: eating less meat means fewer animals reared and
less pressure to intensify production. Choosing meat produced to high ani-
mal welfare standards means a better quality of life for farm animals.
Global food security could be improved by using more crops to feed people
rather than livestock. It has been calculated that halving world consump-
tion of grain-fed meat, for example, could feed two billion more people.†

* Scarborough et al, Modelling the impacts of the Fair Less Meat diet.
Brish Heart Foundation Health Promotion Research Group,for Friends of the Earth and CIWF 2010
†Emily S Cassidy et al 2013 Environ. Res. Lett. 8 034015doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034015

9
3. Background to behaviour change

Our eating patterns are influenced by a wide range of cultural, economic,

ecological, technological and institutional factors including: affluence, food
prices, food availability, eating habits and lifestyle, household make-up and
ethnicity⁹. There are also factors at play that can influence our attitudes and
behaviours towards meat consumption. These include food safety or quality
scares such as the BSE crisis or the more recent horsemeat scandal, concerns
with animal welfare, and perceptions of the health and environmental impacts
of meat consumption¹⁰.

This can add up to a complicated picture. As Professor Tim Jackson, leading

expert on sustainable consumption, has written: ‘The challenge of enabling
sustainable lives is not straightforward. Nor can it be left to the vagaries of the
market. Individual behaviours are deeply embedded in a social context. We are
guided as much by what others around us say and do and by the ‘rules of the
game’, as we are by person choice. We often find ourselves ‘locked in’ to
unsustainable ways of living by the physical and institutional constraints around
us.’¹¹

One way to consider the range of influences on our behaviour is illustrated

below (fig 1). The ISM model¹² developed by Andrew Darnton brings together
insights from behavioural economics, social psychology and sociology in
categorising the influences on behaviour across the individual (I), social (S)
and material (M) contexts. The model articulates how our individual
‘choices’ (based on perceptions, motivations, and calculations) are shaped by
social factors (the networks, interpersonal relationships and opinion leaders
that influence consumption norms) and proscribed by the material options
available to us (including: the rules and regulations that govern the supply,
price and availability of foods and the functioning of markets; planning
policies that determine the location of food outlets; the technologies that make
certain production and consumption practices possible).

10
Fig 1. ISM Model

It is increasingly understood that changing behaviours does not always mean

targeting individuals. Rather changing behaviours requires a systemic
approach to effective interventions that address social circles, and hard and
soft infrastructures, as well as winning hearts and minds. Individual
interventions tend to focus on the provision of information and incentives,
based on the traditional economic assumption that individuals make
conscious and rational decisions. Such approaches have limited success
because they fail to recognise that much of our behaviour - particularly about
day-to-day food choices – is at a low level of consciousness and flows from
habits, routines and external influences. Meanwhile, attributes such as taste,
convenience or price may well be prioritised over health and sustainability
considerations.

Successful approaches to behaviour change therefore need to consider how to

make healthy and sustainable choices the easier, desirable and more
accessible choices for people, by having the right incentives, social support
and positive environments in place to encourage the desired change.

For these reasons Eating Better’s approach is framed by the Triangle of

Change model of sustainable consumption behaviour change (fig 2)ˠ. This
recognises the necessity for policy makers, businesses and civil society to
work together to help people shift towards behaviour change goals. The
Triangle of Change model makes it clear that all have a role to play –
dependent on what each is best able and best placed to deliver. Governments,
for example, are best placed to deliver regulatory frameworks, fiscal measures
and incentives, while removing barriers. They should provide authoritative

11
information and advice, education for the public. They also have an important
role in funding research, convening stakeholders and using their procurement
framework to further the desired change.

Businesses can develop and market more sustainable products and services,
and engage their customers and their employees. Approaches to encouraging
individuals to change behaviour are often best delivered at a community or
organisational level, making use of networks of trust and influence.

Fig 2: The Triangle of Change

ˠ Sustainable Development Commission/National Consumer Council (2006) I Will If You Will: Towards
sustainable consumption, Report of the UK Sustainable Consumption Roundtable.

12
 4. Meat consumption: Where are we now?

In understanding how we want consumption patterns to change, it’s

important to understand where we are now. This section summarises the data
on current meat consumption patterns, trends and attitudes in the UK.

The UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO) provides data on meat

consumption around the world.¹³ As fig 3 illustrates, UK per capita meat
consumption (213g/person/day, equivalent to 84kg/year) is average for
Western European countries and high globally, approximately twice the world
average, though lower than the US (329g/person/day). These statistics report
on food supply data (carcass weights) which is not the same as amounts
actually consumed as it does not take into account inedible parts of the
carcass and food waste. It does however enable country-by-country
comparisons to be made. 2012 figures from DEFRA put UK average meat
consumption (based on food purchases) at just under 80kg/year per person¹⁴.

Fig 3: Meat Consumption around the world: FAOSTATS, 2013

Meat consumption around the world

400
Total meat consumption (g/capita/day)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
1961 1965 1969 1973 1977 1981 1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009
Year

Africa China India UK USA Western Europe World

Levels of meat consumption in the UK have remained fairly constant over

recent decades, though this masks significant changes in the types of meat we
eat.

Of most significance has been the five-fold increase in poultry consumption

since the 1960s, which has mirrored long term declines in beef and lamb,
apart from minced beef. Today we also eat more processed meat products
such as sausage rolls, pasties, burgers, bacon, ham and particularly ready
meals, while purchasing less uncooked carcass meat and offal. One reason for
this trend is that in the longer term the relative cost of chicken has declined,
encouraging increased consumption. Similarly ready meals have become
13
comparatively cheaper during this period¹⁵ and the increasing appeal of
‘convenience’ to people with busy lives cannot be downplayed.

In recent years the recession and the horsemeat scandal have both had
impacts on meat eating behaviours and attitudes. The recession has seen the
majority of consumers cutting back and trading down on food purchasing.
Lower income consumers have been most affected: in 2010 the poorest 10%
of consumers brought 26% less fresh meat than in 2007 and more frozen and
processed foods (as well as fewer fruit and vegetables)¹⁶.

The effects of the horsemeat scandal in 2013, in which ready meals and
burgers were found to be adulterated with horsemeat, appear to have led
some consumers to change their shopping habits. Alongside many consumers
buying less, trading down and looking for cheaper deals as a result of the
recession, Which? also identified a trend towards ‘trading up’, with some
shoppers buying less processed meat, avoiding cheaper meat ranges and being
more likely to shop at butchers rather than supermarkets¹⁷. This and other
evidence suggests a dichotomy in the market between those trading down,
and those trading up to ‘better’ meat eating. Less clear is the extent to which
those trading up to ‘better’ are also cutting back on the amount of meat they
eat, i.e. consuming ‘less and better’.

A YouGov survey for Eating Better in 2013 found around 50% of all
respondents saying they were willing to pay more for ‘better’ meat (e.g.
tastier, healthier, higher animal welfare, better returns for farmers) and this
was across all social grade groups¹⁸. Although such attitudes are not always
put into practice, it indicates some of the aspirational values that many people
hold towards meat consumption.

Attitudes and practices among different groups

Gender:
There are significant gender differences around meat eating, with men eating
more meat - particularly red meat - than women. Latest National Diet &
Nutrition Survey figures give total mean intake of red (86g) and white meat
(43g) for men = 129g/day compared to 56g and 33g (89g/day) for women¹⁹.

Current average intakes of red meat for men exceed government health
recommendations, with young men (16-24) being the highest consumers of
red meat. Four in 10 men and one in 10 women eat more than 90g of red and
processed meat a day²⁰. In 2012 it was calculated that six out of ten men
consume more red and processed meat than government health guidelines
recommend²¹.

Social groups:
There is little difference in overall consumption levels between social groups,
though households in higher income occupations eat more carcass meat and
fewer processed meat products such as burgers and sausages compared to
those in lower income employment or who are unemployed²².

14
Age:
Older people (65 and over) eat less meat than younger people though it is
not clear whether this represents a decline in meat eating in later life, cost
factors or if it is a generational difference. Young men (aged 16-24 are the
highest consumers of red meat (average 92g/day)²³.

However, young people (18-24) have also been found to be nearly three
times more likely to say they don’t eat any meat at all – with one in six
(17%) of young people saying they don’t eat any meat²⁴. Young people aged
18-24 (40%) are also likely to be more aware of the significant environ-
mental impacts of producing and consuming meat than older people (31%)
²⁵. It is unclear whether these data represent different market segments
among young people.

Ethnic & religious groups

We found a gap in research and data relating to the attitudes and practices
of ethic and religious groups in the UK. Dutch research into healthy and sus-
tainable food choices among native and migrant citizens in the Netherlands
has found great food cultural differences among various ethnic groups in-
cluding around meat consumption²⁶.

Meat reducers
The number of people describing themselves as vegetarian (2%) and vegan
(1%) remains consistently low²⁷. A trend towards meat-reducing or
‘flexitarian’ eating° has been reported, though we found little research quan-
tifying this in the UK.

YouGov²⁸ (2013) for Eating Better found 25% of respondents said they had
reduced their meat consumption over the previous year. A year later in
2014 slightly fewer people (20%) reported a reduction²⁹. It is likely that the
higher 2013 figure reflected the impacts of the horsemeat scandal; and the
continuing indication of reduction among a significant section of the public
could indicate a longer term trend, though it is unclear whether this is re-
flected in consumption data. Dutch research in 2013 found 28% of people
eating meat less than 3 – 4 times a week, with half the sample considered to
be ‘meat-reducers’³⁰.

YouGov³¹(2013) found a higher percentage of people (34%) saying they

were willing to consider eating less meat in the future, compared to those
who were not willing (30%). This figure was maintained in 2014 (35%) in-
dicating considerable interest among a large section of the population³².

Respondents’ main reasons (in 2013) for eating or considering eating less
meat and fewer meat products were: concerns for animal welfare (39%), to
save money (35%), food quality/safety (34%), health (33%) and prove-
nance (33%). Environmental concerns tended to rate lower: high carbon
footprint (31%), other environmental concerns (25%) and global food secu-
rity (17%)³³. (fig. 4)
° A term which refers to people who prefer to reduce their meat consumption rather than
become vegetarians or vegans. Other terms include semi-vegetarian, part-time vegetarian/
carnivore and flexivore.
15
This is broadly consistent with DEFRA’s survey of food attitudes³⁴, which
found that in general consumers were most concerned with the health bene-
fits and animal welfare of food, rather than other sustainability issues, or
whether the food had been produced in a way that respected the environment.

Fig 4: Reasons for reducing meat consumption, YouGov 2013

39%
35%
34%
33% 33%
31%

25%

17%

16
5. Drivers, opportunities and barriers

In this section we review a range of factors that our literature review identi-
fied as potential drivers influential towards less and better meat consumption
and more plant-based eating. We have assessed the opportunities and barriers
towards dietary shifts these drivers present. Table 5 summarises the opportu-
nities to encourage or overcome these factors.

5.1 Habits
Much of our day-to-day food habits are routine in that we eat often and with-
out much deliberation. Hence our habits and routines are one of the main bar-
riers to sustainable food purchasing³⁵. A survey on food provenance by You-
Gov in 2012 found most consumers buy meat and poultry on a habitual basis
with two-thirds (66%) regularly opting for the same products³⁶. Research by
Merchant Gourmet shows that 90% of UK families cook a limited range of nine
meals on a regular basis³⁷.

However habits are open to influence. Although eating patterns can follow a
routine, they are not set in stone³⁸. Whether people are willing to try out new
products and change their diet has a lot to do with their identity and how ex-
perimental they are³⁹. Surveys indicate considerable willingness to eat less
meat that could be acted upon more widely if non-meat or lower-meat choices
are made good value, accessible and desirable, tasty choices.

5.2 Cultural significance

Meat holds cultural importance for many people for whom it is seen as an es-
sential part of a meal⁴⁰. In many cultures there is an association between mas-
culinity and meat eating⁴¹. Eating Better’s YouGov survey found that it was the
favourite part of their meal for 50% of respondents.⁴²

Attachment to a traditional meal format has been identified as a barrier to the

adoption of plant-based diets. People who prefer the traditional ‘meat and two
veg’ meal tend to have a stronger preference for meat than people who are
more adventurous in their eating approach; eating pasta dishes for example.⁴³

Many traditional food cultures are based on low meat more/plant-based eat-
ing, for example the Mediterranean diet, Asian and Middle Eastern cuisines.
There is opportunity to draw on such traditional diets to showcase reduced
meat eating and develop new recipes and menus.

5.3 Price/Cost
Regardless of socio-economic grouping, price is a primary consideration for
food shoppers⁴⁴ and has been identified as one of a number of main barriers
against purchasing more sustainable food⁴⁵.

Meat is typically among the most expensive food items in people’s shopping
baskets, and the impacts of rising prices and squeezed household budgets dur-
ing the current recession have encouraged cutting back and trading down in

17
Fig 5: Ten Drivers for Change

Driver Opportunities

1. Habits Non-meat or lower-meat choices to be good value, accessi-

ble and desirable tasty choices.

2. Cultural significance of Opportunity to draw on traditional diets based on low

meat eating meat/plant-based eating e.g. Mediterranean diet, Asian
and Middle Eastern cuisines.
3. Price/cost Lower meat diets can save money and enable ‘better’ meat
choices within the same budget.

4. Convenience Food companies and the food service sector to offer more
non-meat and lower meat meal alternatives. Education to
increase cooking skills for plant-based eating.

5. Interest in health Promotion of strong public health messages on health

benefits of lower meat and plant-based diets. Myth busting
information provision on nutritional adequacy of lower/
non meat eating e.g. protein and iron. Reducing meat,
rather than eliminating it completely to offer nutritional
reassurance.

6. Awareness of the envi- Awareness raising campaigns, information, education and

ronmental impacts better labelling (where appropriate).

7. Concern for animal Opportunities to link animal welfare concerns to wider

welfare environmental and health concerns to encourage less and
better meat eating. Greater provision and promotion of
meat produced to higher animal welfare standards.

8. Interest in provenance Opportunity to connect people with where their food

and traceability comes from and the people that produce it, and offer
higher quality/taste, environmental, welfare standards
and better returns to producers/local economy. Food re-
tailers and caterers, to include ‘local’ distinctiveness as
part of ‘better’ meat offer.
9. Knowledge about al- Growth in meat replacement and meat alternative mar-
ternatives to meat ket provides opportunities to help consumers transition
to a lower meat diet.
10. Food scares Opportunity to raise awareness of ‘better’ meat choices
or meat alternatives.

18
food purchasing, including meat. In Eating Better’s 2013 YouGov survey,
35% of people gave ‘saving money’ as one of the main reasons for eating
less meat⁴⁶.

Eating less meat therefore offers opportunities for saving money and poten-
tially for trading up to better quality meat. Evidence from WWF’s LiveWell
project demonstrates that shifting to lower meat/more plant-based eating
can save money⁴⁷.

As the effects of the recession recede and many of the public start to feel less
squeezed, it is not clear whether people will increase their meat consump-
tion and/or ‘trade up’. This may be mitigated by long-term trends predicting
increasing meat prices due to growth in global demand.

5.4 Convenience
The trend towards ‘convenience’ has been a major influence on food pur-
chasing habits, encouraged by lack of time, skills or interest to cook. The
convenience food market is estimated to continue its growth, increasing by
30% between 2013 and 2018 from £35.6 billion to £46.2 billion⁴⁸. It is likely
that ready meals and convenience meat consumption will also continue to
rise in the UK.

As people continue to move away from carcass meat in general, consump-

tion of convenience products like takeaway meats and ready meals are pre-
dicted to increase. An Australian study found that vegetarian diets were per-
ceived as inconvenient, and lack of knowledge and cooking skills were the
major barriers to preparing plant-based meals quickly and easily⁴⁹. The re-
searchers concluded that knowledge of simple ways of preparing meals
could lead to increased meat-replacement dishes.

Convenience and the eating-out markets both offer potential opportunities

for food companies and the food service sector to provide non-meat, or
lower meat convenience meal alternatives.

5.5 Interest in Health

Health concerns tend to rate higher than environmental concerns in moti-
vating dietary behaviour change, and interest in health offers a potential op-
portunity for modifying behaviour towards less and better (healthier) meat
and more plant-based eating. Research for Meatless Monday campaign in
the US (2012), for example, found that Americans were cutting back on
meat, primarily because of concerns for their health⁵⁰.

High levels of meat consumption (particularly red and processed meat) are
associated with increased risks of bowel cancer and heart disease⁵¹. In re-
spect of bowel cancer, the Department of Health advises that people who eat
more than 90g/day of cooked and processed red meat should reduce their
intake to 70g/day⁵².

19
Public health advice at NHS Choices also provides practical tips for cutting
down on saturated fats which includes choosing leaner cuts of meat, cutting
the fat off meat and the skin off chicken, and not eating too many sausages
and meat pies. It also mentions that beans, peas and lentils are useful alter-
natives to meat since they are low in fat and contain fibre, protein, vitamins
and minerals⁵³.

It is unclear how many people are aware of this advice or whether it is influ-
ential in altering behaviour. One 2012 public opinion survey found that,
when told a recent report had claimed that eating red meat increases the
risk of cancer and heart disease, only 19% said they would cut down on the
amount of meat they eat (14% by a little and 5% by a lot). 64% said they
would probably keep eating the same amount of red meat⁵⁴.

Research on dietary change in other health areas may provide some lessons
for efforts to reduce meat consumption. One study on the adoption of lower-
fat diets concluded that the most effective strategies involved improving the
taste of lower-fat foods (echoing the issue of lack of flavour in meat-
replacements), increasing awareness about the effects of fat intake, and
building family support to increase adherence to dietary changes⁵⁵. There is
also evidence that people often think they eat more healthily than they do⁵⁶;
a problem which could apply in efforts to reduce meat consumption.

The significance of strong public health messaging may be a valuable driver

of reduced meat consumption. But as the 5-a-Day message for fruit and
vegetable consumption shows, knowledge of the message doesn’t necessar-
ily translate into meeting the target. Despite high levels of awareness of the
5-a-Day message, average consumption of fruit and vegetables remains be-
low 5 portions a day, indicating that motivating factors other than aware-
ness-raising are necessary to change consumption behaviour.

Potential barriers against meat reduction are concerns that meat is essential
for maintaining health, and that vegetarian diets are nutritionally inade-
quate⁵⁷. A study on meat consumption in Australia found that lack of knowl-
edge about the nutritional value of plant-based diets was a significant bar-
rier to people reducing their meat consumption, particularly among middle
aged people.

Health concerns about cutting out or cutting back on meat include lack of
sufficient protein and iron. While meat is an important source of protein, in
the UK protein deficiency is not a nutritional problem. Average protein con-
sumption is around 76g of protein per day; between 40% and 70% more
than the guideline daily amount of 45-55g⁵⁸. On average, meat provides
40% of total protein intake. Vegetable sources of protein already constitute
a high proportion of our protein intake, mainly from cereals and other plant
sources including pulses, nuts and seeds⁵⁹

20
Provision of information and education on the nutritional content and value
of meat-free foods would be helpful in overcoming nutritional concerns. For
example, although red meat, including organ meat, is the richest and most
easily absorbed source of iron, many plant foods are also good sources in-
cluding dried fruit, beans and lentils, green leafy vegetables, sesame seeds,
nuts, wholemeal bread and fortified cereals. Including a good source of vita-
min C (e.g vegetables, citrus fruits) with meals helps the body absorb iron
from plant sources. Government advice states that reducing meat consump-
tion to an average of 70g/day would have little effect on iron intake
amongst adults⁶⁰. Reducing meat, rather than eliminating it completely, also
potentially offers nutritional reassurance.

5.6 Awareness of the environmental impacts

Awareness of the environmental impacts of producing and consuming meat
is increasing: YouGov for Eating Better (2013) found awareness had in-
creased from one in seven (14%) to nearly one in three (31%) in 2013⁶¹.
The greatest increase has been among young people (aged 18-24) where
there has been a fivefold increase in awareness from 8% in 2007 to 40% in
2013.

Yet, when compared to other ‘food and sustainability’ issues, awareness is

low and can be a barrier to change. For example, research on consumer will-
ingness to adopt environmental food consumption behaviours showed that
many consumers thought that choosing foods with less packaging would
have a more positive impact on the environment than moving away from
meat consumption⁶². A similar study showed that two key mitigating behav-
iours for reducing GHG emissions – adjusting the thermostat and reducing
meat consumption – were considered to have considerably less impact than
they actually do⁶³. This points to the importance of information campaigns
that can explain the relative impacts that different consumer or dietary deci-
sions have on the environment⁶⁴.

Participants in research by the Sustainable Consumption Institute (SCI) said

they lacked the information to make ‘sustainable’ choices⁶⁵. SCI identifies
the importance of education, particularly for younger generations. But the
research also points out the limits of information provision alone, given the
deeply socially embedded and cultural nature of food and eating.

Another cited barrier to reduced or better meat consumption is the lack of

suitable labelling on food. YouGov for Eating Better (2013) found support
for more information, education and better labelling including country of
origin and how animals are reared. Two out of three people (67%) agreed it
is hard to tell which meat is more environmentally friendly⁶⁶.

5.7 Concern for animal welfare

Animal welfare issues are increasingly important to consumers, have re-
ceived high profile media attention, and provide an opportunity for engag-
ing the public on less and better meat consumption. For example, the TV
campaign in 2008 by Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall and Jamie Oliver to ex-
pose the welfare conditions of factory-farmed chicken, led to a marked

21
increase in purchases of free-range chicken at the time⁶⁷. We note the role
of both celebrities and the media here in providing a sufficiently high profile
to the issue, to influence the public’s attitudes and behaviour.

It’s not clear to what extent this trend continued, though research for
DEFRA on food purchasing behaviour published in 2011 found that almost
half of shoppers reported buying free range eggs and 27% free range or
freedom food chicken⁶⁸. An IGD survey before the campaign found that over
half of the UK population say they make at least one or two purchase deci-
sions because of animal welfare standards⁶⁹. In the same survey, more than
a quarter say they would be willing to pay an extra 10% for higher welfare
food. A YouGov survey for Eating Better (2013) found 55% of people saying
they would be willing to pay an additional cost for meat/meat products if
they were produced to higher animal welfare standards⁷⁰. Both surveys in-
dicate an interest and willingness to pay for ‘better’ meat from an animal
welfare perspective.

Sales of Freedom Food – the RSPCA higher animal welfare standard – prod-
ucts have been increasing by 12% a year since 2009, and Freedom Food re-
ported that more farmers were wanting to sign up since the horsemeat
scandal⁷¹. Sales of organic food (which provide higher animal welfare and
environmental standards) have also increased during 2013 for the first time
since the financial crisis, in part due to the horsemeat scandal⁷². However a
YouGov 2013 survey of UK adults found the majority (60%) of respondents
associate organic foods with the word ‘expensive’⁷³.

Freedom Food products have become available in discount supermarkets

such as Aldi and Lidl, as well as McDonald’s, which currently uses 100%
Freedom Food-sourced pork in all of its restaurants⁷⁴. Freedom Food cur-
rently covers about one third of all pigs reared in the UK⁷⁵. There are also
indications that more food companies are reporting on farm animal welfare,
with the number of companies publishing formal animal welfare policies
rising from 46% to 56% between 2012 and 2013⁷⁶.

5.8 Interest in provenance and traceability

YouGov 2012 research into food provenance concludes: ‘our research
clearly shows that there is demand for locally, regionally and UK-produced
foods’⁷⁷. The horsemeat scandal raised awareness of meat traceability and
provenance, and helped build consumer interest in ‘local’ food. ‘Local’ food
provides a number of perceived consumer benefits including provenance
and supporting local producers; helping to connect people with where their
food comes from. YouGov found that almost eight in ten (79%) consumers
believe locally-sourced foods support the local economy and half (50%) be-
lieve it is better quality as it has not ‘travelled’ as far⁷⁸. Local food is often
also seen to be a proxy for environmentally friendly foods, and foods with
higher animal welfare standards, although this is not necessarily the case.

‘Local’ food appears to have greater resonance than other environmental

and ethical food issues/options. A 2012 survey for IGD found that 36% of

22
shoppers expected to buy more locally produced food, compared to 30% of
shoppers buying more free range products; 24% more Fairtrade and 15%
more organic food⁷⁹.

Meat has particular resonance for UK sourcing. YouGov in 2012 found that
59% of consumers prefer to buy UK-sourced meat and poultry compared to
imported meat⁸⁰. Research by Mintel found that the number of people who
considered traceability along the food chain to be important had doubled
between December 2012 (before the horsemeat scandal), and March 2013
at its height⁸¹. About a fifth of customers thought it was important to buy
locally (within a 30 mile-radius), and over a third thought it was important
to buy British products. For some people though, horsemeat did not inspire
trust in British meat products, with 38% saying it made them trust British
meat products less⁸²

Interest in local food potentially provides opportunities to connect people

with greater understanding of where their food comes from, and the people
that produce it.

5.9 Knowledge about alternatives to meat

Participants in research by the Sustainable Consumption Institute (SCI)
identified lack of knowledge of ‘meat-free’ recipes (and the predicted reluc-
tance of other family members) as the main barriers in making a bigger
change beyond shifts from red to white meat, or using Quorn© or lentils⁸³.

As one participant’s comment illustrates: “For a lot of people, meat is a big

staple of their meal, especially for men. So I think if a campaign was like, don't
eat meat twice a week, I think a lot of people would go, ‘So I starve for two
days a week?’ You have to give people an alternative.”

A survey by ICM in 2010 conducted on behalf of a protein ingredient sup-

plier, showed that although there was increasing interest in non-meat
sources of protein, there was a considerable lack of knowledge of plant-
based proteins among the general public, and therefore an important oppor-
tunity for education about alternative sources⁸⁴.

Mintel research found that 42% of people did not like the taste of meat sub-
stitutes, 36% considered vegetarian and meat-free food tasted bland, and
34% claimed not to know how to use meat substitutes in their cooking. Al-
most half of UK consumers opted for meat-free dishes rather than meat re-
placement dishes when they wanted to avoid meat⁸⁵.

A number of meat replacement or meat alternative products have become

increasingly popular in the last few years and provide opportunities to help
consumers transition to a lower meat diet. The German Vegetarian Society
suggest that the retail and catering sectors would benefit from introducing a
‘part-time vegetarian’ range into their products⁸⁶.

23
5.10 Food scares
Food scares make regular headlines: in 2014 Campylobacter in chicken, last
year it was concern for horsemeat contamination in ready meals and bur-
gers. Previously BSE, and Foot and Mouth Disease have had major impacts
on the meat industry.

While food scares raise awareness of the less palatable aspects of meat pro-
duction and processing, and create short-term changes in consumption,
there is less evidence that they produce significant long term behaviour
change for the majority of the public. It appears that they are more likely to
create shifts between meat categories, rather than leading to less meat con-
sumption overall. The evidence from the horsemeat contamination scandal
for example suggests that it may not have impacted on overall meat con-
sumption, but it did impact on specific meat categories and sales from su-
permarkets. Ready meals, processed and ‘economy’ meats (the products
most affected by horsemeat adulteration) were most likely to be temporar-
ily off the menu⁸⁷.

24
6. Strategies for change

It is increasingly well understood that successful behaviour change requires

a systemic approach that goes beyond persuading or ‘nudging’ individuals
to change their behaviour, to include government policies and practices,
new and different business practices, and civil society initiatives working in
synergy to facilitate the desired behaviour change.

6.1 Policy response

From a policy perspective, we found that the evidence for advocating re-
duced meat consumption as part of healthy sustainable diets, has not yet
translated into policies and practices from government to support consumer
behaviour change. In particular the UK - unlike some other countries - has
not yet published official healthy and sustainable dietary guidance, includ-
ing advice about reducing consumption of meat, that can be used by health
professionals, businesses and the public.

We recommend governments and public health bodies:

 Recognise the importance of integrating sustainability with healthy
eating policies and practices, and put in place strategies to apply
this within local, national and international contexts.
 Provide, and actively promote, information and advice on healthy
sustainable diets by updating the Eatwell Plate to include advice on
eating less and better meat.
 Ensure the National Curriculum includes education on healthy and
sustainable eating.
 Fund research to support successful behaviour change strategies.
 Monitor consumer diets and report on progress towards less and
better meat consumption.
 Ensure that public health, agriculture, trade, fiscal and other rele-
vant policies support and catalyse the transition towards healthy
sustainable food production and consumption.
 Convene experts and stakeholders with the purpose of sharing
knowledge and creating collaboration towards practical ap-
proaches to achieving healthy sustainable diets.

6.2: Civil society response

In the UK a range of civil society organisations are working to raise aware-
ness and encourage behaviour change towards less and/or better meat con-
sumption.

In addition to our own Eating Better alliance initiative, these include Meat-
free/Meat-less Monday initiatives⁸⁸, WWF LiveWell for Life⁸⁹, Part-Time
Carnivore⁹⁰, Friends of the Earth’s Meat-Free May⁹¹, Business in the Com-
munity’s START campaign and campaigns such as Compassion in World
Farming’s Campaign to end factory farming⁹², and the Pig Pledge⁹³.

25
Behaviour Change’s Dabble with your Dinner project works with food retail-
ers and caterers to increase the consumption of vegetables within everyday
family meals⁹⁴.

We recommend that civil society organisations: should work collabora-

tively to develop shared messaging and campaigns, evaluate the impacts of
initiatives towards less and better meat eating and consider how to inte-
grate messages on the benefits of less and better meat eating into their com-
munication and lobbying activities.

6.3 Business response

Eating Better is encouraging food businesses to see the opportunities for
less and better meat eating within their offer. In the catering sector, the Soil
Association’s Food for Life Catering Mark⁹⁵ works with meal providers in
schools, universities, workplaces and hospitals, to encourage healthier sus-
tainable eating. All meat must satisfy UK welfare standards and be sustaina-
bly sourced. At Silver and Gold levels of the scheme, caterers are rewarded
for serving an increasing percentage of organic produce, and for having one
or more meat-free days on the menu each week, while taking steps to re-
duce meat consumption by making vegetable-based dishes the principal
dish of the day.

Companies already engaging with the less and better meat message include
Pizza Express with a Meat-Free Monday friendly menu and IKEA’s intention
to ‘green’ its iconic meatballs to cut carbon emissions (by offering vegetar-
ian and chicken options) and top chefs are leading a trend towards putting
vegetables, rather than meat, centre plate⁹⁶.

Yet while initiatives remain limited within the mainstream food market, the
vegetarian/meat-free market is noted to be growing. Key Note estimates the
value of the vegetarian food market increasing from almost £800m in 2012
to £882m in 2016, noting that retailers like Tesco, ASDA, Sainsbury’s and
Morrisons now sell own-brand vegetarian ranges. There is an estimated
50% increase in the number of vegetarian restaurants in the UK since
2007⁹⁷.

Sales of Quorn© are growing 10-15% every year with predicted sales worth
around £140 million in 2013. According to the company, 80% of the UK
population has tried Quorn© and more than half of their customers are meat
-eaters⁹⁸. In the US, Sales of Gardein (Garden Protein) have almost doubled
every two years⁹⁹ and Beyond Meat claims to be the first engineered soya-
based chicken product that tastes and feels like real chicken¹⁰⁰. A vegetarian
butcher began business in The Hague, Netherlands in 2010, and its products
are now also available in Belgium, Portugal, Finland and Germany¹⁰¹.

We recommend that food businesses should assess the ways in which they
can support dietary change to more plant-based and less and better meat
eating through menu planning, reformulation, choice editing, support for
farmers producing ‘better’ meat, and making low meat/meat-free options
more available, affordable and attractive.

26
6.4 Research response
Our review found a lack of published research that has evaluated meat re-
duction initiatives or compared the impact of different approaches.

One study we did find from Dutch researchers Joop de Boer and colleagues
from the Institute of Environmental Studies, VU University of Amsterdam,
sought to explore change strategies to shifting diets to reducing meat con-
sumption. Strategies they identified included promoting smaller portions of
meat ("less"); smaller portions using meat raised in a more sustainable
manner ("less but better"); smaller portions and eating more vegetable pro-
tein ("less and more varied"); and meatless meals with or without meat sub-
stitutes ("veggie-days")¹⁰².

When these approaches were tested with a nationwide sample of 1,083

Dutch consumers, the researchers concluded that different strategies will
appeal to different segments of consumers and their preferences. For exam-
ple, those who prefer to have a meatless meal may be more likely to buy a
meat replacement, while those who prefer to reduce the portion of meat
may be inclined to buy organic or free range meat. In addition, the “less but
better” or “less but more varied” messages may better communicate to con-
sumers who are able to regulate their weight. The authors conclude that
such strategies should be complementary rather than competitive. Also,
they should be accompanied by explanations, recommendations and guide-
lines, and be supported by social, governmental and public health authori-
ties.

Our review has found clear evidence of differences in attitudes and behav-
iours towards meat eating among different sectors of the population that it
would be useful to understand in greater depth – either as groups who ap-
pear more open to reducing their consumption such as young people and
women – or as groups that appear harder to reach, such as men who are
high meat consumers, or people on lower incomes whose vegetable con-
sumption is already lower than recommended.

Eating Better would like to see strategies introduced and evaluated in the
UK. Specifically, we recommend that researchers and funding bodies should
prioritise and fund a suite of practical research projects working with food
businesses, civil society organisations and the public:
 to develop new pilots and projects to test behavioural approaches
and evaluate initiatives towards reducing meat consumption and
 to understand how best to engage different audiences for example
by gender, age, income, cultural or religious backgrounds, geo-
graphical communities and at ‘moments of change’ such as becom-
ing a parent.

27
7. Conclusion

While there is now strong evidence and growing interest and awareness of
health, environmental sustainability and ethical reasons to reduce meat con-
sumption, there is a lack of research to understand how best to achieve this.

Our literature review points to a number of drivers that need to be consid-

ered to support behaviour change towards less and better meat consump-
tion as part of healthy sustainable diets.

A key gap that we identified is the lack of policy responses including inte-
grated healthy sustainable dietary guidelines to provide a framework and
advice for health professionals and businesses as well as the public.

Also lacking in the literature we reviewed, is evidence of work to assess spe-

cific messages or initiatives that encourage shifts towards more plant-based
eating, with less and better meat consumption.

We conclude that there is an important role for policy makers, health bod-
ies, businesses researchers, and civil society to work collaboratively to-
wards understanding and testing the practical ways in which dietary behav-
iours can be encouraged onto more sustainable pathways.

Eating Better intends to use the findings of this report to stimulate engage-
ment with policy makers, practitioners, researchers, businesses and civil
society to encourage further discussion, and stimulate further research and
practical initiatives.

We will continue to engage with policy makers to encourage supportive

policies at a UK, EU and global level, and raise awareness with businesses of
the market opportunities for more plant-based diets, and less and better
meat eating.

28
References
1. The Government Office for Science, The Future of Food and Farming: Challenges and
Choices for Global Sustainability, 2011, http://tinyurl.com/lxuqryh.
2. T Garnett, What Is a Sustainable Healthy Diet? Food Climate Research Network, 2014,
http://tinyurl.com/o3f6zma.
3. UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Sustainable Diets and Biodiversity - Direc-
tions and Solutions for Policy, Research and Action, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/pk7nacp.
4. T Garnett, What Is a Sustainable Healthy Diet? Food Climate Research Network, 2014,
http://tinyurl.com/o3f6zma.
5. FAO, How to Feed the World in 2050 (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 2014),
http://tinyurl.com/5ranufw.
6. T Garnett, Changing What We Eat: A Call for Research & Action on Widespread Adoption of
Sustainable Healthy Eating (Food Climate Research Network, 2014), http://tinyurl.com/
p3r4mzn.
7. P. J. Gerber et al., Tackling Climate Change through Livestock: A Global Assessment of Emis-
sions and Mitigation Opportunities. (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013), http://
tinyurl.com/nl5x72u.
8. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2014, Mitigation of Climate
Change, IPCC Working Group III Contribution to AR5, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/nk68shs.
9. Alice Bows et al., What’s Cooking? Adaptation & Mitigation in the UK Food System. Sustain-
able Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, 2012.
10. Wim A. J. Verbeke and Jacques Viaene, “Ethical Challenges for Livestock Produc-
tion:Meeting Consumer Concerns about Meat Safety and AnimalWelfare,” Journal of Agricul-
tural and Environmental Ethics 12, no. 2 (January 1, 2000): 141–51, doi:10.1023/
A:1009538613588.
11. Sustainable Development Commission, Making Sustainable Lives Easier: A Priority for
Governments, Business and Society, 2011, http://tinyurl.com/m6sqr58.
12. Andrew Darnton and Jackie Horne, Introduction to Individual, Social and Material (ISM)
Tool, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/k47hbbk.
13. FAOSTAT, 2013. FAOSTAT. http://tinyurl.com/plnaymm.
14. DEFRA stats quoted in EBLEX (2013) UK Yearbook – Cattle, AHDB Table 5.3 http://
tinyurl.com/psxs5sk
15. DEFRA, UK Household and Eating out Expenditure on Food and Drink (Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2013), http://tinyurl.com/pc39fj9.
16. DEFRA, Family Food 2012, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/kd3s6mu.
17. Which?, Cutting Back & Trading down: The Impact of Rising Food Prices (Which?, 2013),
http://tinyurl.com/orkjeuk.
18. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
19. Public Health England, 2014. National Diet and Nutrition Survey http://tinyurl.com/
ldx3w2r.
20. Red meat and the risk of bowel cancer, NHS Choices http://tinyurl.com/7mqz7vf
21. S. Westland and H. Crawley, Healthy and Sustainable Diets in the Early Years, First Steps
Nutrition Trust, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/k25luby.
22. Public Health England, 2014. National Diet and Nutrition Survey http://tinyurl.com/
ldx3w2r.
23. Public Health England, 2014. National Diet and Nutrition Survey http://tinyurl.com/
ldx3w2r.
24. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
25. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
26. Schosler, H (2014) Healthy and sustainable food choices among native and migrant
citiznes of the Netherlands, Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University, Nether-
lands.
27.Public Health England, 2014. National Diet and Nutrition Survey: http://tinyurl.com/
ldx3w2r
28. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
29. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2014, http://www.eating-better.org/
uploads/documents/EatingBetterResults_141013_Meat-eating.xls
30. Dagevos, H. & Voordouw, J., 2013. Sustainability and meat consumption: is reduction
realistic? Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 9(2). http://tinyurl.com/qjhqa37

29
31. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
32. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2014, (link to be added)
33. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
34. DEFRA, Attitudes and Behaviours around Sustainable Food Purchasing (Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2011), http://tinyurl.com/pgypw4l.
35. DEFRA, Attitudes and Behaviours around Sustainable Food Purchasing.
36. YouGov, Food Provenance, 2012, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/c3gb6fa.
37. Average UK mum relies on 9 recipes to feed family, Reuters Nov 16, 2009.
http://tinyurl.com/l78f72a
38. Alice Bows et al., What’s Cooking? Adaptation & Mitigation in the UK Food System. Sus-
tainable Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, 2012.
39. N. Taylor, Reversing Meat - Eating Culture to Combat Climate Change (World Preserva-
tion Foundation, 2012), http://tinyurl.com/kdnucxq.
40. Alice Bows et al., What’s Cooking? Adaptation & Mitigation in the UK Food System. Sus-
tainable Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, 2012.
41. Hank Rothgerber, Real Men Don’t Eat (vegetable) Quiche: Masculinity and the Justifica-
tion of Meat Consumption, Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/
nrul6fz.
42. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
43. Hanna Schosler, Joop de Boer, and Jan J. Boersema, Can We Cut out the Meat of the Dish?
Constructing Consumer-Oriented Pathways towards Meat Substitution, Appetite 58, no. 1
(2012): 39–47.
44. Alice Bows et al., What’s Cooking? Adaptation & Mitigation in the UK Food System. Sus-
tainable Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, 2012.
45. DEFRA, Attitudes and Behaviours around Sustainable Food Purchasing (Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2011), http://tinyurl.com/pgypw4l.
46. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
47. The Livewell diet: it’s cheap, it’s nutrititious and it could help save the planet, Guardian,
30 January 2011. http://tinyurl.com/lrxz3s5
48. IGD, UK Food and Groceries Worth over £200bn by 2018, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/
pmveu2w.
49. Emma Lea, Anthony Worsley, and David Crawford, Australian Adult Consumers’ Beliefs
About Plant Foods: A Qualitative Study, Health Education & Behavior 32, no. 6 (December 1,
2005): 795–808, doi:10.1177/1090198105277323.
50. FGI Research, FGI Survey Report 2012 Meatless Monday Online Panel (FGI Research,
2012), http://tinyurl.com/aog3tlm.
51. McMichael A J, et al, 2007. Food, livestock production, energy, climate change, and
health. The Lancet 370:1253-1263.
52. Red meat and the risk of bowel cancer, NHS Choices http://tinyurl.com/7mqz7vf
53. Meat in your diet, NHS Choices http://tinyurl.com/nm289gc
54. YouGov, YouGov - Red Meat 2012, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/ke25on2.
55. H Lloyd, CM Paisley, and DJ Mela, Barriers to the Adoption of Reduced-Fat Diets in a UK
Population, Journal of the American Dietetic Association 95, no. 3 (1995): 316–22,
doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00082-8.
56. J. M. Kearney and S. McElhone, Perceived Barriers in Trying to Eat Healthier – Results of
a Pan-EU Consumer Attitudinal Survey, British Journal of Nutrition 81, no. Supplement S1
(1999): S133–S137, doi:10.1017/S0007114599000987.
57. Emma Lea and Anthony Worsley, Influences on Meat Consumption in Australia, Appetite
36, no. 2 (2001): 127–36.
58. DEFRA, UK Household and Eating out Expenditure on Food and Drink (Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2013), http://tinyurl.com/pc39fj9.
59. DEFRA, UK - Household Purchases (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs,
2013), http://tinyurl.com/kzes8r9.
60. NHS, Eating Meat and Staying Healthy - Live Well, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/nm289gc.
61. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
62. Christina Tobler, Vivianne H. Visschers, and Michael Siegrist, Eating Green. Consumers’
Willingness to Adopt Ecological Food Consumption Behaviors, Appetite 57, no. 3 (2011):
674–82.

30
63. Heather Barnes; Parks, Craig.E-Mail Address Truelove and Craig Parks, Perceptions of
Behaviors That Cause and Mitigate Global Warming and Intentions to Perform These Be-
haviors 32, no. 3 (2012).
64. N. Taylor, Reversing Meat - Eating Culture to Combat Climate Change (World Preserva-
tion Foundation, 2012), http://tinyurl.com/kdnucxq.
65. Alice Bows et al., What’s Cooking? Adaptation & Mitigation in the UK Food System. Sus-
tainable Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, 2012.
66 YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
67. The Independent, The Campaign That Changed the Eating Habits of a Nation, 2008,
http://tinyurl.com/yr74p7.
68. DEFRA, Attitudes and Behaviours around Sustainable Food Purchasing (Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2011), http://tinyurl.com/pgypw4l.
69. IGD, Consumer Attitudes to Animal Welfare (IGD, 2007), http://tinyurl.com/pyezf7c.
70. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
71. RSPCA, Trust in Ready Meals Declines as Demand for Ethical Food Rises, 2013, http://
tinyurl.com/npz9sba.
72. Food&Drink Europe, Horse Meat Scandal Boosts UK Organic Sales, FoodAndDrinkEu-
rope.com, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nfhgscd.
73. YouGov, Organic Too Expensive for Most Consumers, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/
qgz3e3a.
74. Freedom Food, McDonald’s Interview: Six Months of 100% Freedom Food Pork, 2013,
http://tinyurl.com/ohaft5o.
75. Freedom Food, Think Pig!, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/qe6f75j.
76. Ethical Corporation, Farm Animal Welfare: Investor Interest Boosts Standards, 2014,
http://tinyurl.com/pl5scej.
77. YouGov, Food Provenance, 2012.
78. YouGov, Food Provenance, 2012.
79. IGD, Local Food, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/cmv8877.
80. YouGov, Food Provenance, 2012.
81. Mintel, A Big Thumbs up for British Post Horse Meat Scandal – One in Two Brits Now
Feel British Food Is Better Quality than Imported, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/bnzrj4p.
82. YouGov, The Sun Horsemeat Survey Results, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nc83wcw.
83. Alice Bows et al., What’s Cooking? Adaptation & Mitigation in the UK Food System. Sus-
tainable Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, 2012.
84. VOLAC, Nutrition Survey Points to Growing Market for Protein-Fortified Foods, 2010,
http://tinyurl.com/nngvydh.
85. Retail Times, Meat-Free and Free-from Sales Set to Top £1bn in UK in 2013, Mintel Re-
ports, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/oz5n43f.
86. Vegetarierbund Deutschland, “Aktuelle Forsa-Umfrage Zeigt: In Deutschland Leben
Über 42 Millionen Teilzeitvegetarier,” VEBU - Vegetarierbund Deutschland, 2011, http://
tinyurl.com/pbqqeac.
87. YouGov, YouGov Survey for Eating Better, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/nzlz2z8.
88. Meat Free Mondays, 2014, http://www.meatfreemondays.com/.
89. Livewell for Life, Livewell for Life, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/lsygxtr.
90. Part-Time Carnivore, Part-Time Carnivore, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/3xsvxwr.
91. Friends of the Earth, Meat Free May FAQs | Friends of the Earth, 2014, http://
www.foe.co.uk/page/meat-free-may-faqs.
92. CIWF, Factory Farming http://www.ciwf.org.uk/factory-farming
93. The Pig Pledge, The Pig Pledge, 2014, http://pigpledge.org/.
94. Dabble with you Dinner, Dabble With Your Dinner, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/pewpvhc.
95. Soil Association, Food for Life Catering Mark : Soil Association Certification, 2014,
http://www.sacert.org/catering.
96. http://www.eating-better.org/blog/49/Eating-Better-launches-business-
engagement.html
97. Key Note, Vegetarian Foods - 2012 - Executive Summary (Key Note, 2012), http://
tinyurl.com/pzoyc39.
98 FT, Quorn Aims to Become $1bn Brand before Lab Burgers Arrive, Financial Times,
2013, http://tinyurl.com/okto25k.

31
99. Food Navigator, Gardein CEO: 75% of the Growth in the Frozen Meat Alternative Cate-
gory Last Year Came from Us, FoodNavigator-USA.com, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/ojnpd9b.
100. CNN, The CNN 10: Startups to Watch, CNN, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/oag2ze8.
101. Vegetarian Butcher, The Newest Generation Meat Substitutes - de Vegetarische Slager,
2014, http://tinyurl.com/oxj5eyd.
102. J. de Boer, H. Schosler, and H. Aiking, “Meatless Days’ or ‘Less but Better’? Exploring
Strategies to Adapt Western Meat Consumption to Health and Sustainability Challenges,”
Appetite, February 12, 2014.

32