BS - 6031 Code of Practice For Earthworks PDF

BS6031 : 1981
UDC 624.1 3
(Reprinted, incorporating Amendment No, 1)
Code of practice for
Earthworks
Code de bonne pratiquepour les travaux de terrassement
Richtlinie für den Erdbau
British Standards Institution

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Licensed by Information Handling Services
BS 6031 : 1981
Contents
Page Page
Foreword 3 6.3.6 Falls 23
Code committee
drafting
Back cover 6.3.7 Internal erosion 23
6.4 Methods of analysis ofstabilityof slopes 23
Code of practice 6.4.1 General 23
Section one. General 6.4.2 Limit-equilibrium
methods 23
1. Scope 4 6.4.3 Stress analysis 25
2. References 4 6.4.4Physical models 25
3. Definitions 4 6.5 Design 25
3.1 General 4 6.5.1 Assessment
safety of 25
3.2 Terms used in section two 4 6.5.2 Slope profile 26
3.3 Terms used in section
three 5 6.5.3 Influence of construction procedure on
3.4 Terms used in timbering 5 slope stability 26
4. Safety procedures 7 6.5.4 Drainage 27
4.1 General 7 6.5.5 Mechanical
methods
support
of 28
obligations
4.2 Statutory 7 6.5.6 Improvements toparameters
soil 29
4.3 Precautions against incidental hazards 8 6.6 ofMonitoring slopes 29
6.6.1 General 29
Section two. Cuttings and embankments, grading 6.6.2Water pressure 30
and levelling 6.6.3Monitoring surfaceand sub-surface
5. conditions
Site and investigations 8 movements 30
5.1 General 8 6.6.4 Earth pressure measurements 30
5.1.1 Environmental considerations 8 observations
6.6.5 Seismic 30
5.1.2 Preliminary assessment of the project 8 7. Embankments and general filling 30
exploration
5.1.3 Ground 9 7.1 General factors affecting the design of
5.1.4 Description and classification of soils and embankments 30
rocks 10 7.2 Strength and deformation characteristics of
5.1.5 Field
laboratory
and
testing 10 foundations and fill materials 31
investigations
on Report
5.1.6 10 7.2.1 Materials 31
5.1.7 Furtherinvestigationduringconstruction 1O testing
7.2.2 and
Suitability 31
5.2 Economicand environmental 7.3of Design embankments 31
considerations 11 7.3.1 General 31
5.2.1 General 11 7.3.2 Stability 32
5.2.2 Cutand fillfor roads and railways 11 7.3.3 Deformations 32
5.2.3Cut and fill forairfields and other extensive 7.4 Drainage 32
paved areas 11 7.4.1 General 32
5.2.4 Dredging
and hydraulic fill 11 7.4.2 Pre-earthworks drainage 32
5.2.5 Sand dunes 11 7.4.3 Temporary drainage during construction 33
5.3 Risks of failure and acceptance of 7.4.4 Drainage measures to improve and maintain
deformation 11 the stability of embankmentgeneral or
5.3.1 General 11 filling 33
5.3.2 Effect on neighbouring structures 16 7.4.5Permanent drainage 33
6. Cuttings 16 7.4.6 Construction
considerations 33
6.I General considerations 16 7.5 Specialsiteconditionsaffecting
6.1.I Environmental
factors 16 embankment or general fill design 33
geometry6.1.2 Site 16 7.5.1 Fill deposited
water in 33
6.1.3 Economic and safety considerations 16 7.5.2 Embankments soft
on ground 33
6.1.4A guide for preliminary design of cuttings in 7.5.3 Embankments on sloping ground 34
rocks 17 7.5.4 Embankments over quarried
ground 34
6.2 Factors governing the stability of cutting 7.5.5 Embankments on existing filled
ground 34
slopes 17 7.5.6 Embankments over mine workings and other
6.2.1 Materials: soils and rocks 17voids underground 34
6.2.2 Selection of parameters of soiland rock 7.6 Suitability
materials
of for fill 34
masses for assessment of slope stability 20 materials
7.6.1 Unsuitable 34
6.2.3 Structure and fabricof soils androcks 21 materials
7.6.2Suitable 35
6.2.4Water: surface and sub-surface 21 7.6.3 Materials suitablewith the adoption of
effects 6.2.5 Time 22 special construction measures 35
6.2.6 Other
factors
influencing
stability 22 8. and Excavation filling 35
6.3 Modes of failure of cuttings and natural 8.1 Planning 35
slopes 22 8.1.I General considerations 35
6.3.1 General 22 work
8.1.2 Planning of 36
6.3.2 Rotational slides 22 8.2 Preparation
site of 36
6.3.3 Compound slides 23 8.2.1 General 36
6.3.4Translational slides 23 8.2.2Site clearance 37
6.3.5 Toppling 23 topsoil
8.2.3Stripping 37

_" -~
BS 6031 : 1981
Page
8.2.5 Underground cavities 37 1 1.4 Methodsofprotection 49
8.2.6 Treatment ofsubsoils 37 1 1.4.1 General 49
8.3. Excavation . 37 1 1.4.2Vegetation 49
8.3.1 Generàl 37 1 1.4.3 Drainage 49
8.3.2 In cuttings or borrow
pit areas 38 1 1.4.4Other forms of protection 49
8.3.3 Below water 38 1 1.5 Remedial works after slope failure 50
8.3.4 In rock 38 11.5.1 General 50
8.4 Earth-moving 38 1 1.5.2 Immediate measures 50
8.5 Depositionandspreading 38 1 1.5.3 Long term measures 51
8.6 Control 39
8.6.1 Preliminary trials 39 Section three. Trenches, pits and shafts
8.6.2 Methods of monitoring deformations and 12. Design considerations 52
stresses 39 12.1 Site investigation 52
8.6.3 Earthworks adjacentt o sfructures 39 12.2 Ground conditions 52
8.6.4 Shallow cut and fill 39 12.2.1 General 52
8.6.5 Earthworks adjacentt o properties 40 12.2.2 Influence of ground conditionson
8.7 Inclementweatherduringconstruction 40 construction methods 52
8.7.1 Wet weather 40 12.2.3 Sources and control of ground water 52
8.7.2 Freezing conditions 40 12.3 The design of stable slopes and supports
8.8 Haul roads 40 t o excavations 53
8.9 Advanced earthworks 40 12.3,l General 53
8.1O Stage construction 40 12.3.2 Magnitude and distribution of lateral soil
8.1 1 The disposal of-spoil 40 pressures 54
9. Compaction 41 12.3.3 Stability ofbase of excavation 54
9.1 General 41 12.3.4 Movements atbase of excavation 54
9.2 Test for compaction of earthworks 41 12.4 Practical considerations 54
9.3 Methodsofcompaction 41 12.4.1 Methods of excavation and types of
9.4 Soilcompactioncharacteristics 42 support 54
9.4.1 General 42 12.4.2 Existing buildings, buried structures and
9.4.2 Rockfill 42 services 55
9.4.3 Granular soils 42 12.4.3 Working space 55
9.4.4 Cohesive fine soils 42 12.4.4 Disposal of spoil 55
9.43 Special fills-waste materials 42 13. Construction procedure 55
9.5 Control of compaction in the field 42 13.1 Temporarysupport of excavations 55
9.6 Compactionadjacent to structures 43 13.1.I General 55
9.6.1 Culverts 43 1 3.1.2 Effect of width 56
9.6.2 Abutments and retaining walls 43 13.1.3 Support by poling boards or steel trench
9.6.3 Obstructions 43 sheets 57
1 O. The operation of construction plant for 13.1.4 Support by horizontal sheeting 57
earthworks 43 13.1.5 Support by runners 57
10.1 Classificationofplant 43 13.1.6 Sheet piling ofexcavations 58
10.2 Particularfactorsaffectingearth-moving 13.1.7 Adjustments t o supports t o enable the
plant 43 permanent work tobe constructed 58
10.3 Preparation for excavation 43 13.1.8 Maintenance of supports 58
10.4 Excavationandearth-moving plant 46 13.1.9 Striking of supports 59
10.5 Compaction equipment 46 13.2 Backfilling 59
10.6 Specialistplantandequipment 47 13.3 Support o; excavation by diaphragm walls
10.7 Safety measures 47 or cast-in-placepiles
bored 60
11. Maintenanceandprotectionof slopes 47 14. Trenches 60
11.1 General 47 14.1methods
Construction 60
1 1.2 Maintenance of slopes 47 obligations
14.2 Statutory 60
1 1.2.1 Factors leadingto instability after procedure
14.3 Excavation 61
construction 47 14.3.1 Methods available 61
1 1.2.2 Inspection 47 14.3.2 Trenches with sloping sides 61
1 1.2.3 Check and maintenanceof drainage 14.3.3 Trenches with vertical sides 61
systems 47 14.3.4 Bottoming of trenches 61
1 1.2.4 Check and maintenance of structures 48 14.4 Mechanical excavation
trenches
of 61
1 1.2.5 Check and maintenance of anchor 14.5 Hand excavation
trenches
of 61
systems 48 14.6 Methodsdewatering
of trenches 61
1 1.2.6 Controi of development 48 14.7 Installation of permanent work or
1 1.3 Sources oferosion 48 materials in trenches 62
1 1.3.1 General 48 14.8 Backfilling and reinstatementof
1 1.3.2Water 48 surface 62
1 1.3.3 Frost 48 14.9 Special cases 62
1 1.3.4Wind 49 14.9.1 Narrow trenches 62
1 1.3.5 Other sources 49 r , -
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards I

BSI BSmb03L
BS 6031 : 1981
Page Page
14.9.2 rrenches for docks, quays andsimilar slide 6. Block 68
retaining walls failure
62 7. Wedge 68
15. Plts and shafts 62failure 8. Toppling 68
15.1 General 62 9. Fall 68
15.2 Methods of support of excavations 63 1O. Slip circle analysis (undrainedshear strength S,
15.3
Drainage 63 constant with depth) 68
15.4 Striking of supports and backfilling 63 1 1. Slip circle analysis (undrained shear strength S,
15.5Alternativemethodsofsinking 63 varies
laterally
and with depth) 69
15.5.1 General 63 12. Slip circle analysis(effectivestressmethod) 69
15.5.2 Well sinking 63 13. Effectoftensioncracks on slopestability 69
15.5.3 Underpinning with segmental lining 63 14. Non-circular slide
on
weak soil layer 69
15.5.4 Cast-in-place concrete lining 63 15. Planar slide on infinite slope-stability
15.5.5 Steel lining installed by drilling analysis 70
methods 63 1 6. Steep soil slope retained by ground anchors 70
15.6 Useof ground treatment processes 64 17. Unstablerockslopestablizedbyrockbolts 70
16. Excavationin rock 64 18. Slabslide
stabilized bydowel bolts 70
16.1 General 6 4 earth19. Reinforced 71
16.2 Rock excavation by mechanical or hand 20. Variation of undrainedshear strength with
methods 64 moisture content for typical soils compacted
1 6.3 Rock excavation by drilling and using the2.5 kg rammer method (BS1377) at
blasting 64 moisture contents above the optimum value 71
16.4 Removalofloosened rock 65 2 1. Envelope of strut loads on braced
excavations 71
Appendices 22. Water-bearing permeablesoils: seepage and
A. Descriptions of construction plant for uplift 72
earthworks 82 23. Typicalsingleorcentrewalingpolingframe 72
B. List of references 85 24. Close poling with tucking frames 73
25. Support ofdeep excavation by horizontal
Tables piles
soldierand
sheeting 74
1. British soil classification system for engineering 26. Trench excavation using steel trench sheets as
purposes and field identification 12 runners 75
2. Field characteristicsof soils and other materials 27. Typical medium-depth trenchwith steel sheet
used in earthworks 1 4 in ground
piling bad 77
3. Design of slopes in rock cuttings and 28. Wide and deeptrench using steel sheet
embankments 18 piling 77
4. Typical compaction characteristics for natural 29. Blockings,chogsor
chocks 78
soils, rocks and artificial materials used in 30. Trenches with slopingsides 78
earthwork construction 44 3 1, Methodof lowering long steel pipes use by of
temporary strutting 79
Figures 32. Trench timberingfor quay walls, etc. 79
1. Short and long termstability of cutting and 33. Method of excavating isolated pits and
embankment slopes 66 shafts 80
2. Types of rotational slide 67 34. Rock excavation by drilling and blasting:
3. Successive rotational slide 67
excavation general 81
4. Multiple retrogressive slide 67 35. Rock excavation by drilling and blasting: pits
5. Slab slide shafts 68 and 81

Foreword
This code of practice aisrevision ofCP 2003, published in and deformation problems. In the CP 1 1 O design method,
1959, and has been preparedunderthe direction of the characteristic values can be adopted forthe dead load of
Civil Engineering and Building Structures Standards the structure, the imposed and wind loadings, and the
Committee. It deals with earthworks forming part of strength and deformation propertiesthe of constituent
general civil engineering construction such as highways,materials. These characteristic values can be multiplied by
railways andairfields; bulk excavations for major partial safety factors which take into account statistical
structures and excavations variations in theapplied loadings and measured properties
in pits, shafts and trenches for
foundations, pipelines and drainage works. The code of materials.If the factored dead, imposed andwind
excludes tunnelexcavations; earthworks for dams and loadings donot exceed the factored calculated strength of
reservoirs; dredging and reclamation; and earthworks the structure, theultimate limit state
for has not been
canals, river training,sea defences, irrigation and land reached. No similar approachhas yet been established for
drainage. CP 2003 is now withdrawn. earthworks as a practical method of design. In earthworks
The code is written ingeneral terms and very large potentialshear surfaces are involved compared
its application to
any particular branchof civil engineering to or any with those in failure zones of structural members. The
particular construction project may be subject to the soils and rocks traversed by these large shear surfaces
special requirements of the work under consideration. can vary widely in composition, fabric shear and strength
depending on how the materials were originally formed,
This codeis divided into three sections. Section one is a the effects of time on their fabric and strength, their
general section and includes information on safety stratigraphic level and inclination in relationto the
procedures. earthworks profile, the changes in strength of the soil or
Section two deals with cuttings and embankments, rock mass consequent on constructing the earthworks,
grading andlevelling, and describes methods of designing and variationsin the groundwater regime.
and constructing these earthworks for highways, railways Earthworks can undergo large deformations before the
and airfields. Methods of bulk excavation in open groundpeakshear strengthis mobilized and failure takes place.
conditions are alsodescribed. The serviceability limit istherefore likely to be that of the
Section three deals with trenches, pits andshafts, structures sitedwithin or adjacentto the earthworks
describing methods of excavation and of providing ratherthan a factor of the earthworks alone.
temporarysupport for the sides. Earthworks may be undertaken in site conditions
Generally the code has been preparedin relationto influencing the stability of existing structures and thus
conditions existingin the BritishIsles. Some of the affect the lives and property of the general The public.
recommendations maynot be appropriatefor work in safety of construction operatives has alsobeen an
countries overseas where climatic and other factors important considerationin preparing this revision of the
require different design and construction techniques. code. It is therefore strongly recommended that when the
The construction methods described in the code are consequences of failure of earthworks couldbe serious,
necessarily quite basic in conception. Someof them, adequate measuresbe taken to ensure safe working
especially those used for supportingthe sides of conditions and permanent stability of the completed
excavations, aretraditional incharacter, and showfew works. Expert advice should be sought on the problems
changes from themethods describedin the 1959 edition and risks involved.
of this code. The newer techniques usually involve Attention is drawn to need to obtain local authority
utilization of the permanent substructure as a meansof planning approvalfor earthworks such as cuttings,
ground support and they are dealt with inCivil Engineering
embankments, borrow pitsand spoilheaps. Measures
Code of practice 2 (under revision) in CP 2004.
and may be required to deal with wide-ranging effects on the
Inthis revision changes have been made in the methods environment. Earlyconsultationwith the appropriate
described for assessing the stability
of cuttings and national and local government authorities and
embankments. Advancesin thescience of soil and rock conservation societies is therefore recommended.
mechanics since the preparationof the1959 code have NOTE. The numbersis square brackets used throughoutthe text
added considerablyto the knowledge and understanding of this code relateto the bibliographic references given in
of the behaviour of earth and slopes.
rock appendix B.
A t the timeof revising this code, methods of limit state This code of practice represents a standard of good
design as adopted in CP 1 1O have not been appliedto practice and therefore takes the form of
earthworks. This is because of the different concepts recommendations. Compliancewith it does not confer
concerning the engineering properties of soils and rocks
immunityfrom relevant statutory and legal
and the dominant time-dependent character of stability requirements.
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards 3

BSI B S * b 0 3 1 B3 m 362qbb9 0 0 3 6 0 8 5 b W
BS 6031 : 1981
British Standard Code

of practice for
Earthworks
Section one. General 3.Definitions

1. Scope 3.1 General. Any earthworks project involves
This British Standard recommends a code of practicefor considerations of soil and rock mechanicspractice, and
earthworks formingpart ofgeneral civil engineering the code makes frequent reference t o terms used in these
construction. sciences. Definitions of termsrelated to soil testingare
Section two of the code describes methods of designing given in BS 1377. Engineering geology 'androck
and constructing cuttingsand bulk excavation. I t also mechanics termsare defined in various published works
covers embankments and areas of general regrading in [1,2]t. For the purposes of this BritishStandard, the
cut and fill forhighways, railways and airfields. Certain definitions givenin 3.2to 3.4apply, together with those
works such as docks andpower stations includeboth bulk given in BS 1377 and [1,2].
excavation in open ground and deep excavationswith 3.2Terms usedin section t w o
supported sides. the latterbeing dealf with insection 3.2.1anisotropy. The property of having different physical
three of thiscode. Where such supported excavationsdo properties in different directions; e.g. the permeability ofa
not represent a large proportion of the total volume of soil may be greaterin a horizontal direction thanin a
earth-moving theywill be dealtwith mainly in section two. vertical direction.
Although site investigationsfor general purposes are 3.2.2aquifer. A soil layer containing water inrecoverable
described in BS 5930*, the methods of investigation for quantities.
stability ofslopes of cuttings and embankments require
3.2.3berm. A relatively narrow bench or shelf which is
additional specialist techniques and equipment which are
provided to break the continuity of a long slope, or as a
described in thepresent code.
trap to contain loose material rollingdown a slope.
Section three of the code describes methods of
3.2.4colluvial deposits. Weathered material transported
excavating trenches, pits and shaftsin various types of
by gravity, e.g. scree, talus, and landslipdebris.
ground and methods of forming temporary supports to the
sides. Trenches, pits and shafts are excavated to enable 3.2.5 creep. Barely perceptible movementof a soil orrock
some form of permanent constructionto be founded at mass. There is often a continuous gradation betweenthe
the level of thebottom of the excavation and any stationary and moving material, but thisdoes not occur in
permanent supportto the groundfaces to be formed. the case of creep on a pre-existing slipsurface.
Temporary supports referred to throughout the code are 3.2.6deviator stress. In a triaxial compression teston a
taken to include alternativematerials such as timber, steel specimen, the differencebetween thegreatest and least
and reinforcedconcrete, and alternative methods such as principal stresses.
timbering, trenchsheeting, sheet piling, diaphragm walls 3.2.7landslide (landslip).Readily perceptible
and contiguous bored piled walls. down-slope movement ofa soil or rockmass, occurring
Figures 2 1 t o 3are5 published to illustrate specific primarily throughshear failure on discrete surfaces at the
technical requirements referred to in sectionthree; they boundaries of the movingmass.
are not intended to showall details orto prescribe the 3.2.8phreatic surface. Thelevel to which the ground
design in any otherrespect. Timber has been shown in water froma given aquifer will rise under the fullhead.
some ofthese figuresbecause it is the traditionalmaterial, 3.2.9piezometer. Anopen or closed tube or other device
but thisdoes not preclude the use of other materials installed downward from the ground surface and used to
which maybe found more expedient (see 13.1). Any measure the ground water pressure in theregion where
members omitted(e.g. puncheons,tipping pieces, lacings, the piezometertip is situated.
ground props)are to be provided wherenecessary.
3.2.1O scree. Accumulated rock debris at the foot a cliff
of
(see colluvial deposits).
2.References
3.2.11 slope angle. The angle of any slope expressed
The titles of the standards publications referredto in this
either in degrees to the horizontal oras the tangent of the
standard are listed on theinside back cover.
angle to thehorizontal (e.g.a slopë of 1 in 3 makes an
angle to thehorizontal whose tangentis 1/3, i.e.,l8.5 O).
* Formerly knownas CP 200 1.

BS 6031 : 1981
3.2.1 2 solifluction. The slow downhill movement of soil 3.3.1 O shaft. An excavation, which maybe eithervertical
or scree cover as a resultof the alternatq freezing and or inclined, constructed to give access to underground
thawing of the contained water. works. Shallow, medium and deep shafts are defined in
3.2.1 3 spoil. Soil, rock or other excavated material
which the same way as shallow, medium anddeep pits.
OF as backfill of
is not required for filling in embankments 3.4 Terms used in timbering. The following definitions
excavations, and is surplus material removed from the are basedon theuse of timberas a constructional
site. material. It may, however, be found desirableto used
3.2.1 4 subsidence. Downward movement, reinforced concrete or steel sections and the definitions
predominantly vertiwl indirection, due ts remova!, .. should be read accordingly.
consolidation, or displacement of the underlying strata. 3.4.1 back prop,A raking strut used to transfer the weight
3.2.1 5 tectonic mavemetlts.The displgcementoda rock of timberto the ground in
deep trenches;usually placed
mass relativeto another partof themass. The scaleof below every second third
or frame.
tectonic movementCah vary from a few millimetres (as in 3.4.2 biat (byatt).A timber bearer giving support to guard
the microfoldsof a schist) to tens of kilometres(as in rails, decking,walkways, etc. (seefigure 23).
major recumbent folds). 3.4.3 bitch. A fastening of iron or steel used for securing
3.3 Terms used in section three. Trenches, pits and heavy timbers which cross each other. It is similar to a dog
shafts are classified asshallow, medium anddeep. The but has one of itsends at rightangles to the other.
limit of1.5 m for shallow trenches covers maximum 3.4.4 blocking, chock Ör chog, A timber block used as a
requirements in most schemes for service pipes, cables, distance piece or packing, e.g.betweena waling and the
ducts or stripfoundations,and in addition representsthe temporary or permanent lining of theexcavation, to permit
maximum practicable depth for single throw handwork. the insertion and erection of vertical reinforcement in
The upper limit of6.0 m for medium trenches corresponds retaining walls or other permanent construction (see
roughly to thepresent practicablelimit of excavation with figure 29).
backacting trenchers or trenchers.ofthe continuous
3.4.5 blow or boil. A displacement ofsand, silt or gravel in
bucket type(see A.1).
the bottomof an excavation byupward flowof water.
The depfhs suggested for the three fypes of pit(shallow,
3.4.6 bracing. A diagonal member used to stiffen or brace
medium or deep)cannot be applied as rigidly as with
the timbering(see figure 32).
trenches, since methods of construction suitable for
medium pits mayin some cases haveto be applied to 3.4.7 h o b or nail spikeiA fastening of iron with its head
shallow pits,depending largely on local soil conditions. bent at right angles to the shaft.
Medium anddeep excavations of relatively small 3.4.8cap, capping pieceor distributor. A piece of timber
superficial area include shaftsto give access to headings placed over the joint where two walings butt totake the
and deep trial holes, but excludesuchspecial problemsas thrust of thestrut.
deep wells and shafts to underground mineworkings. 3.4.9 chock or chog. See blocking.
3.3.1 trench. An excavation whose length greatly 3.4.1O cleat. A block of timber fixed to a member to
exceeds its width and which has either verticalsides prevent the movement of other abutting timbers.
capable of being supported by strutting fromside to side 3.4.1 1 close sheeting or close timbering. Vertical or
or batteredsides requiring noSupport. horizantal boards placed in close formationto hold up the
3.3.2 shallow trench.A trench up t o 1.5 m in depth, as. face of an excavation (see figure 23 etc.).
used for service pipes, cables,ground beams and strip .3.4.12 cross poling. Short lengths of poling boards placed
foundations. horizontally across a gap between runners or sheeting and
3.3.3 medium trench. A trench between1.5 m and tucked in behind them and used where runners or
6.0 m indepth, as used forpip.elines and sewers. sheeting cannotbe driven continuously and verticalIy (see
3.3.4 deep trench,A trench exceeding6.0 m in depth, for figure 26).
all classes of work. 3.4.1 3 cutting-out piece. A short piece of timber which
3.3.5 narrowtrenches. A class of excavation too narrow may becut outto facilitate the striking of timbering.
to allow the entry of workmen is encountered in narrow 3.4.1 4 distributor. See cap.
trenches of shallowand medium depth. Such trenches are 3.4.1 5 dog. Ãfastening of iron used for spiking large
used forcables, small pip.es, trench fillfoundations and timbers together and having both ends bentdown and
land drains, and require a separate technique for pointed.
excavation (see14.9.11.
3.4.1 6 dumpling. The ground terniorarily left in the
3.3.6 pit. For the purposes of this code pitamay be middle o f an excavation which may serveas anabutment
considered a s an excavation rangingfrom thatrequired to for the timbering to the surrounding trenches.
receive the foundation base for a pier or column to that
required to receive the basement and foundations of a .
3.4.1 7 face walingor face-piece. A waling across the
building. Trial pits excavated for site investigation end of atrench supportedby theends of theside walings
purposes arealso included. and which, together with the end strut also acting as a
waling,supports the endfaceof atrench.
3.3.7 shallow pit.A pit up to 1.5 m indepth.
3,4.18 folding wedges. Wedges usedin pairs;
3.3.8 medium pit. A pit between 1.5 m and6.0 m in overlapping each other and driven in opposite directions in
depth. order to hold or force apart two parallel surfaces (see
3.3.9 deep pit. A pit exceeding 6.0 m in depth. figure 29).
I
I
5
BSI BS*bO3L 8% W 3624bb9 0036087 T m
BS 6031 : 1981
3.4.19 foot block. A timber pad usedto spread a load 3.4.39poling boards. Timber boards generally from 1 m
from aground prop (see figure 23). to 1.5 m longand from about 25 mm to 50 mm thick,
3.4.20formation. The finish levelof the excavationa t the used in supporting the facesof an excavation (see
bottom of a trench or heading prepared to receive the figure 23).
permanent work. 3.4.40puncheon or prop. A vertical prop to support a
higher waling orstrut from theone below (see figure23).
3.4,21frame. Ina trench, any pair ofwalings on opposite
sides of the trench togetherwith the struts that separate 3.4.41runners. Long vertical timbers
a t least 5 0 m m
them. In a shaft, all the walings and struts a t the same thick withtheir lower endchisel-shaped; used in unstable
level. ground instead of polingboards, and driven downwards in
advance of the excavation (see figure26).
The word 'frame' is often regarded as including the setting
of poling boards supported by thesetimbers. 3.4.42scantling. A termused to denote the breadth and
3.4.22normal poling frame. frame A inwhich the thickness of a piece of timber.
walings support the poling boards at their mid-points (see 3.4.43setting. Allboards heldin position by one frame of
figure 23). timber, orin thecase of tucking or piling
frames, by two
3.4.23tucking frame. frame A in whichthe walings adjacent frames.
support the poling boards at their ends (see figure24). 3.4.44sheeting. Boards, planks or timbers used in
A timber frame of walings conjunction with walings or soldiers
and struts to support
I
3.4.24ground or top frame.
and strutslaid about'0.3 m below ground level, used as a the sides ofan excavation.
guide for the first 'setting' of runners or trench sheeting. 3.4.45sheet piling.Vertical membersof timber,
3.4.25guide frame. A timber frame erectedabove reinforced concrete or steel driven into thesoil in a row to
ground levelto act as a guide for runners or trench retain soil during excavation and
to assist in the exclusion
sheeting, and as a staging from which they may be driven. of water.
3.4.26ground prop. A prop or puncheon placed between3.4.46shoe. A steel or iron attachment suitably shaped to
the lowestframe anda foot block on the bottom surface fit and reinforce the
cutting edge of a runner or sheet
pile.
of an excavation and used to support the dead weight of 3.4.47soldier. A vertical timber or steel taking the thrust
the timbering(see figure 23). from horizontal sheeting or walings and supported by
3.4.27guide runner. Arunner drivenahead to forma struts across anexcavation (see figure 25).
guide for driving intermediate runners. 3.4.48staging. A working platform supported on the
3.4.28hanger. See tie rod. main framingof trenches.
3.4.29heading. Excavation intunnel. 3.4.49steel sheet piling.Sheet piling formed of rolled
steel sectionswith interlocking joints and used principally
3.4.30interlocking pile.See steel sheet piling.
for excavationsin difficultor water-bearing soils (see
3.4.31 kicking piece. A length of timber spiked to a figures 27 and 28).
waling totake the thrustfrom the end ofa strut whichis
not a t right angles to the waling. 3.4.50stretcher. See liner.
3.4.32king piles. Aline of pilesto the full depth of the 3.4.51 strut. Ahorizontal member incompression,
excavation, drivena t strut intervals in the body of a wide resisting lateral thrusts
from thesides of an excavation
trench beforeexcavation, serving as supports and (see figure 23).
abutments for struts shorter than would otherwise be 3.4.52sub-drains. Open-jointed or perforated pipes laid
required. in the trench at the bottom excavations
of to drain the
3.4.33lacing. Avertical timber spikedto the sides of ground as the work proceeds.
struts or walingsand tying them together to carry the 3.4.53sump. An excavationbelow thelevel of the bottom
weight ofthe lower frames as excavation advances (see drains and from whichit may
of a trenchinto which water
figures 2 3 and 32). be baled or pumped.
3.4.34liner or stretcher. timber
A driven between the 3.4.54swinger. A pointed iron bar about
1 m long, used
ends of opposing members of a frame to lock them in as a lever for moving runners.
position and spiked to the member againstwhich it rests A rodor bolt sometimes used
3.4.55tie rod or bolt.steel
(see figure33(a)). instead of lacings between successive frames
to take
3.4.35lip, lipping block, lippingpiece. A short length of their weight and prevent movement of the timber.
timber fixedand spikedto the top ofa strut, and projecting 3.4.56tucking board. A narrow timber used behind
sufficiently beyond its end so as to rest on a waling.It (see figure 24).
walings in tucking frames
supports the weight of the strut while wedges are being
3.4.57tucking frame.See frame.
driven (see figure23). I
3.4.58waling. Ahorizontal member supporting the poling
3.4.36open sheeting. Used in excavation in which the boards orsheeting~inan excavation (see figure
23).
sides are reasonablyfirm and not likely to crumble.
Generally consists of vertical poling boards spaced at 3.4.59wedge. See folding wedge andpage.
intervals and supported by walingsand struts, or 3.4.60weephole. Inwet ground a hole sometimes
horizontal sheeting openly spaced and held in position
by provided through sheetingto allow the discharge of water
soldiers and struts. so as to prevent the development of a dangerous
3.4.37page. A small timber wedge (see figure
26). hydrostatic head of water.
3.4.38poling back. The operation of excavating behind 3.4.61yankee brob. AZ-shaped metal strap.
timber supports already in positionand timbering the new
face.
6
4. Safety procedures othertimbering is erected. Persons should onlywork
4.1 General, Persons responsiblefor thesafe operation of within thesupported section of an excavation andshould
any construction works should not only be conversant not enter unsupported parts. Notices should be postedto
with all the relevant legislation, some of whichis listed in this effect.
4.2, but should a[so actively encourage asafe approach fo Operatives engagedon bottoming-upin an excavation
the workin hand. The principalcauses of accidents, which should not be required to worknear the excavator.
apply at any stage ofthe works, can be categorized under Proper meansof access to and from excavations should
eight mainheadings: be provided. Ladders should besecured to prevent
(a) falls of persons into theworks; slipping. They can be simply tied to thetimbering or the
(b) falls of materials (e.g. collapse of the sides of top of theladder can be secured by tyingit to a small
excavations, fall ofmaterial into theexcavation from picket driveninto theground. Operativesshould not walk
spoil tips, etc.); or damberabout the excavation supports since this could
weaken them.
(c) unintentional collapse of the whole any or part ofa
structure and of structures erected as temporary works Excavated spoil or other materials or plant items should
(includes the effect of excavations alongside existing not be placed close to theedges of excavations unless
buildings andinadequate timbering of excavations); allowed for in the
design of the works, and unless the
operatives working within the excavation are protected
(d) lifting operations associated with the works and fromfalling spoil orother objects.
unfenced machinery;
Support works for trench excavations should bedesigned
(e) fires and explosions; and constructedto ensure the stability ofthe surrounding
(fl electrical, including damage to underground cables ground and the safety the of operatives andthe general
and other electricalservices; public during the construction period. The loads imposed
(9) trespass bythe public (includingchildren) onto by stationary and mobile plant and construction materials
construction sites; should be taken into account in thedesign of the support
works. Steps should be taken to prevent mobile plant
(h) miscellaneous accidents duet o lifting andcarrying
falling into excavations by theuse of stopblocks installed
equipment and materials, poor means of access for
with their anchorage points well awayfrom the
vehicles and operatives into excavations, collisions with
excavation.
obstructions suchas projecting reinforcement,
mis-placed or inadequate barriers and randomly The use of explosives in excavation work should be
stacked materials, and reversing accidents or other carried out inaccordance with the recommendations
collisions involving earthmoving equipment and contained in BS 5607. See further 10.7.
transport. 4.2 Statutory obligations. Attention is drawn to the
Unsafe places of workcontribute to falls ofpersons and requirements ofthe Factories Act 1961and to the
materials. There is a risk to persons arising from the Regulations made under the Act whichapply to
accidental collapse of thesides of excavations dueto construction work and which may affect any of the
insufficient attention being paid to thetemporary operations involvedin earthworks.
supports. Earthworks associated with theconstruction ofa building
The wearing of suitable protective clothing and equipment or a defined engineering structure constitutea 'Building
for the job is a major aidt o safety. All persons who work Operation' (BO) or a 'Work Engineering Construction'
on construction sites should be encouraged t o wear (WEC) byvirtue of the definitions in Section 176 ofthe
safety clothing which includes helmets, boots, shoesand Act and the associated Extension of Definitions
gloves. Injuries to thehead, handsand feetare frequent Regulations.
but equally, serious accidents cancause painful damage Section 127 of the Act applies a number of itsprovisions
to eyes. Attention should therefore be paid to laws which to BOS and WECsand thereforeto associated
require safety goggles orscreens forcertain types of earthworks.
work, and wherenecessary, breathing apparatus. The main Codes of Regulations made under the Factories
All excavations should be examined daily by a competent Act whichare directly relevantto earthworks are the four
person t o ensure that it is safe for operatives to work construction codes which apply t o all BOSand WECs, ¡.e.
within them. Where thesides cannot besIoped back t o a the Construction (General Provisions) Regulations,
safe angle, as approved b y a person competentand 1961;
experienced in such matters, their continued stability
should not betaken for granted. Where the depth of the Construction (Lifting Operations) Regulations,
excavation is greater than 1.2 m, the omission of supports 1961;
to a vertical or steep face should be a matter ofpositive the Construction (Working Places) Regulations, 1966;
instruction rather than acceptance without instruction. the Construction (Health and Welfare) Regulations,
It should not be assumed that vertical unsupportedsides 1966.
may be safely constructed in strata, rock since the Some of the other Codes of Regulations which apply t o
orientation ofthe geological planes of separation and any BOS and WECs as well as to conventionalfactories are:
soft materials containedin them have to be takeninto
the Electricity (Factories Act) Special Regulations.
consideration,
1 9 0 8 and 1944;
Timbermen erecting the supports should bein a protected
the WoodworkingMachinery Regulations, 1 9 2 2 t o
position. Consideration should be given to adjustable
1945;
frames or otherdevices which can provide support whilst

BS 6031 : 1981
the Work inCompressed Air SpecialRegulations, 1958; of these changes in the natural drainage patterns and
the Asbestos Regulations, 1969; ground water levels on existing works in the locality
should alsobe considered. Diversionof natural surface or
the Ionizing Radiations (Sealed Sources)
Regulations, ground waterflow towardsunderground cavitiesas a
1 9 69; result of excavations may lead to sub-surface erosionand
the Ionizing Radiations (Unsealed Radioactive collapse of natural arching over these voids.
Substances) Regulations, 1968. 5.1.I .2Pollution. Precautions maybe necessary against
These aresome of the Statutory Regulations which, pollution oflakes or natural watercourses caused by
together withany subsequent amendments, have to be run-off or pumpingfrom earthworks in made ground or in
observed. fine-grained soils suchas chalk or marl.If necessary,
The Healthand Safety a t Work Actintroduced in July ditches or piped drains shouldbe provided to intercept
1 9 7 4 came into forcea t the beginning of April1975. The run-off waterand convey it to lagoons for the settlement
Act extends the obligationsand protection to include all of suspended solids before discharge into awatercourse.
persons a t work and members of the public.These Chemical dosing may be needed in lagoons or settling
obligations are in addition to the duties of employers and tanks to flocculate fine suspended mattertoor neutralize
others under existing health and safety legislation. acidic waters.
Reference shouldalso be madeto the Guide to the At the construction stage anof earth-moving project
Construction Regulations published by the Federation of airborne pollution by
dust, deposition of mud orloose
Civil Engineering Contractorsand the National Federation debris on public roads and pollution by noise
are factors
of Building Trades Employers; to ConstructionSafety requiring attention and consultationwith local authorities
published by the NFBTE; to the BuildingandConstruction (see 8.6.5and 8.8).
Regulations Handbook published by the Royal Society for 5.1.2Preliminary assessment of the project
the Prevention of Accidents; and to aHealth and Safetyat
5.1 Assembly
-2.1 of existing data. Sources of preliminary
Work series of booklets issued by the Department of
information are listed inBS 5930. This information
Employment entitledSafetyin Construction Work (now the
includes geology, borehole logs, site investigationreports,
responsibility of the Health and Safety Executive).
previous history of the site and the location of old maps
4.3 Precautions against incidental hazards. Expert and aerial photographs [3].Collection of preliminary data
advice or help should be sought before proceeding with is important since it enables a site investigationto be
the work any if of thefollowing sources of dangerare properly planned.If extensive informationis available the
found orexpected. If the workis being carried out an in normal scope of a site investigation may be reduced.
existing industrial plant the management should be
If the initial investigation indicates
that the site may be
consulted.
affected bypast, present or future underground mining
(a) Noxiousgases, e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, operations, advice should be sought from a mining
sulphur compounds,air lacking oxygen, town gas or engineer or surveyor with the appropriate specialized
methane: consultHM Inspector of Factories, knowledge of the district.
H M Inspector ofMines, the NationalCoal Board,the
5.1.2.2Sitereconnaissance. The procedure for site
Public Analyst, the localGas Board or the Medical
reconnaissance is described in BS5930. Muchuseful
Officer (environmental health).
information can often be obtained by enquiries.local This
(b) Noxious or flammableliquids, e.g. petrol, alcohol, reconnaissance is an essential part of the preliminary
cleansing chemicals,white spirit, acidsor alkalis: assessment of a project and no major earthworks should
consult H M Inspector of Factories or the Medical Officer
be undertaken without completing this stage of the
(environmental health). investigatory work in a thorough manner. Evidenceof past
(c) Sewage: consult the regional Water Authority. or presentlandslides, creep or subsidence shouldbe
(d) Unexplodedmissiles: consult the police. sought by observing landforms and studying aerial
photographs. A thorough examination should be made of
existing drainage patterns which could be affected by the
Section two.Cuttings and embankments, grading proposed works.
and levelling
Useful information can be obtained by examining the
5. Site conditions and investigations geological structure and stability conditions in existing
5.1 General road or railway cuttings where the geological formationis
5.1.I Environmental considerations similar to that in the
area of the project. Where the
geology of the site is of significanceto the earthworks,it is
5.1.I .I Stability of site. Several factors may affect the good practiceto summarize all relevant information on a
stability ofa site proposed for earthworks. The site may be geological mapdrawn toa suitable scale[4].
unstable in its natural state.The construction ofa cutting
or embankment may result instability
in of underlying or 5.1.2.3Preparation of plan for a site investigation. The
surrounding terrainwhich waspreviously in a stable results of the study of available information and of the site
condition. The possibility of buried channels, former reconnaissance, when consideredin relation to tentative
watercourses and ponds infilled with compressible plans and sections of the earthworks, enable an
material shouldbe investigated. assessment to be made of the amount of information
required from a detailed investigation. A plan should then
The naturalflow of surface and subsoil water across be preparedfor exploring the ground profile to the required
sloping terrain maybe obstructed or diverted by depths and lateral extent and for field and laboratory tests
earthworks, leadingto changes in water levels to or on soils and rocks to provide data on ground properties for
impounding of flood water by embankments. The effects designing and constructing the earthworks.
”-”- % I

The plan should be flexible in itsscope andcapable of should be sufficient to enable undisturbed soil samples
being implemented stage by stage if a t all possible. 1 O0 mm indiameter to be recovered.
However good the data on which the original plan was Where soils exhibit macro-fabric such as fissures or
based, it is not unlikely that theground profile, as revealed laminations, large diameter samples,say 200 mm or
by the detailed exploration, differs from thatanticipated. 250 mm indiameter, may be justified to enable special
The engineerresponsible for directing the investigation is laboratory testson such samplesto be made [5].
to be kept inclose touchwith the field work and tie should Explorations in rocks shouldbe undertaken by rotary
adjust the plan from.?ime to time as may !e rFquired. ,drilling to recover core samples as described inBS 5930.
Where uniformity h'grourid~cónditions .: , is... he
reve'äled .,. may The borèhole diametershould be such as t o obtain
take actionto reduce the scope of theW&; conversely, complete.recovery of thé rock cores including all very
where very variable gr'ound conditions âré.dïsclo-sed.he weak and friable material. The cores should be extracted,
may needto inpeaseit. The aim'ihould beto;avóid & è t i iabelled, boxed for transport and stored in accordance
need for further investigations to make good deficiencies with the recommendationsof BS 5930.
in thedata providedby the main exploration work.
Boreholes shouldbe drilled to a levelbelow thebase of
5.1.3 Ground exploration proposed cuttingst o a depth sufficient t o explore all zones
5.1 -3.1General. The procedure for ground exploration by of potential instability(see 6.3 and 6.4). Boreholes located
means oftrial pitsand trenches, shafts, boreholes and on the sites of embankments should be drilled to a depth
geophysical surveying is describedin BS 5930.5.1.3.2 to not less than 1.5 times thebase width of the
5.1.3.7 give guidanceon the relevance of the various embankment, unlessa layer of strong and relatively
exploration techniquesto thedesign and construction of incompressible soil or rock is located and proved to be of
earthworks. adequate thicknessand continuity at lesser a depth.
5.1.3.2 Trialpits and trenches.Pits and trenches Boreholes should be located within thearea of cuttings
excavated by hand or mechanically are a rapid and and embankments, but where necessary they shouldalso
economic meansof obtaining detailed information on be located outside the confines of these earthworks to
depths of up to 6 m. They aresuitable for exploration in investigate all zones infhenced by them.
areas of shallow cut and fill and for tracing the thickness Deep excavations may involve risk a of uplift of the base
and lateral extent of superficial depositsof softmarshy due to shear failure in soft to firm clays orto the
soils orfill. Trial pits canbe used to examine the occurrence of ground water under pressure in pervious
foundation conditions for light structures associated with layers underlying impervious soils or rocks at base
theof
the earthworks and for assessing ground water and the excavations; the possibility ofheave of the floor of the
support problems for the construction of drain and service excavation dueto swelling of clay soils may also need to
trenches. Theyare alsohelpful a t the planning stage of be considered. Boreholes shouldbe taken to a sufficient
earthworks, especiallyin material where the geological depth to investigate the presence orabsence of such
structure, as assessed visually,is importantto the hazards.
selection of aprocedure for excavation.
Where ground water lowering schemes for excavations,
Trial pits or trenches are a useful means exploring,
of or installationsto cut-off inflow intoexcavations, are
logging and sampling landslides, solifluction or other proposed, the boreholes should be drilled completely
colluvial depositsof moderate depth, and any associated through the water-bearing formation to locate and prove
shear surfaces.ln situ tests such as large shear box tests the thickness and continuity an of underlying impervious
may be made on the shear surfaces exposedin the horizon.
trenches to provide information on shear strengths in
The extent of variation inthe level of the ground water is
connection with the design of remedial workstoor assess
of considerable importance in analysing most slope
the possible detrimental effects of n_ew the construction.
stabilityproblems, but reliable information on ground
Alternatively, undisturbed block samples containing the
water conditions cannot usually be obtained while drilling
shear surfaces may be taken for laboratory testing.
boreholes orin the short intervals of time while drilling
5.1.3.3 Shafts. Where deep exploration isplanned, sayfor operations are suspended.Simple standpipes or
major cuttings, boreholes may not reveal the geological piezometers should be installed in selected boreholes for
structure in sufficient detailto assess problems of periodic groundwater observations.These observations
stability. Deep shafts,either sunkby hand excavationwith should be made daily while site investigations are in
timbered supports or drilled mechanically with thesides progress and thereafter a t weekly or monthly intervals for
supported by steel casings, can be used to provide a as long a period as practicable before the execution of the
means of visual inspection soil of or rock conditions. In earthworks, preferably for a t least ayear in order to
situ testing such asvertical or horizontal plate loading observe theseasonal ground water variations. When
tests canbe made a t the base of the shafts orin headings ground water isencountered in distinct aquifers separated
driven from them. The experiences in sinking shafts andfrom each other by impervious layers, the ground water
particularly in therates of pumping ground water provide pressures should be monitored by individual piezometers
useful information for the assessment of ground waterinstalled in each aquiferand sealed from contactwith the
lowering or ground treatment problems deep
in over or underlying formation by bentonite slurry or.
excavations. bentonite-cement grout.Field permeability testscan be
Methods of sinking and supporting the sides of shafts are made in boreholes to assess the rate of ground water flow
described in clause15. from thesides of cuttings, or the pumping rates from deep
5.1.3.4 Boreholes. Augering orcable percussion methods excavations below the water table. Ground water levels
are used for sinking boreholes in soils and very weak rocks should be related to rainfall data.
as described inBS 5930. The diameters ofthe boreholes
d
r
9
BSI BSXbO3L B l m
BS 6031 : 1981
5.1.3.5 Detection of undergroundmovements at depth. The shafts. Recommendationsfor safe working practices are
use of trial pits
and trenchesto determine the location of made in clauses 4,14 and 15.
existing shear surfaces at relatively shallow depths is 5.1.4 Description and classification of soils and rocks. A
referred to in6.1.3.2.This method becomes increasingly compréhensive systemfor the description of soils and
expensive with depth and where there is reason to believe rocks is givenin BS 5930. The classification system and
that movement is actually takingplace or it is fearedthat the meansof identifying the principal classes soilofare
movement is imminent, slip indicators or inclinometersshown intable 1.
installed in boreholes can be used [6].The simplest form
is aslip indicator, which is best suitedto situations where
It is most important that such systems should be adhered
movement is relatively rapid. It has the disadvantageof to strictly for recording ground in
conditions boreholes,
trial pits, trenches andshafts, and for describing soil and
being unableto detect small movements and it cannot
rock specimens on which testsare made.This avoids
quantifylarge ones. ,
ambiguity and uncertaintyin the interpretation of reports
The inclinometer, unlike the simple slip indicator, can and records at the stagesdesign, of and in subsequent
show the precise direction in whichsoil thehas sheared preparation of tenders for execution of the earthworks.
between any t w o occasions of measurement. The
equipment is suitable forcases where the rate of Classification systemsare widely used for earthworks
movement is small or for installation in anticipation of design in highway and airfield construction. Empirical
relationships have been established between
movement.
classification groups and factors such as pavement
Ifused when movementis relatively rapid the thickness, frost susceptibility, shrinkage and swelling,
inclinometer probeis soon unableto pass the shear drainage characteristics and compaction methods. Some
surface andhence all measurement of movement below of these factorsare set out in tables 2 and 4. Detailed
this level ceases to be possible. Theefficient filling of the ..descriptions shouldbe given of made ground including
annular space between ground and the special casing isinformation on texture, composition and relative density.
most important. Grouting thespace is the most positive Whenever possible descriptions of materials in made
method. If this is not done properlyand the casing is free ground should.bein termsof standardsoil or rock
t o flex within the bore the inclinometer will record erratic classification.
movements up, down and parallelto the contours, which
can be disconcerting until thecause is realized. Apart from It is also important to identify the geological origin of the
measuring the location shear of surfaces,the inclinometer soils and rocks encountered in theboreholes andtrial pits.
is much used for the general measurement of horizontal The stratigraphical formation of the various soil and rock
movements below the surface ofground. the layers should be stated on the borehole records following
the practice recommended BS in 5930.
5.1-3.6Geophysicalmethods.Geophysical methods can
5.1.5 Fieldandlaboratory testing.The various field tests
be used to plot the configurationof soil or rock strata
where successive formations have significant differences for soils and rocksare described in BS 5930. In
formulating a programme for field and laboratoryit tests is
in theirgeophysical properties, such as seismic velocity or
electrical resistivity. A description of the available necessary to consider their relevance to the earthworks
methods is given in BS 5930. Geophysical surveys can be project andto carry out only those tests which apply to
executed rapidly and can an beeconomical methodof the design and construction problems. The clausesof this
sub-surface exploration for large-scale earthworks, code which follow include some guidance onthe
provided that the ground conditions are favourable,that application of various tests. Where doubt existswhich on
suitable techniquesare employed and that there is particular test should beundertaken, that which most
closely simulates the anticipated field conditions should
calibration and correlation of the survey data byan
. adequate number of boreholes. Geophysical methods can be adopted. Where certain parameters be canmeasured
be used to locate the buried surface of relatively by either field-Ör laboratory methods, it is necessary to
unweathered rock overlain by drift or weathered rocks. consider whether or
not the more reliable data which
generally resultfrom field tests will justify their additional
Geophysical logging equipment can belowered down expense, having regardto the extent of the works being
boreholes to obtain a continuous record of seismic planned and the consequences of failure. Similarly it is
velocity, electricalresistivity, density, moisture content necessary to consider the economic justification for the
and mineral compositionof soils and rocks,from which more sophisticated forms of laboratory testing.The
other relevant physical properties can be deduced. relevant sectionsof BS 5 9 3 0 give guidance on these
Borehole logging can be a usefulmeans of detailed soil points.
exploration in borrowpits. One instrument basedon
seismic principles counts the number of signals of Estimates ofshear strength, drainage and consolidation
sub-audible frequency per unit timegenerated a t the-zone characteristics in the mass should wherever appropriate
of shearing in arock mass. The rate of emission is an be made by back analysisof fieldbehaviour, particularly
indicator of the rate of movementhence and it gives a where therehas been previous instability ofsite. a
warning of the need any for urgent remedial measuresin a 5.1.6 Report on investigations.Guidance on the procedure
potentially unstableslope. The signals can
be used to for preparing reports on investigations is given in
loqate theshear zone. BS 5930.
Geophysical surveys can also beused in favourable 5.1.7 Further investigation during construction.It should be
conditions to locate and map cavities below the ground appreciated that no site investigation, however carefully
surface caused by mineworkings or solution rocks.
of done, everexamines more than a very small proportion of
5.1.3.7 Safety aspects. Attention should be given to the ground. It is necessary to check that thesoil
ensuring safe working conditions while recording conditions revealed during progress of the excavations
observations or making field tests in pits,
trialtrenches or correspond with those forming the basis for earthworks
. .
10
BS 6031 : 1981
design as interpreted from the sita investigation. It may be accepted if earthworks can be shown inthe long termto
necessary to undertake further investigation to determine be providing an overall benefitto the community, such as
the extentof anömalous conditions. Guidance is given in the removalof an industrial spoilheap for incorporation
BS 5030. within theworks.
5.2 Economic and environmental considerations Certain by-productsfrom industrial processes may be
5.2.1 General. The design of earthworks should take suitable forfill (see 7.2.1.6).
account of their effect on the general landscape and, The effect of quarrying good material for fill from local
wherever possible, should avoid disfiguring scars on sites shouldbe balanced against the advantage in
hillsides or notches in thecrests of slopes. Theslopes of importing cheaper material over long distances. Although
cuttings and embankments should be varied to blend in transport costsare often very important, any in economic
with the contoursof the adjacent ground, avoiding analysis social benefits and energy savings shouldalso be
straight lines and abrupt changes in profile. If slopes of taken into account [7,8,9].
1 in5 or flatterare adopted the land can be used for 5.2.2 Cutandfillforroads andrailways. Earth-moving for
agriculture. roads and railways takes place over a relatively narrow
Earthworks may need to be shaped,and fencing designed band of terrain and a balanced cut and fill is achieved at a
and sited, to avoid or minimize accumulations of drifting preliminary stage by examination of alongitudinal profile.
snow. In severe situations, sitetrials and wind tunnel However, constraints to the profileare frequently imposed
studies should be made to obtain the optimum profile. It by the need to provide statutoryclearances for bridges
has been foundthat a slope of 1 5infor the top5 m of an under or over existing roads and railways, to cross
or them
embankment reduces snow accumulation. at their existing grades. Computer programsare ayailable
A balance of cut and fill quantities within theboundaries for examining the effects on earthwork quantities of
of the site is often desirableboth economically andas a adjustment to profiles both longitudinally and incross
means of limiting interferencewith the surroundingareas. section, and computer-controlled plotters can be used to
Such balancesare rarely achieved and the possibility of produce perspective drawings of the earthworks as
having to obtain further quantities of suitable material, as designed to assess their-appearancein relationto the
well as the disposal of surplus or unsuitable soils, may environment [I O].
have to be considered. 5.2.3 Cut and fill for ailfields and other extensive paved
The information obtained from ground exploration is areas. Earthwork contoursfor airfields are governed by the
necessary for assessing the suitability of the available need to establish profiles for runways and marginal strips
soils for inclusion within theworks. The effect of climatic to the standards laid down by military or civil aviation .
conditions on the materials during the currency of the authorities [II ] . Run-off of surface waterfrom paved
works shouldbe considered.Where sites contain large surfaces and graded marginal strips on runwaysbecan
proportions of only marginally acceptable materials, very large. Therefore care should be taken in contouring
consideration should be given to obtaining less 'dead' areas between strips or generally in other parts of
susceptible suitable materials from borrow pits or the airfield, so that therun-off is directedto low-lying .
importing 'all weather' materialsto alleviate therisk of areas acting as balancing reservoirs suitably located to
delay andits financial consequences. Borrow pits should receive and store run-off water before discharge to outfall
be as close to the projectas possible so that plant used on drains.
site isable to excavate the borrow without leaving the site 5.2.4 Dredging andhydraulic fill. Although dredgmg and
and that noise, dust,traffic congestion, mud on roads and reclamation in over-water areas areoutside the scope of
damage to roads in thearea is kept to a minimum. Tips for this code, consideration should be given to the economics
the disposalof surplus and unsuitable materials should of excavating for works on land by dredger and disposing
also be keptas close as possible to the project; it is often of thesoil by pumping (hydraulic fill). The useof a dredger
feasible to use them forlandscaping. Careshould be taken can be economical for excavating in pervious solids below
in siting spoil tipsto avoid local or general slope instability. ground waterlevel, provided thatthere isaccess for the
Careful contouring can often improve the effect of thedredger to the workingarea (see7.6.3.4).
project on the adjacent landscape, and derelictareas can 5.2.5 Sanddunes. The movement of dry sand and the
be brought back into use. Thesebenefits can only be formation of dunes and hollows is related mainly to wind
realized if the earthworks are considered as a wholeand action and is a function also of grain size and density. In
the designeris able to use all arisings to the best overall addition to the physical characteristics of the sand
effect and not just within the confines of the site. particles, thewind rose at the locality for a yearly period or
It is possibleto operate earth-moving and compaction greater should be established using data from alocal
plant more continuously and effectively on fills consisting meteorological stationor, in their absence, by setting up
of rock or well graded granular materials than clays. on an automatic recording anemometer. Topography,
The latter, however, areaffected longer by w e t weather, structures, fencesand the slat configuration of fences
while the former become difficultto use in arid conditions. cause local alteration of the general pattern of drifting and
But these materials may also besuitable for the dune formation. Similarly, types of vegetation which thrive
production of concrete aggregates and for pavement in this habitat can progressively affect dune formation as
construction, so their use asgeneral fillinghas to be sand is deposited around the continuously growing plants.
carefully considered and balanced against the need at 5.3 a Risks of failure and acceptance of deformation
later dateto import processed materials.
5.3.1 General. The risksoffailure should be considered
In order to minimize disturbanceto the environment, under two headings:
earth-moving plant and transport should be off keptthe
(a) movement dueto failure of the ground shear; in
public highways unless there is no reasonable alternative.
Temporary disturbancecan, however, sometimes be (b) unacceptable deformation before failure
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The risks of failurein shear of the earthworksare Forming a cutting inpermeable ground having a high
assessed by calculatinga safety factorwhich is defined as water table may alter the drainage conditions nearby
in
the ratio of the availableshear strength of thesoil to the farming landwith consequent loss of production. It is
strength requiredto maifitain equilibrium. This approach is essential to record locationsof streams and pools and any
known as the 'limit-equilibrium' method[ 12, 131.The information of this type available in aerial photographs
adequacy ofthe calculated safety factors is considered in prior to commencement ofwork, inorder to assist in
relation to the consequencesof failure. For example,in the dealing with subsequent claims for damage.
case ofcuttings a high safety factor is required where the 6.1.2Sitegeumetry, Where the nature of the project
results ofa slip would endanger a main line railway or allows, the'position and alignment of a cutting in plan and
buildings. A relatively low safety factorwould be the geometry of the cutting incross section should take
acceptable for the slopes an ofexcavation fora foundation the following factors into account:
structure whichis to be backfilledon completion of the
below-ground workprovided that a slip would notcause . potentially unstable ground in the vicinity
danger to life orto any buildings in the vicinity. Similar the stability of the cutting slope itself6.2.2
(see
considerations applyto safety factors for embankments. and 6.3)
When considering the deformations of earthworks, it wind effects, including snow drifting, sand deposition
should be appreciatedthat they.themselves can and scouring
sometimes undergo large deformations without detriment maintenance
to their own serviceability, although the effect of such
visual and other amenity aspects.
deformation on the shear strength maybe sufficient to
cause failure. In thisrespect, however,the important 6.1.3 Economic andsafety considerations. The minimum
consideration is the effect of deformations on structures construction cost of a cutting
is achieved by adopting the
supported by or adjacent to the earthworks, and whether steepest possible slope angles. However, the economic
or not these are likely to be progressive. and human consequences of failure of a cutting slope
require careful consideration,
5.3.2Effect on neighbouring-structures:Buildings close to
the toes of embankments may be damaged bylateral soil Restriction in theavailable width of land fopacutting may
deformation orheave. Excavation for road cuttings or necessitate a steep slope, but where the consequences of
foundation structurescan causevertical and horizontal failure would be serious it is necessary to reduce the slope
deformation in the ground surrounding the excavation angle by providing a retaining wall over part of the height.
which may damage buildings or local services, including It is also necessaryto provide sufficient width to
gas mains. Upwardsoil movements beneatha deep accommodate a piped drain ditch or at thetoe, and
basement excavation may damage structures in tunnels sufficient width at the toe or at intermediate to berms
trap
at a considerable depth. debris rolling down theslope (see6.5.2and 6.5.4). The
economics of providing additional space for debris traps
A s in thecase of stabilityconsiderations, the effects of
should be compared with thealternative ofproviding a
deformation are time-dependent, possibly requiring many
barrier suchas a rock fallfence.
years before the full effects become manifest. It will
usually be found that the critical factoris the serviceability As an alternative to a retainingwall, special methodsof
limit state of structures suppoited by the earthworks or stabilizing a steeply slopingsoil or rock face can be
affected bythem, rather thanthat of the earthworks considered (see6.5.5,6.5.6 and 1 1.4).
themselves. In such cases the calculationsto determine The horizontal and vertical alignment of works such as
this stateare made by conventional methods applicable to roads or railways Should beconsidered in relation to the
structures but basedondata obtainedfrom predicted comparative costs ofsoil and rock excavation. While the
ground deformations: '* cost of excavating soil above ground-water levelis very
much less than that of excavating rock, flatter slopesare
6. Cuttings required in a soil cutting (particularly in clays) and hence
6.1 General considerations the totalvolume of excavation fora given depth is greater
6.1,I Environmentalfactors. The finished level 0f.a in a soil cutting. Also, maintaining slopesin a rock cutting
highway or railway may need to be kept low in a cutting so normally costs less than maintaining soil slopes. Where
that thenoise and visual impactfrom road and rail traffic cuttings are to be excavated in rock by soil, the
overlain
is less of a nuisance. Thecutting maybe combined with a slope inclination canbe varied to sui! thg characteristics of
small embankment forminga noise baffle. Aesthetic and each material,with aberm at the changeof slope. Similar
amenity considerations may require new transport routes slope changes can be adopted where soil types vary. For
t o be in cuttings where existing roads and railwaysare example, the slope canbe steeper in a
well drained
crossed. Bridgeswould thencross a t ground levelwithout granular soil overlying stiff a fissured clay, prouided that
approach embankments.However, the construction of the long term overall stability of the slope be assured.
can
bridges under existing roads and railways is more costly Economic factorsare an important consideration in the
and causes greater disruptionto traffic than bridges over design of temporary slopes for foundation excavations.
them. It may be necessaryto construct roads and railways The costs of additional excavationto obtain assurance of
in cuttings adjacentto airports to avoid obstructing flight complete stability should be w-eighed against the cost of
paths by the embankments associated with bridge removing debrisfrom local slips resulting from marginally
crossings. unstable conditions.The consequences of such local slips
The slopeangles should be considered in relation to the for the safety of construction operatives, for possible
appearance of the cutting in its
surroundings. It may be damage to the partly-completed permanentwork and for
desirable to vary the slopeangles orto adopt concave or the existing building and services beyond the ofcrest the
convex curvedsh'apes to harmonizewith the adjacent slope should be
considered. Time effects are important in
contours and generallandscape. relation to the stabilitv of temDoratysloDes where onlv

~~ .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
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BS 6031 : 1981
6.1.4 A guide for preliminary design As

of cuttings in rocks. Some typesof normally-consolidated claysare sensitive
an aid to preliminary designof stable slopesfor rock to disturbance, ¡.e. they lose strength when
remoulded;
cuttings, recommended slope angles for various materials this isbecause òf an unstable structurecaused by
are given intable 3. The angles arederived from leaching of minerals under prolonged seepage or other
experience in railwaycuttings, andare based on the weathering phenomena. Thus collapse of a slope may
assumption that therock strataare horizontally bedded or occur when disturbanceis caused by earthquakes or
sloping a t a relatively shallow inclination and
that the vibrations induced by pile driving.
rocks are relatively unweathered behind the face. Over-consolidatedclays,¡.e. clays which have gained
6.2 Factors governingthe stability of cutting slopes strength by consolidation underheavy a excess
6.2.1 Materials: soils androcks overburden pressure or
by desiccation due to evaporation
or the growth of vegetation, cause can difficult problems
6.2.1.IGeneral. For the purposeof making a preliminary
in slope stability. This is due to these clays being
assessment of stability conditions and for guidance in susceptible to the effects of stress changes causedby
formulating a field or laboratory testing programme, the excavation for cuttings, which is enhanced if they have a
broad soil classification systems described 5.1.4 in can be
fissuredor laminated structure.
used to obtain an indication ofthe behaviour of a
particular type of soil when excavated to forma cutting. Boulder clays or glacial till may be fissured,but forslope
design purposes they are usually assumedto act as intact
The parameters usedto define shearing resistance should clays. However,because of the significanceof fissuring,
be obtainedfrom back analysis or from appropriate field or evidence of this structure should be sought at the site
laboratory testswhich take account of the permeability of
investigation stage.
the massof material andalso of the stresschanges which
take place in the material, both in the short and longterm, Fissures and laminationsform planes of weakness in the
as a result of excavating for the cutting.These aspects are soil mass. After excavating for cutting a thefissures open
discussed in 6.2.2. owing torelief of overburden pressure, with further
seasonal opening at and near the surfaceowing todrying
Weak heavily weathered rocks may exhibit engineering shrinkage of the clay. Theopen fissuresform channels for
characteristics intermediate between those of asoil and water seepage resulting in abuild-up of hydrostatic
those of a rock. In cases of doubt separate analyses of
pressure behindtheface at times of heavy rain and
slope stability should be made assumingthat the material
softening of the clayon the fissuresurfaces.
behaves either as a soil or as a rock.
Fissures in an over-consolidated clayare sometimes
6.2.1.2 Behaviour of cohesionless soils (e.g.coarse soils)- In
associated with ancient slips when their surfaces are
the case of acutting slope in drycohesionless soil, the
smooth (slickensided)with a 'residual' shear strength
most critical failure mode is that of a shallow translational considerably lower than that of the adjacent intact
slide parallelto the cuttingslope. Forthis case, safety
material.
factor, F, is given by
Instability of cutting slopes in over-consolidated clays can
F= tan
- @'
, (1 1 take severalforms, such as a rotational shear slide (6.3.21,
tan a slab and block slides along the weathered softened
where surface of the srope (6.3.4.21,and debris slides (6.3.4.4)at
the final stage when the slipped masses trap surfaceand
@'is the angle of shearingresistance, in termsof
subsoil water resulting in the formation of a liquid mass of
effective stresses, for the soil at the appropriate
slurried clay mixed with stiffer clay fragments. Toppling
range of effective normal stress (which may be quite
(6.3.5) and falls (6.3.6)can occur when a vertical cut is
low), and
made, e.g. for atrench, consequent on vertical fissures
a is the slope angle. opening behind the face.
This safetyfactor is thus independent of the slope height.Time effectsare criticar for slopes in over-consolidated
When ground wateris present within a slope of clays (6.2.5).
cohesionless material and if erosionseepage by is Loess is a silt weakly cemented by a calcareous binder. It
prevented, deeper-seated,rotational slippingis the most can stand vertically in a cutting face for very long periods
critical failuremode, andthe corresponding safety factor of time. rnstability can occur if thecementing mediumis
is a function of a, G' and the relevant value of the pore dissolved by water seepage.
pressure ratior, (see equation(1O)).
6.2.1.4 Behaviour ofrocks. The stability of a rock massis
6.2.1.3 Behaviour of cohesive soils (e.g. fine soils). The governed by conditions in the joint system of the mass
stability of a cutting slope in a cohesive soil is a function rather thanby the strength of the intact rock. Fissuresin
both of the height of the slope and of the shearing rocks are causedby tectonicmovements, glacial action or
resistance of the soil. The deeper the cutting, the flatter weathering. Thus the fissures, whetherthey are open or
the slope angle. Thegeological history of the soil can be are filled with weathering productsof the parent rock or
most important. In the case of intactnormally-consolidated with soil debris washeddown fromabove, form surfaces
clays, ¡.e. clays which have gained strength only by of weaknesswhich may giverise to the various forms of
consolidation under their own weight, the short term failure describedin 6.3. The joints are alsoa means of
stability canbe determined from theresults of simple entry of water leading to the effects described 6.2.4.2.in
undrained shear strength tests.With timethere is a
Where rocksare weak and porous the actionwater,sun of
progressive reductionin strengthdue to relief of stress
and frost can cause disintegration ofan intact or fissured
consequent on excavation for the cutting, and the slope
rock (6.2.5.2).
which is stable in the short term may fail by a rotational
slide in themedium or long term (see 6.2.5.11. The most unfavourable stability conditions occur when
excavating for a cutting ina rock scree. This material may
I 7
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards17

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BS 6031 : 1981
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BS 6031 :-I 981
act asa loose cohesionless soil or as a cohesive soil, results are applicable only t o rapid excavations, e.g. for
depending on theproportion and consistency of trenches. In thecase of highway or railway cuttings which
weathered rock or soil acting as a binder. Trial excavations may takedays or months for excavation, the stress
are the best guideto determine stable slopes in thescree changes have a significant effecton theshear strength
material and it may not be possible to forma slope steeper over the constructionperiod, and stability calculations
than thenatural angle of repose of theleast cohesionless should bebased on effective stress parameters obtained
material. from laboratory tests. Moreover, standard vane tests
6.2.2 Selection of parameters of
soil androckmasses for cannot take into account the effects of anisotropy (see
assessment of slope stability below). Correction factors can be applied t o undrained
shear strengths obtainedfrom vane tests t o take account
6.2.2.1 Soils. The fundamentalequation which is used to of timeeffects and anisotropy where stability conditions
calculate the shearing strength of the material behinda are required for a period of only a few weeks [ 151.
cutting face is:
Field tests whichmeasure undrained strengthsare
S = c’+(r~,-u)tan @’ (21 inappropriate for determining shear strength parameters
where for use in calculating the mediumand long term stability
S is the resistance to shear along an actual or potential of clayslopes. Tests ofthis kindmeasure the in situ
slip surface; undrained strength representative the of stress on the soil
c’ is the cohesion intercept of the soil or rock mass in at the level ofthe test; whereas when a cutting is
respect of effective stress; excavated there is a reduction in totalstress followed by
an increase in shear stress’and softening of the clay.
u,, is the totalnormal stresson the plane under Shear strength parametersfor mediumand long-term
consideration; stability should therefore be determined from laboratory
u is the pore pressure; measurements of theeffective cohesion and angle of
@’ is the angle of shearing resistance with respect to shearing resistance.
effective stress. The boreholerecords and sample descriptions should be
The parametersc‘ and @’are not uniquely related to the studied in relation to thegeometry of possibleslip
particle size and mineral composition a ofparticular soil configurations (see 6.41, and layers which are critical t o
but theydepend on the conditions imposed on a specimen slope stability should be definedat thisstage. Specimens
of thesoil when it is subjected to the shear tests in the for laboratory shear tests shouldbe selected from these
field orlaboratory. Accordingly, the test location and test critical layers and subjectedto a range of tests whichwill
specimen should be selected taking into account the simulate the behaviour ofthe soil mass in the cutting over
frequency, duration and direction of stress changes, the the period of time for which
stability has to be ensured.
anticipated or permitted deformation of the cutting slope The following aspects should beconsidered in preparing
and thepredicted porepressure conditions. the testprogramme.
Field tests made in cohesive soils in boreholes are of (a) Size of specimen. The size of the test specimen
limited value for determining effective stress parameters should take account of the structure and fabric of the
since the values which are obtained represent the soil. Specimens 1O 0 m m in diameter are satisfactory
conditions for thestate ofstress in the groundat the time for intact, fissured or laminated clays, or clays with
of making the test, whereas thevalues which are needed Stoney inclusions. Specimens of200 m m or 250 m m
are those which result from stress changes consequent on diameter should be considered where soil fabric
excavation ofthe cutting. conditions are critical to stability [5].
Standard penetration tests(BS5930) can be madein (b)Anisotropy.The effective stress parameters may
boreholes in cohesionless soils to obtain a measure ofthe vary accordingto thedirection of application of the
relative densityand angle of shearing resistance using deviator stressto the testspecimen, becauseof the
standard published empirical relationships [ 141. These effect of discontinuitiesin the specimen or of the
values, although they maybe affected by borehole difference in the ratio vertical
of to horizontal stressin
disturbance, are likely to be morerepresentative of in situ the soil in situ[ 1 51.The orientation of specimens cut
conditions than tests made in laboratory
the because of from borehole samples or block samples should take
difficulties in extracting reasonably undisturbed samples into account the direction ofthe potentialslip surfacein
of cohesionless soils and preparing specimensfor test. relation to theorientation ofthe sample.
Static cone penetration tests (BS 5930) are likely to (c) Drainage. The drainage permitted from test
provide more representative values of in situ conditions specimens should take time effects into account (6.2.5).
than standard penetration testsin boreholes. Again, (d)Porepressure. The effect of pore pressure changesin
values of relative density and angle of shearing resistance the testspecimen should be studied in relation to
can be obtainedfrom empirical relationships [ I 41. These predicted variationin piezometric levels behind the
values obtainedfrom fieldtests can beapplied t o stability cutting slope (6.2.4).
calculations since, becauseof therelatively high
permeability ofcohesionless soils,stress changes (e) Displacement during shear. The shearing resistance
resulting fromexcavation for a cutting takeplace of mostclays rises t o a peak valueat a small
immediately and there is no long term deteriorationin displacement and falls to a lower ‘residual‘ value at
overall stability. large displacements. The selected parameters should
take account of predicted or permissible deformations
Vane shear tests (BS 5930) can be madein soft to firm of thecutting. The residual shear strength values are
normally-consolidated clays to obtain values of undrained appropriate to studies ofshear on ancient or tectonic
shear strength from which the short term stability of displacement slipsurfaces where large displacements
slopes can be calculated(see 6.4 and 6.5). However, the have already occurred. .
,

Standards
~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~~
~
BS 6031 :1981
(f) Softening. Selected test specimens should be tested (b) Weakrocks interbedded with strong rocks.The weak
O after softening by absorption of water to investigate
effects ofheavy and prolongedrainfall on aslope.
beds weather morerapidly, resulting in undercutting
and collapse of the overlying massive rocks in
(9) Rate andfrequency of stress application.The rate of horizontally or near horizontally bedded strata.
shearing should take account of creep effects. The (cl Orientation of bedding andjointplanes. Where
effects of repeated cycling of the deviator stress may bedding and joints are inclined in the same direction as
need to be studied in connectionwith possible the slope, the risks of failure are higher than when they
earthquake effects or periodic rise and fall in dip into the slope. Thelocation of jointsystems should
piezometric levels. be studied in relation to the variousform-s of failure
6.2.2.2Rocks. The resistance to shearing ofa rock mass described in 6.3. Account shouldbe taken of the
depends on theshear strength of discontinuities such as likelihood.of joints openingowing tostress relief and to
fissures, bedding joints and fault zones (seeBS 5930). weathering (6.2.5.2).The assessment of stability
The strength of the intact rock is of no relevance to conditions in arock mass may be facilitated by plotting
stability calculations for a cutting. However, the strength the directionand inclination of principal discontinuities
of the intact rock may be used for purposes of on a polar diagram.
classification [2]. (d) Conditions atjointfaces. These should be studied in
The shearstrength of discontinuities depends on the relation to the selection of shear strength parameters
roughness and waviness of the two rock surfaces at the obtained from directshear tests (6.2.2.2).
discontinuity, the distance between them, and the 6.2.4 Water: surface and sub-surface
cohesion andshear strength ofany infilling material. 6.2.4.7 Soils. Surface waterflowing down the slope of a
O Faults may consist entirely
material.
of weak slickensided infilling cutting can cause erosion of cohesionless or partly
cohesivesoils. Erosionis usually concentratedin channels
The shearstrength parameters at discontinuities should which may eventuallyerode more deeplyto formgullies
be obtainedfrom directshear tests on cores or blocks of down theslope.
rocks alignedso that shear takes place along a Cohesive soils are not very susceptibleto erosion, except
discontinuity incorporated in the test specimen. Fieldtests in thecase of heavily fissured slays where strong water
are inappropriate for the reasons given for clays (6.2.2.11. seepage and softeningmay result in debris slides
Tests shouldbe made in the laboratory to simulate stress (6.3.4.4).
changes which takeplace in the rock mass behind a
Sub-surface water flow, whether in the form ofseepage
cutting in manner
a similarto that describedfor clays. In
from higher ground beyond the cuttinginorthe form of
the absence of testdata reference can be made to
surface water entering throughfissures or holes, can have
published valuesof shearing resistanceof rock joints [ 1 1.
a critical effect on stability. Trials should be made with
6.2.3 Structureand fabric of soilsandrocks various elevations and shapes of the phreatic surface
6.2.3.1 Soils. The structure and fabric of the soil mass resulting from seepageflow towards the cutting. From
behind thecutting slope shouldbe studied in relation to its these trial surfaces the pore water pressure a t any point
effect on the permeability of mass, the and the orientation on a potential failure surface can beobtained andits effect
of discontinuities should be studied in relation to the on shearing resistance can be calculated in accordance
direction of potential failure surfaces. Typical structural with equation (2).
and fabric conditions which should be investigated are as Consideration should be given to changes in thepore
follows. water pressure with time. Before the cutting is excavated
(a) Laminations andlayering. Layers or laminations of silt the porewater pressure correspondsto natural ground
or clayin a cohesionless soil prevent verticaldrainage. water level orto the hydrostatic pressure in permeable
Sand or gravel layers in cohesive soils accelerate layers in a layered soil formation. After excavation of the
drainage and consolidation of thesoil mass, but flow cutting, the piezometric level falls progressively at a rate
through these layers may lead to local erosion and depending on the permeabilityof thesoil, with particular
undercutting of slope.
a reference to any impermeable soil layers which can
(b) Fissuring. The influence of fissures has been impede verticaldrainage. Eventually the pore pressure
described. Consideration shouldbe given to the reaches anequilibrium value corresponding to steady
likelihood of widening of fissures due to relief of stress seepage conditions but subject to any short term
in a cutting,and to the effects of drying shrinkage. variations due to rainfall. If the pore pressures behind the
slope are too high to achieve stability, consideration
(c) Root holes, rodent holes, etc. These form channels for
should be given to installing someform ofdrainage in
drainage and dissipation of pore pressure. They canalso
order to lower water levels and reduce thepressures
permit entry of surface water into soil amass.
(see 6.5.4).
(dl Slickensidedsurfaces.These arethe smoothand
6.2.4.2Rocks. Rock slopes maybe subject to erosion by
often polished surfaces resulting from movements in
surface water flow if the material is heavily jointed or in
recent or geological times. Shear strengths are
the formof a loose scree.
relatively low on these surfaces due to polishing.
It is impossible to predict the true phreatic levels of
6.2.3.2 Rocks. The structure of a rock mass hasa
sub-surface flow through a jointed rock mass because the
dominant effecton the stabilityof a cuttingslope. Factors
O to be consideredare as follows.
(a) Thickness ofbeds, Thinly-bedded rocksare more
water flows through preferred channels following open
joints or joints containing permeable infilling material. The
effect on slope stability of range
a of ground water levels
susceptible to weathering and degradation than should be studied by means of idealized models covering
thickly-bedded massiverocks. different flowpatterns which may be planar or preferred
-7

BSI B S * b 0 3 1 &L m
BS 6031 : 1981
channel flow [ 161.Consideration should be given

to the 6 2 5 . 2 The effects of weathering. Unless protective
effect of stressrelief when the opening of joints and measures are adopted as described in clause 11, rain,
fissures may change the patternflow.
of frost, sun andwind cause degradation ofsoil and rock
6.2.5 Time effects slopes resulting in’erosion and the accumulation of loose
material at the toe. Weathering also influences the
6.2.5.1 Short, intermediate andlong term stability. stability of clay slopes, when drying shrinkage causes
Excavation3or acutting whollyor partially relieves an
cracks to open forming planes of weakness and channels
element of the soil at or beneath the slope or toe of the for entry of water. The effects of drying shrinkage are
cutting fromlateral and vertical stress. Consequently
critical to slope stability in normally-consolidated clays.
there is a reduction intotal stress accompanied by a Usually such clays have a crust of firm to stiff material
change inshear stress on the element, usually leadingto a which is over-consolidated owing to the effectsdrying of
reduction of pore pressures within the slope (figure 1(a)). and vegetation. This crust usually contains fissures
The overall effect of this is generally to increase
extending through the firm to stiff layer. Hence it may be
temporarily the stability of slope. the Theseprocesses are unwise to rely on the contribution this of layer to the
discussed more fullyin [I 71. overali shearing resistance of soil the mass when using the
With timethe reduced pore pressures rise toward higher methöds of analysis describedin 6.4.The presence of
equilibrium values, by seepage ofpore water from zones vertical fissuresin the crust can cause immediate toppling
of greater piezometric pressure in area the beyond the failure in a trench excavatedwith vertical sides. In these
influence of the cutting. Thancrease inpore pressures conditions no reliance canbe placed on short term
from thetemporarily lowered conditions.beneath the stability brought about by temporary reduction of pore
slope causes swelling and softening of soil the mass with pressure as described in 6.2.5.1.
a consequent reduction in shearingits resistance.The
6.2.6 Other factors influencing stability. Other factorsto be
stability ofthe slope continues to decrease until thepore considered in relationto the stabilityof slopes of cuttings
pressures beneathand beyond the slope have reached
are as follows.
their equilibriumvalues. Thus the most critical conditions
for slope stabilityare in the long term after equilibrium (a) Surcharge on slopes.Slopes or the ground beyond
conditions have been attained. In the case of highly the crest may be permanently surcharged by structures
permeable soils the pore pressures fall rapidlyto an such as bridge abutments, traffic signal gantries or
equilibrium value and stable conditions corresponding to buildings. The effects of temporary surcharge by
the equilibrium porepressures arethus rapidlyachieved. construction plant or stacked materials should also be
In the case of soils of low permeabilty, this process may considered.
take manydecades [I 81. (b) Miningsubsidence. Settlement of a cuttingmay
In the case of embankments the total stress on an occur as a result of miningsubsidence. This maycause
element of soil beneath the embankment increases as the weakening of the soils shearby displacements, or
crest of thebank is raised. This results in an increase in changes in the pattern of ground water flow. The effects
pore pressureand a decrease in shearing resistance of the of movementsin jointsor renewed movementsin fault
soil forming the foundation. The stability conditions are zones in a rock mass should be considered. Collapseof
therefore a t their most critical during construction and the surface can occur over old mineworkings. ,
immediately after completion of the earthworks. W.ith (c) Seismic effects.Ground vibrationsfrom earthquakes
time, the increased pore pressures aredissipated andthe or construction operations may cause a temporary
stability of the embankment continues to increase until increase in pore pressure behind slope.
a The effects of
equilibrium conditionsare attained (figure1(b)). this on shearing resistance shouldconsidered. be
The governing factor in determining the rate of change of Earthquakes may disturb sensitive clays (see 6.2.1-31,
pore pressure and hence stability the of the earthworks is causing a reduction in their undrained shear strength.
the coefficient of swelling of soil thein thecase of Joints in rocka mass may be opened or disturbed by
cuttings, andits coefficient of consolidation in case the of earthquakes or blasting vibrations, leading to general
embankment foundations. weakening of the mass.
In the case of relatively shallow excavations in clays, say 6.3 Modes of failure of cuttings andnatural slopes
for trenches or foundation pits, anybeneficial effects on 6.3.1 General. Instability of the slopes of cuttings on
the short term stability produced by temporary reduction natural hillsides can in many cases bedescribed in terms
in pore pressures aregenerally heavily outweighed by the of different groups or modes failure.
of These depend on
detrimental effects caused by the opening of natural the height and geometry of slope, the the structureof the
fissures in the clay as a result ofstress relief. Short term soil or rock mass and the surface and sub-surface water
stable conditions cannot therefore be relied uponin conditions. Recognizable and definable modes of failure
vertical-sided cuts inclay, andwhere thereis any danger form thebasis for analysing the stability of aproposed
to operatives or risks to buildings and services,either cutting slope and for studying the causes of failure ofan
support has to be givento the sides of the excavation as existing slope. Thesemethods of analysis are described
described in section three of this code or the slopes have in 6.4.
to be cut back to an angle at which stability in the short to 6.3.2 Rotationalslides. Rotational slides (figure 2) are a
intermediate term can be assured. form of instability occurring in fairly uniform soils or in
Similar considerations apply to the stability of rock slopes structureless or heavily jointed rock masses. Failure
affected by the opening of joints and fissures due to stress occurs when the gravitational forces acting on the mass
relief and by the effects of hydrostatic pressure within of thesoil or rockabove the sliding surface exceed the
discontinuities or the effects ofchanges of pore pressure resisting forces on this curved surface. Thecurved surface
within materials infilling the discontinuities. may be circular (figure2(a)) or non-circular (figure 2(b)).

~~~ - ~
~~
~-~ ~- ~~
BS 6031 : 1981
Rotational slides can be considered to act three- of a rotationalslide (figure 2(c)), and on the surface of a
dimensionally when a spoon-shaped mass of soil slips slope following internalerosion of permeable layers
on a concave surface (figure 2(c)). (6.3.7).
The movement in a rotational slideis a bodilyone Bogbursts occur when a mass of peat or marshy soil
resulting ina backward tilt a t the crest and anupward and becomes surchargedwith water at times of heavy rainfall.
forward movement at thetoe. Thereis little relative The liquid massspreads outwards andif it is sited on a
disturbance within themass except at the toe where there slope it can flow a t high velocitydown theslope.
may be some rolling and tumbling. Spreading can also 6.3.4.5Flowslides. Flow slides occur in loose to medium
occur (figure2(c)).The non-circular slide (figure 2(b)) is dense saturated coarse soils as a result of asudden
usually associatedwith anisotropy in the soil or with the increase in pore pressure in the mass, e.g. by earthquake
presence ofa relatively strong layer at a horizontal or action, vibrations from explosives orheavy construction
shallow inclination, when sliding takes place onlayer. this equipment, or by rapid drawdown of water levels [20].
6.3.3 Compoundslides. Compound slidesare partly In loose uniform fine sands flow slides can occur on
rotational and partly translational in character and occur in
relatively f l a t slopes, the bodily movement occurring over
soils where hetereogeneity results inshear failure taking long distances at a high velocity. Flow slides can also
place on preferred surfaceswhich may not have any occurwith cohesive soils, when theyare usually termed
regular patternin relation to thegeometry ofthe slope. mudflows.
Compound slidesare typical of stiff over-consolidated
6.3.5 Toppling,Toppling failures occur in rock slopes
clays where surface shrinkage cracks and natural fissures
where discontinuities behind the face are steeply inclined
form multiple sliding surfaces. Thesemultiple slips can
(figure 81. They may occur as a resultof water pressure
occur a t random positions and in varying dimensions on a
behind the slope [2 I].
slope (figure31,or failure may take place near the toe
followed by successive slips working back up crest. 6.3.6 Falls. Falls occur from steeply cut faces insoils, e.g.
to the
The latter are known as multiple retrogessive slides in excavations for trenches or foundation pits when only
(figure 4). short term stabilityis required. Cracks openbehind the
face as a result of stress relief ordryingshrinkage. Failure
6.3.4 Translationalslides
occurs near the base of the free-standing column of soil
6.3.4.1 General. Translational slides occur as a resultof bounded by the crack system, andthe mass of soil falls
weakness in a soil rock or mass a t a fairly shallow depth forward or slides into the cut (figure9).
beneath the slope surface. Theslide involves the bodily
6.3.7 Internalerosion. Internal erosion can occur behind
movement ofa shallow masson aplanar surface roughly
the faceof a cutting excavated in a water-bearing layered
parallel to the slope.
soil formation consistingof interbedded permeable and
6.3.4.2 Slab andblockslides. Slab and block slides are impermeable soils. Flow of water occurs through the
forms of translational movement where the sliding masspermeable layers and it may emerge at the face with
remains more or less intact. A slab slide (figure 5) typically sufficient velocityto cause movement ofsoil particles.
occurs in theweathered surface of an existing slope. The The erosion works backwards into theslope until it
weathered surface may be a stiff fissured crust of clay reaches the stage when undercutting and collapse of the
sliding over a fairly large surface on a plane of weakness in overlying materialoccurs. The collapsed materials then
the underlying soft weathered clay. Similarly, largeareas move down theslope in the form of a debris slide
of rock can slide on a weak clay-filled joint parallel to the (6.3.4.4).
slope. A thick layer of top soil may slideas anintact carpet
6.4 Methods of analysis of stability of slopes
off inclined competentsurfaces, particularly after heavy
rain. A block slide occurs when a block of relatively strong 6.4.1 General. 6.4.2 to 6.4.4 indicate the methods
rock orstiff tohard clay moves down-slope as a uniton a currently in use for the analysis of stability of slopes. In the
plane of weakness in the formof a fissure orjoint roughly more commonly used methodsthe basic equations are
parallel to the slope (figure6 ) . given togetherwith references to the originalpapers. The
latter should always be consulted before using the
6.3.4.3 Wedge failures. A wedge failure is essentially
equations.
three-dimensional inform and occurs when a wedge of
rock or stiff clay slidesbodilyforward and downward on 6.4.2 Limit-equilibrium methods
two or threewell defined joint planes which intersect 6.4.2.1 Circularrorationalslides.For simplicity inanalysis
behind theslope (figure 71. rotational shearslides (figure are 2) normally considered
6.3.4.4Debris slides. Debris slides occur when water has as two-dimensional. Thus in the analysis the sliding mass
access to debris forming a mantle aon slope [I 91. The is represented by a thin slice ofsoil of unit length
water and debris in a random unsorted form move down measured along the length of the toe and aligned at right
the slope either slowly in a creep movement, which may angles to thetoe. The complications involved in analysing
be seasonalin character, or rapidlya t times of heavy rotational slidesas a three-dimensional failure are not
rainfall or as a result of diversion of surface wateronto a usually justified, and in normal cases a two-dimensional
slope. analysis gives a conservative value for the safety factor.
Existing hillside slopes may consist of debris slide material Under appropriate conditions the short term stability
resulting from past periglacial action. These areknown as (6.2.5.11 of slopes canbe calculated by a total stress
solifluction sheets or lobes and they can occur on flat analysis based on the undrainedshear strength of clay.
a
slopes as a result of freezing and thawing of a relatively The soil is considered to be fully saturated with
shallow massof soil or rock moving on deep permanently incompressiblewater and.it is postulated that there is na
frozen ground. change in the volume or shape of thesoil mass due to
excavation forthe cutting and that soil theshear strength
Debris slides can occur in thedisturbed materialat the toe
7-

23
BSI BS*bO3L 81 W
BS 6031 : 1981
is unchanged as a result ofchange in total stress. The can be obtained from theequation
shortcomings and possible risks involved in this method of C[c'/+W(cosa-u/)tanØ']
analysis have been pointed out 6.2.1 in -3. However, an F(long term) = (7)
C Wsin a
effective stressanalysis may be unrealistic for short term
stability because of uncertaintyof pore pressure changes The values of c' and Ø'for use in equations (5)to (7)
immediately after rapid excavation. The total stress should be obtained from drained shear strength tests, or
analysis should not be used for intermediate or long term undrained testswith pore pressure measurement. The
stability conditions in clay slopes. type oftest, the testconditions, and the selection of
The simplerform of total stress analysis assumes the parameters from a range of testsshould take accountof
undrained shear strength, su to be constantwith depth the factors listed 6.2.2.1,
in with particular reference to
and lateralextent. A trial slip circle is drawn (figure 1 O) the effects ofanisotropy, the rate of applying the deviator
and the disturbing movementproduced by gravitational stress andthe geological history ofthe site [I 51.
forces on themass above the circle is equated to the The porepressure, u, may be controlledby ground water
restoring moment provided by theshear strength of the levels which are independent of stresschanges brought
soil along the circular arc. In thelimit-equilibrium method about by excavation for thecutting. Thusflow towards the
the shear strength is reduced bya safety factor, F, given slope may occurin a permeable soil and the pore
bY pressures can then be determined by drawing a flow net
S R20
for theseepage conditions. In investigating thestability of
F (short term)= u (3) natural slopes where the flow pattern has reachedthe
y Ax stage of steady seepage conditions, the pore pressure can
where x is the distanceof the line of action yA from the be obtainedfrom piezometers installedin the slope, due
centre of the circle, the angle O is expressed in radians and regard being given to seasonal changes. In soils of low
other termsare as defined in figure 1O. permeability the pore pressure changesrespond only
A number of trial circles are drawn from which the lowestslowly to stress changes as expressedby theequation
safety factoris established. U = U , +AU (8)
When theshear strength varies (laterally or with depth) where
the mass of soil above the circle is divided into a number u, is the initialvalue of pore pressure before anychange
of strips, usually vertical (figure 1 1) and a summation is of stress, and
made of the disturbing and restoring moments in each Au is the change in pore pressure due to change in
strip. The safety factor, F, is calculated from theequation
principle stresses A.aland Ag2.
RCs /
F(short term)= 2 (4) The changein pore pressure can be obtained from the
C wx equation
where the terms are asdefined in figure 1 1. A u = B [ A I ~ ~ + A ( A o-AO,)]
~ (9)
Equation (3)can beexpressed in the form ofa whereA and B are pore pressure parameters obtained
dimensionless chart[22].A chart is also available for the from undrained triaxial compression tests [25,26].
case of undrained shear strength of normally-consolidated In practice a number of trial slip circles are investigated t o
clays increasinglinearly with depth in relation to the obtained the lowest value ofthe safety factorFfrom
plasticity index of the soil[23]. equations (5)or (7).
The intermediateand long term stability ofslopes These equations can be expressed in a dimensionless
(see 6.2.5.1) should beanalysed by effective stress form. For the preparation ofthe charts it is convenient to
methods usingshear strengths calculated from express the pore pressure at any point in the form aof
equation (2).This analysis is again two dimensional. The simple ratio:
slice of soil is divided into a number of vertical strips
U
(figure 12). ru=-
Ignoring theforces between the strips, for strips ofequal Yh
width the safetyfactor,F, is given, using the Bishop where
simplified method[23A], by the equation ruis the pore pressure ratio
F (long
term) =
C
('" +an;p:(-
C p sin a
Ø'I1 (5)
y is the density ofsoil
h is theheight from pointunder considerationof soil
It has been shown [24]that fora simple slope profile the
where slope varies linearly with the pore
safety factor of the
u is the pore waterpressure at thebase of the strip
pressure ratio,and it can beexpressed by theequation
F=m-nr, (1 1)
cos n (/+ tan n tan 9 ' )
m,* = (6) The stability coefficients m and n form thebasis of
F
non-dimensional charts[24]from which the safety
and other termsare asdefined in figure 12. factor ofa slope canbe calculated on a trial anderror
As the termF appears on bothsides of equation(51,an basis. Equation ( 1 1 ) assumes that thepore pressure
iterative solution is required usinga grid of sufficient ratio is constant across the slope profile. The ratio varies
extent to cover all likely centres ofrotation. with timeand reference should be madet o published
As a further simplification of the method slices
of for use works fordesign values [ 18,251.
in simple earthworksproblems, or where onlylimited data The charts do not take into
account the weakening
on shear strengthvalues are available,the safetyfactor, F,
- -?-

Standards
BS 6031 : I981
effect of a tension crack extending below the ground sub-divided into anumber of structural components or
surface (figure 13). This may be significant for a elements theshape of whichcan be varied to suit the
relativelyshallow cutting. The crack can be allowed forgeometry of theslope and the presence of layers jointor
ifthe method of slices is adopted using equations (5) systems. The elements are assumed to be connected ata
or (7). Theoretically the depth of a tension crack is given discrete numberof pointsor nodes on their boundaries
by the equation and a function is chosen tö define uniquely the state of
displacement within each elementin terms of nodal
depth =a Y
(for undrained, ¡.e. short term,
conditions) ( 1 2)
displacement at elementboundaries. From a knowledge
of the deformation moduli of the soil or rockasmass
or determined from field or laboratory tests, the strainsand
hence the stresses at boundaries of the elements can be
depth = - 2c' cot (45 -@'/2) (for drained, ¡.e. long calculated. The contributions ofeach element are
Y term, conditions) (13 ) summed to obtain the stresses and displacements in the
The crack depth cannot, of course, exceedthe depthof whole mass. Thecalculated stresses can then be
the tension zone, which isprobably about one-third to compared with available strengths.
one-half of the slope height. For simplicity it is usual to make finite element analyses of
6.4.2.2 Non-circularrotationalslides.Non-circular slip soil slopes in a two-dimensional form, butanalysis for of a
surfaces of general shape are usually analysed by the jointed rock mass a three-dimensional analysis may be
method of Morgenstern andPrice [27] or of ' required. Because of thelarge numberof variables it is
Sarma [28].These methods normally require the use of doubtful whether the results of such a complex analysis
computers. are worthwhile, in view of the irregular character of most
Where the sliding surface follows a well-defined weakrock joint systems. However, the method may be useful as
layer the stability can be analysed by assuming failure of parametric study for analysing the sensitivity
of slope
a block of soil acted on by the active pressure on the behaviour to varying such parameters as slope angle and
vertical face of the block and resisted shear by the force the cohesion andfriction on ajoint plane, and in cases
on the horizontal face and the passive pressure at the where the magnitude of deformations of earthworks isa
toe. Thusfrom figure 14, the safety factor against critical factor in
design.
sliding of the blockis given by 6.4.4 Physicalmodels
(W'tan@'+c'L)+P, 6.4.4.1 Phenomenologicalmodels.In analysing the
F= (1 4) stability of rock slopes where the rock mass is intersected
PA by awell-defined joint system, or where ajoint system
where can be idealized in a simplified form,it may be helpful to
PA is the active pressure on the block of soil study the mode of failure by means of a three-dimensiona
PPis the passive pressure at the toe of the block scale model[I 41. Such models can be prepared from
wood orplaster with saw cutsto simulate thejoints. They
W ' is the effectiveweightöf the block
can be helpful in deciding on themost favourable
and other terms are as defined in figure 14. alignment of thecutting slope relativeto the dip and strike
Equation (14) can be applied t o rock slopesto analyse the of the principal joint planes (see6.2.3.2).
stability of a block of rock sliding on a bedding planeModels or of this kind can give a qualitative indication of the
joint plane [29]. mode of failure but they shouldnot beused as a means of
6.4.2.3 Planarslides. The planar slide in a long slope canquantitative analysis.
be considered to consist of a number of strips of unit 6.4.4.2 Scale models. The stabilityof cuttingslopes in soil
width (figure 15). The internal forces on the sides of the can be analysed by constructing a model of the to slope
strip are assumed to be equal, opposite, and colinear and scale using a soil sample representative of themass or of
therefore cancelouf. Thus the safety factor against sliding layers in the soil mass. The modelis then subjectedto a
at a depth zisgiven by: scaled regimeof theground water flowand a centrifugal
c' t (yz cos2 8- u) tan (1 51 acceleration ng (where gis the acceleration due to gravity)
F= and distortions measured to predict the behaviour of the full
yz sin ßcos ß
scale slope [33].
This methodof analysis, referred to as infinite slope
analysis, can be usedforcases of slab or block slides in The advantagesof the centrifugal model are that
long rockslopes(see 6.3.4.2).Equation (1 5) does not three-dimensional and complex layered
soil systems can
allow for the effect of seepage forces. be modelled. Time effects are also reproduced, which is
advantageous incases where stability conditions
6.4.2.4 Wedge failures. Wedge failuresin arock mass intermediate between the short and long are term
(see 6.3.4.3) have to beanalysed on athree-dimensional required.The difficulty in using a centrifugal model study
basis considering the cohesion, angle of shearing is indeciding on the number of soil samples and variations
resistance andwater pressure on each face. The in alayered soil system which needed to be modelledin
gravitational force on the slide wedge is equated to the order to ensure that theresults are representative of site
shearing resistanceof the faces. Design chartsare conditions.
available for analysis of wedges with up three to
intersecting discontinuities [30]. 6.5 Design
6.4.3 Stress analysis. The stresses and displacements
in 6.5.1 Assessment of safety
the soil or rock mass behind a cutting slope can be 6.5.1.ILocalandoveralls€ability. When preparing designs
analysed using the principle of continuum mechanics.
In for the alignment and slopes of a cutting, the possibility of
the finiteelement method [3 1,321 the massis local slips or falls occurring on theofface
theslopes
should beconsidered, in addition to the overallstability
against the various in 6.3. Local
forms of failure described
25
BSI BS*b03L 81 m Lb24bb9 OOZbZO7 Z M
BS 6031 : 1981
slips or falls may occur

owing to the presence of random conditions of steady seepage canbe determined with the
pockets ofweak, unstable, or water-bearing soils, or thin -aidof a flow net (see CP 2004).
layers of weak or shatteredrocks. In mostcases local If the cuttingis excavated in layers of soil or rock of
with as andwhen it becomes
instability can be dealt significantly differing characteristicsthe dopeangles may
evident by adopting one or more of the remedialmeasures be varied to conform to the engineering behaviour ofeach
described in 6.5.5and 11.4. An overall flattening of the formation. The slope anglesmay also be varied in uniform
slopes dueto the occurrence of these local failures is water-bearing pervious soilsby adopting a steep slope
rarely justified. approaching the angle of repose of thesoil located above
6.5.1.2Safetyfactors. Suitable values of safety factorsin the highest groundwater level, and a flatter slope below
a particular case canonly bearrived at aftera careful the watertable.
study ofall the relevant factorsand the exercise of sound 6.5.2.2 Berms. Where a water-bearing pervious soil or
engineering judgmencThese factors include the rock formationoverlies an impervious formation,a berm
complexity of the soil conditions, the adequacy of the site should be provided atthe level of theinterface between
investigation, the certaintywith which the design the twoformations. The bermis used to accommodate an
parameters, e.g. shear strength and ground water open channel or piped drain provided t o collect seepage
pressures, represent the actualin situ conditions, the from thepervious soilabove.
length of time over which stability has t o be assured, the
A berm mayalso be providedt o trap falis of rock or other
likelihood ofunfavourable changesin ground water
debris from a high steeply-cutface. The vertical interval
regime, surface profile or other factors takingplace in the
between the berms and the width of the bermsin relation
future and the likely speed of movement and
to the heightand slopeof the cutting should be selected to
consequences of any failures. In general, however, it is
ensure that boulaers do not roll down theslope and
important to distinguish between first-timeslides and
bounce offprojections to fallat a dangerous distance
slides on pre-existing slip surfaces for over-consolidated
beyond the toe [36].
cohesive soils.
The surface of berms, whether in soil or rock formation,
First-time slides are generally characterized by a degree of
should be sloped back from theface, and providedwith
brittleness with concomitant possibilities of progressive
drainage to avoid the spill water
of down the lower slope
failure and sometimes rapid run-out, whereas in slides of
at timesof heavy surface water run-off.
the lattercategory these problems tend t o be diminished
or absent. Current practice would suggest that for 6.5.2.3Space for debris.Sufficient width of space should
first-time slides with a good standard of investigation and be providedat the toe aof steep slope in soil or rock to
for whichthe consideration thatneeds to be givento the prevent debris accumulating on footpaths, roads and
other factors mentionedin 5.3is no more thanaverage, a other accessible areas. A spaceis also required t o trap
safety factqr between 1.3 and 1.4 should be designedfor. .falling rocks orsoil which might cause a hazard to life or
For a slide involving entirelypre-existing slip surfaces, but property. Thewidth of the debris trapis governed by the
otherwise ofsimilar status, a safetyfactor of about 1.2 same rules as berm widths [37].If insufficient space is
should beprovided. available for thecalculated width,a fence orwall is
required alongthe outer margin. Thesestructures should
6.5.1.3 Probability. The design ofcutting-slopes may be
be of sufficient height t o prevent boulders from bouncing
considered from theaspect of.probabilíty of failure. This
over them,
approach involves analyses to assess the sensitivity ofthe
design to changes in the significantparameters. On the 6.5.3Influence of construction procedure on slope stability
basis ofthe limit-equilibrium method(6.4.21, the value of 6.5.3.1Sequence andgeometryof excavation. Temporary
one of the important parameters required to satisfy the slopes in cuttingexcavations should not be cut so steeply
equilibrium conditionsis calculated for a range of values that slips or falls endanger the stability of the permanent
of the other parameters involved. For example,the value slope. Temporary slopes may be formed as a series of
of cohesion requiredt o satisfy a condition of limiting steps with steeply cut faces. The height of each step and
equilibrium c i n be calculatedfor a range of frictionangles the width of each berm should be such that therequired
and groundwater conditions. Alternatively, each overall slope for the full height of the cutting is not
significant parametercan be varied in turn while keeping exceeded, andthat nodanger is caused to construction
the values of the other parameters.constant. Thus the operatives. A t the finalstage of excavationthe steps are
sensitivity of the safety factor to variations in each trimmed back to the final design profile. In no
parameter can be evaluated. The rate of change of the circumstances shoulda face be cut steeply so that it
safety factorcaused by variations in each parameter is a slumps.
reliable indicator ofengineering behaviour. This rate of 6.5.3.2Effect of explosives.When explosives are used to
change can be demonstrated by presenting the results of loosen rock in cuttingexcavations, the blasting vibrations
the sensitivity analyses in graphical form [34,35]. may open fissures and jointsin the rockmass. This may
6.5.2Slope profile be detrimentalto the stability ofa steeply cut face.
6.5.2.1Slope angles.The required slope anglesof cuttings Blasting vibrations can be minimized by a suitable
should be calculated by theanalytical methods described blast-hole patternin conjunction with relays and delay
in 6.4or byempirical methods. Anglesflatter thanthose detonators. Opening offissures and joints beyond the
suggested by consideration ofthe minimu,m safety factor limits ofa cutting can, in some circumstances, be
instability may be desirable for ease of maintenance, minimized by using a controlled blasting technique such
aesthetics, or otherreasons (see 6.11. as pre-splitting (see 16.3).
The slopewithin thewater-bearing formation should be 6.5.3.3Controlofgroundwater. The rateof excavation in a
such as to permit steadyseepage from the toe without pervious water-bearing soil should be controlled so that
risk oferosion. Therequired slope anglefor stability under steady seepage conditions from theslope are achieved
1 .

26
and maintainedat all stages, so avoiding rapid draw-down Where cuttingsare consfructed insoil containing
of ground water levels behind the slope with consequent sulphates injuriousto Portland cement, concrete or mortar
risk of instability. The baseof an excavation should, where the use of asulphate-resisting cement should be
practicable, have appropriate cross or longitudinal fallsto considered for allconcrete work and earthenware, or PVC
prevent waterfrom ponding in the workingarea. pipes shouldbe used insteadof concrete pipes(see
Temporary open channel or piped drains be may
required CP 2004).
as described in 6.5.4.1. 6.5.4.2 Trench and counterfort drains. Trench and
Where a cutting inan impervious soil is underlaid bya counterfort drains; sometimes describedas pillar drains,
stratum containing water under sub-artesian pressure, buttress drains, andbatter drains, have been used
precautions shouldbe taken against a heave or ‘blow’ a t extensively as a remedyfor slips in cuttings and
the base of the excavation. If normaldrainage techniques embankments. They aresometimes employedas a design
are inadequateit may be necessaryto relieve the water measure when their use may renderit possible to work to
pressure byrelief wells or by pumping from well points or
a somewhat steeper slope than would prove stable
bored wells (seeCP 2004). without them, and where deep-seated slips are likely to
6.5.4 Drainage occur. They arerarely constructedin embankments
except as a remedialmeasure after aslip has occurred.
6.5.4.1 Surface water control. Drainage may be required at
the topof a cuttingslope to intercept surfacewater The function of trench and counterfort drains is to reduce
flowing towards the excavation, and so to prevent the pore water pressures in the slope. Counterfort drains,
water fromdischarging down the slope. defined as trench drainswhich are carried into solid
ground below slip a surface, provide in addition to
This drainagecan take theform of openchannels, ditches,
drainage some buttressing action. A tentative method of
or piped drains. The gradient of the drains should, asfar as
designing trenchdrains, andthe drainage function of
possible, bethe optimum for the particular type, and
counterfort drains, is given in[37].
should not be flatter than 1 in 300 unless the drains have
the main purpose of providing storage capacityfor run-off, Auxiliary drains, sometimes describedas chevron,vee, or
when flatter gradients may be acceptable. herringbone drains, are ofien provided between the main
counterfort drains in the form of narrow stone-filled
The required capacity of drains dependstheonnature of
trenches extending up the slope from points in the main
the soil, the contour of the ground, e.g-whether sidelong
buttresses atan angleof about 4 5 “,and meeting midway
or otherwise, and the existence of springs, agricultural
between the main drains. Theseauxiliary drainsare
drains, or waterchannels which may be interfered with by
seldom more than 0.75 m x 0.5 m to 0.75 m wide, and
the cutting.
may be spaced from 3 m to 1 O m apart. Their functionis
Open channels should preferably be lined.Unlined to intercept water flowing down the face of the cutting
channels shouldnot be used where interceptor drains are and to add to the stability of the surface of the earthslope.
sited near the top of acutting ina shrinkable clay, since Like counterforts they arefilled with rubble and may in
water seeping down shrinkage cracks may cause addition be piped orconcreted.
instability. Open channel or piped drains should be
Counterfort and chevron drains should be so constructed
provided at the toe of the slope on bothsides of a cutting,
that neither erosion nor seepage conditions are set up in
and the formation should be trimmed to fall towards the
the bank. Water-bearing outcrops in the face of slopes
drains. Careshould be taken that the construction of the
may require special drainage.
drains does not weaken the toes of theslopes. All drains
sited at the tops of cuttings and designed to carry surface The trench inwhich the counterfort drain is formed is
water should be lined.Where both surface and subsoil usually benched. On slopes of,
say, about 2.5 in1, the
drainage haveto be provided it is desirableto install length of thebenches might be 2.5 m, and the height of
separate conduitsfor each purpose. Open channels each stepI m with a maximum depth of excavation in
should not be so deep as to render cleaningdifficult, 1.2 m newly-made slopesof 1.5 m to 2m. Where constructedin
being usually a practicable maximum. order to remedy slips, the contour should be determined
after ascertaining the position of the surface sliding,
of the
Pipe drains shouldnot beless than 15 0 m min diameter.
benching being constructed well below this and below the
When acting as subsoil drains they are laid with open -
surface ofany deeperslip which is likely to occur, The
joints and may be bedded on concrete. Alternatively, a
surface ofa slip can usuallybe detected in the excavation.
porous concrete or perforated pipe mayused. be Thepipe
Counterfort drains maybe 1 m to 2 m wide and are
trenches should normally be completely filledwith coarse
sometimes made wider at the bottom of the slope than at
granular material, broken to 60 mm maximum size.
the top, with widthincreasing by about I m in1 O m of
Where thesurrounding ground is likely to be washed or
length.
squeezed into thedrain, a graded filter material should be
used betweenthe soil and the coarse filling (see The unsupported width of natural earth or‘span‘ between
CP 2004). Alternatively thepipes may be wrapped ina counterfort drains (edge to edge) may be aslittle as 3 m or
durable plasticsfilter fabric. Where coarse filling up to1 O m, depending on the conditions on siteand on
surrounding impervious pipes is specified a connection whether auxiliary drains are used.
should be made from the filling into the manhole or Excavations should be lined with filter media consisting of
catchpit a t the low end of the run of pipe to avoid a buildup hard durable granular material, selecteditsfor
of subsoilwater inthe filling material. Inspection permeability and having a grading which permits the entry
chambers, incorporating silt traps and enabling a drain to of soil particles from thesurrounding ground.
be rodded,should be constructed a t intervals offrom Excavations should be thoroughly waterproofed at their
5 0 m to 90 m. Thecovers to the inspection chambers base to prevent water gettinginto thebody of the slope.
should permit ready opening for regular inspection. Such materialsas concrete,plastics sheets, or bituminous
”
t
27
BSI B S * b 0 3 2 B L m 1 6 2 4 b 6 7 0026107 5 W
BS 6031 : 1981
coatings may beused. As an alternative, step contruction under gravityto a drainage system. However,flow can be
may be adopted. Such steps should be cut t o a fall and induced under an electrical potential whereby direct
successive concrete layers should overhang andinclude a current is made to flow fromanodes (which are steel rods
central channel: It is important toprevent cloggingof driven into thesoil) t o filter wells forming the cathodes.
drains in the long term. Erosion of fine soil into the The positively charged water particles migrate through
drain-filling materialcan be prevented by lining the trench pores in the soil and collectat thecathodes from where
with filtermedia and/orfilterfabric. Entry of surface they are pumped to theground surface. The installation
water into trench drains can be prevented by plugging the and running costs of the systemare high compared with
top metre of the trench with compacted clay fill placed on gravity drainage or simple pumped wells; therefore
a layer of filtermaterial. electro-osmosis is normally restrictedto use asan
As analternative to forming trenchdrains within the expedient t o arrest movement of an unstable slope until
slope, consideration should be given to constructinga permanent remedialmeasures can bedesigned and
deep cut-off drain parallel to and behind the top of the constructed (see CP 2004).
slope. 6.5.5 Mechanicalmethods of support
6.5.4.3Face drains.Face drains or blanketdrains can be 6.5.5.'1General. Where theavailable width between the
used to control seepage from theface ofa slope in a toe of a cutting and the siteboundary is insufficient t o
pervious soil. The drains may consist of a layer of coarse accommodate a safe slope for the full height of the
granular materialup to60 m m in size backed by a graded cutting, it is necessary to introduce supportin the form of
filter (see CP 2004) or by filterfabric, or stone-filled wire a retaining wall inorder to reduce the slope, or t o adopt
mattresses similarly backed by filtermaterial. some other means of artificially creatinga steepened
6.5.4.4Boreddrains. The ground waterlevel in pervious slope.
soil orrock formations may be lowered by pumping from 6.5.5.2Retaining walls.Suitable forms ofretaining wall to
vertical boredwells. This may be desirable as a give supportto a cutting slope are
construction expedientto permit rapid excavation in dry gravity wallsin mass concrete, brickwork, or stone
conditions, until such time as steady seepagetowards the masonry
cutting slopes is attained. Bored wells can also be usedas
reinforced concrete walls of L- or T-shape
a remedial measure to lower the piezometric headcausing
instability ofa slope. Thesystem is uneconomical as a reinforced concrete buttress walls
permanent drainage measure unlessgravity drainage of a reinforced concrete counterfort walls
cutting can beachieved. The design of bored wells is reinforced concrete diaphragm walls (cantilevered or
described in CP 2004. anchored)
Inclined boreddrains can be installed from theface of a contiguous bored pile walls (cantileveredanchored) or
cutting slope. They are installed by rotary or percussion
drilling a cased hole to intercept the water-bearing secant bored pile walls
horizons. The piped drain, consisting of a perforated reinforced earth walls
plastics pipe surrounded by plastics filter fabric a or steel sheetpiling (cantilevered or anchored)
perforated metal pipe surroundedby a gravel or porous
crib walls, e.g.precast concrete sections or disused
concrete annularfilter, is pushed down thecasing. The
rubber vehicle tyres
latter is withdrawn, leaving the piped drainin place, when
flow from the pipe is under gravity. gabions (stone-filled wire meshbaskets)
Inclined drainsare a useful expedient where seepage Information on methods of design and construction of the
takes place from relatively thin water-bearing layers, or to above types of wallcan be foundin CP 2 and CP 2004.
lower thepiezometric headon a potential sliding surface Gravity walls or reinforced concrete walls are suitable if
[371* the soil in the lower part ofthe cuttingcan be cutback
steeply to a temporary slope to allow the wall to be,
654.5Galleries. Drainage galleries may be constructed constructed. Any space between the back of the and wall
by tunnelling from theface ofa slope or froma shaft
the temporaryslope is then backfilled. Alternatively these
excavated behind the slope. Drainagegalleries are costly
walls can be constructed in a timbered trench, the soil in
compared with inclined boreddrains but they may be
front of the wall being removed after completing the
advantageous where seepage takes place from
retaining structure.
closely-spaced fissures or laminationsin a rock formation.
The gallery can be tunnelledt o intercept thesource of Diaphragm walls, contiguous bored pile walls and secant
seepage andthen continuedalong the water-bearing bored pile walls are suitable for weak, unstable orheavily
horizon to theextent necessary to achieve the required water-bearing soils wherea temporary steep slope cannot
lowering of piezometric pressures behind theslope. be formed or where construction in a trench wouldcause
Drainage galleries provide a means of access for problems of support orloss of ground. Thesetypes of
supplementary stabilizationmeasures such as transverse retaining wall are also suitable for sites where
adits, inclined boreddrains, or grouting. The galleries are construction is t o be undertaken in close proximityt o
constructed on an upward gradient to permit drainage by existing structures(see CP 2004).
gravity towards the portal through a piped drain Reinforced earth retaining walls can be formedin the
constructed beneath the floor ofgallery. the The drain lower partof a cutting slope by excavating at the toe to
should have a removable cover for easy inspection and form a temporary steepslope, then replacingthe
maintenance. excavated soilin compactedlayers of essentially granular
6.5.4.6 Electro-osmosis. Fine-grained soils such as sandy material, each layer being reinforcedby horizontal metal
silts, silts, and silty clays, are difficult todrain because or plasticsties. Thesteeply inclined face the of retaining
capillary forces acting on thepore water prevent free flow wall is protected b y metal, reinforced concrete, or plastics
28
BS 6031 : 1981
cladding elements (figure19). The designof reinforced Isolated pinnacles or buttresses of rock whichfail mayby
earth wallsis described in various publications toppling (see 6.3.5) can be pinned backto stable rock
[39,40,41,42]. behind by means of short bolts (figure 17). Similarly,
Reinforced earth retaining walls have the advantageof shallow rockmasses which may show instability in the
flexibility andare suitable forsoil conditions where form ofslab or block slides (see 6.3.4.2)can be restrained
appreciableforward movement or heaving of a cutting
is by short bolts extending below the potential slipplane
anticipated as a consequence of stressrelief, or where the (figure 18).
site of acutting may be subject to subsidence from The short bolts used for rock face treatment can be
underground mine workings. inserted into holes drilled in therock and then grouted .
Steel sheet pilingis used as a remedial measure to restore with cement orwith apolyester orepoxy resin in the form
stability (see1 1.4) or as a constructionexpedient. It can of an unstressed dowel. Alternatively, stressed anchors
be used as a permanent retainingwall if consideration is can be used
(see CP 2).
given to some measureof protection against corrosion Larger rock masses can be prevented from showing
where a very longlife is required. instability in theform of translational or wedge slides
Precast concrete crib walls are a formof gravity section (see 6.3,4) by means of long rock anchors grouted into the
and may be economical for sites where suitable broken rock mass beyond thezone of potentialinstability.
rock or gravel is available as a fill material for cribs.
the Where short or long anchors are used to stabilize rock
Gabions aresuitable for sites where broken rock, slopes the effect
of grouting for securing theanchors or
boulders, cobbles or large gravel are available for filling the the drainage of the slope should considered.
be Extensive
o wire mesh baskets and where space is available to grouting ofa jointed rock mass may create a barrier to
arrange the basketsin tiers to form stepped-back
a ground waterflow towardsthe cutting. Where necessary,
retaining wall. A very long lifeis not possible with gabion drainage holes should be drilled into theface to relieve
walls but the galvanized or plastics-covered wire mesh hydrostatic pressure,
can provide many years of useful support. Gabions are Attention should be given to the preventionof corrosion of
particularly suitablefor construction in conditions where anchors by means of suitable sleevingin theirnon-bonded
the cuttingis temporarily or permanently flooded and lengths. Anchorheads should be accessible for
subjected to scour from flowingwater. The flexibility Òf a re-stressing, if necessary, andsuitable measures of
gabion retainingwall is advantageousfor sites where corrosion protection should be provided to exposed bolt
appreciable deformation of a slope may occur as a result heads, locking mechanisms and reaction plates.
of stressrelief or subsidence due to underground mine 6.5.5.5 Dental treatment of rock faces.Sprayed concrete
workings. with or withoutsteel mesh reinforcement may be used as
In all cases and for all types of retainingwall attention a construction technique in shattered rock. In this case the
should be given to drainage at the back of wall the inorder concrete holds the rock fragments in positionas the slope
to prevent hydrostatic pressure on the retaining structure is formed and prevents further movementrelease and of
and to avoid a general rise in pore pressure in the soil or lateral stresswhich could leadto general instability of the
rock mass behind the wall. The drainage layer behind slope the surfaceif a large amountof strain were permitted
retaining structure may consist of alayer of granular throughout themass. A rapid setis often requiredfor this
material, or no-fines concrete. Where3here is a risk of loss purpose and reinforcement is required if the mortar or
of fines from the retainedsoil, a gradedfilter or filter fabric concrete facingis to be built up tosubstantial
a thickness.
should be used (see CP 2004) or the granular drainage Wet or dry mortar systems are available.
O layer shouldbe backed bya sheet of filterfabric.
6.5.5.3 Groundanchors. A steep soil slope can be retained
6.5.6 Improvements to soilparameters. Grouting by
physico-chemical methods maybe considered as a
by reinforced concrete slabs in precast or cast-in-place means of stabilizing a soil mass to permit steepslopes,
construction, and restrained against movement by steel but itsprincipal use is as a remedialmeasure. Descriptions
rods orcables anchored in the soil mass beyond zone the of thephysico-chemical methods are given in 11.4.
of potential sliding (figure6). 1As an alternative to the 6.6 Monitoring of slopes
design shown infigure 16,the anchored retaining 6.6.1 General. Where experience or stability analysis gives
structures maybe designed as wholly or partially buried reasonable assuranceof stable conditions incutting a
vertical sleeper walls stepped down the to slope
form a slope no special measures are required for monitoring
series of terraces. Information on the design of ground stability. However, it is good practiceto make periodic
anchors can be found in CP 2004, Dl2 . I. ,* and [38]. inspections, particularly in the early months after
6.5.5.4Rockbolting. Rock bolts can be used as a means of completion when the surface may be subjectto erosion
preventing degradation of a weak or heavily jointed rock before grass cover is established. Theseinspections
face, or as a meansof restraint to bodily movementof a should includethe followingobservations.
mass ofrock. Where a goodvisual appearance is not a (a) Deformation. Settlements in the upper part of the
requirement, the slope can be covered with wire mesh slope and bulging towards the toe may indicate
pinned to the rock face by short bolts or tied back to the incipient failure by a rotationalshear slide (6.3.2).
crest of the slope by vertical anchor bolts. This technique
(b) Cracking. A series of cracks in the vicinity of and
is suitable onlyfor the retention of relatively light blocks of
sub-parallel to the crestof a slope may indicate sliding,
rock on the surface aof slope, or when the mesh is
as do en echeloncracks at thelateral boundaries of
anchored only at the crest of the to slope
control the fall of
incipient movement. Hexagonal or random pattern
larger blocks.In the lattercase the mesh andanchorage
cracking indicates drying shrinkage.
should have adequate strength.
* DD . .. . Ground anchors(in course of preparation). I J "-.

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BS 6031 : 1981
(c) Fissuring. Opening of joints and fissures in arock Where a higher order of accuracy is required (+ 5 mm or
slope indicates incipient translational or toppling failurebetter) and the measurements are expected to be
(6.3.4 and 6.3.5). repeated a t regular intervals over a long period of atime,
(d) Seepage, Water carrying soil particles seepingfrom a properly designed monitoring scheme will be necessary.
siope face indicates internalor seepageerosion (6.3.7). Consideration should then be given to use of one or a
combination of the following methods:
(e) Gullying. Channels eroded on a slope face indicate
the need for protection against surface erosion. (a) precise levelling using a geodetic level and Invar
staff;
Inspections shouldbe made after periods heavy of rainfall,
snow orsevere frost. Clay slopesshould be inspected (b)triangulation usingfirst order theodolites (reading to
during or immediately after rainfall following a period of one secondof arc);
dry weatherto zssess the effectsof water entering (c) trilaterationwith special EDM equipment.
surface cracks. Inspection of the position and inclination These measurements should be taken from stable survey
of pegs driveninto theslope isa simple means of monuments, preferablywith fixed centring for the
detecting gross deformations. instruments or referred to deep bench marks or datum
Inspection of slopes of cuttings during the constructionpoints. The targets should be designed to provide a unique
period and of steeply-cut slopes for foundation point to which the measurements canbe taken during
excavations or trenches should be made dailyby suitably repeated visits.
qualified and experienced persons to ensure safe working Computation should be by normal survey procedures,and
conditions foroperatives, and to avoid damageto partly the results adjusted by ‘least squares‘ or
constructed works or existing structures around the ‘variation-of-coordinates‘ to obtain the best mean answer.
excavation (see4.1 1. Sub-surface deformations of a slope may be measured by
Where thereare doubts concerning the short or long term inclinometerreadings in boreholeslocatedatcritical
stability of cutting slopes it may be desirableto install points(see 5.1.3.5).The locationoftheboreholesat
instrumentation to give warning of incipient instability, to ground levelis obtained by methods(a), (b) and (c) above.
enable remedial measures such as the installation of Photogrammetry maybe used for monitoring purposes,
drainage, grouting or anchoring to be undertaken before but when high a degree of accuracy is required the ground
the stage of failureis reached. Suitable methods of control would need to be established by methods (a), (b)
monitoring slopesare described in6.6.2 to 6.6.5. and (c)above.
6.6.2 Waterpressure. Pore pressuresbehind a cutting 6,6.4 Earth pressure measurements.St may be desirable to
slope canhave a critical effect on stability.(6.2), so it may monitor the development of earth pressure on the
be desirable to monitor pore pressure changesduring and retaining structures describedin 6.5.5. Earth pressures
after excavation of a cutting tocheck the validity of are measured by means of pressure cells interposed
assumptions madea t the design stage and to ensure that between the soil and the face of the retaining structure or
critical conditions of high pore pressures arenot by means of load cells mounted on components as such
developing. anchors, struts andshores.
ln homogeneous permeable soils pore pressurescan be 6.6.5 Seismic observations.Seismic refractionsurveys
monitored by plumbing water levels in simple standpipes made.at periodic intervals can give an indication of
(see BS 5930). Inlayered soilsorsoils of moderateto low movement of a rock slope since open,ing or closingof
permeability theresponse time of standpipesto changes fissures affect the seismic velocity of the rockmass [I 71.
in pore pressure may be inadequate to detect critical Micro-seismometers installedin boreholes can give
conditions in sufficient time to take remedial action. In warnings of slope movements (see 5.1 -3.6).
these cases pore pressures should be monitored by
properly sealed and protected piezometers (BS 5930) 7. Embankments and general filling
with their tips located in each critical soil layer a t a
number of locations along the slope. Water levels in the 7.1 General factors affectingthe design of
piezometers canbe monitored by plumbing down riser the embankments. The cross section of the embankment is
pipe orby connecting a series of piezometers to a gauge determined by the required functional
width at the top, the
house by means of pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical height above ground level and the profile of the slide
transmission and recording systems[43]. Precautions are slopes. A t the base sufficient land should be reserved for
necessary againstdamage to a piezometer installation the location of any necessary drains and services at the
from constructionand maintenance operations and from toes of the slopes and
any other ancillary purposes such
the effects of frost and vandalism. as landscaping,including tree or hedge planting. The cross
section may also be governed by the stability of the
6.6.3 Monitoring surface andsub-surface movements. ground on which the embankment is to be constructed,
Monitoring of ground surface movement in both particularly ifthis is sidelong ground.
horizontal and vertical planes can’be carried out by field
survey methods.The particular methods used depend on In thedesign of approach embankmentsto bridges and
the accuracy required. other structures, the superstructures, substructures and
associated earthworks should be studied as a whole and
For short term schemes when a high degree of accuracy is not individually.
not required, simple’measurements takenon metalpins or
pegs driven into the soil can be taken by normal levelling, Where sufficient width land of is not available to
tachometric survey methods or short range Electronic accommodate thefull widthof the base of the
Distance Measuring equipment (EDM), with the embankment, the provision of earth-retaining structures
measurements referredto one ormore stable baseline has to be considered. Typesof earth-retaining structure
stations set some distance from the affected area. are described in 6.5.5.2. Selection of a type should take
I
Standards
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BS 6031 : 1981
into account the method of forming the embankment and 7.2.1.6 Industrialanddomestic wastes. Industrial wastes
other general factors dealt with inclause 5 of this code. that are likely to be considered for suitability either as a
7.2 Strength and defórmation characteristics of foundation oras a fill material are asfollows: burntand
foundations andfill materials unburnt collieryshales, various typesof slag from the
metal-producing industries, quarry waste, pulverized fuel
7.2.1 Materials
ash from power stations and waste products from the
7.2.1.IRock, Problems associatedwith strength and chemical and manufacturing industries. In general,
deformation of the foundation are unlikely wherean untreated domestic waste is unsuitableuse foreither as a
embankment is built onrock. Rockfill placed in layers and foundation or as a fillmaterial. However, with the
suitably compacted can form a fill material with excellent increasing use of incineration treatment,limited supplies
strength and deformation properties. However, some of a suitablefill material from domestic waste may be
weak rocks suchas mudstones, shales,marl and chalk available [7,8,9].
can degrade very quickly if exposed to the elements, or if When old mining spoil tips are used as borrow pits, the
inappropriate construction methodsare used.They then
excavated faces should be left sealed to prevent entry of
behave as cohesive soils. Where embankments are to be air which mightcause spontaneous combustion.
formed by dumping rock into wateror if they are to act as
Apparently burnt-out tips may contain zones of hot
permeable structures permitting flow of water through
materials, andwork should be arranged to avoid falls of
them, only strong durable rock should be used (see7.5.11.
dry dusty incandescent material. Before entering tips on
7.2.1.2 Granularsoils. Ingeneral, owing to their high calm days tests forthe presence of noxious gases,
permeability, granular soils not do allow excess pore particularly carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, should
water pressuresto devefop during embankment be made in low-lying or confined areas.
construction. As a consequence, embankment loading
Care should be exercised in selecting waste products for
increasesthe strength of the granular soil and for the most
use either as a foundation or as a fillmaterial, and tests
part deformations due to embankment loading occur
should be made to determine their general suitability,
immediately as construction proceeds.
including testsfor sulphate content,toxicity,
In a foundation of granular soil for a wide structure such combustibility, and mechanical properties. Careful
as an embankment there is little risk shearof failure. consideration should be given to the possibilityof
Difficulties may occur with fine sandswhich are saturated consequential pollution. Mining wastes slag, or
and/or loosely packedin theirnatural state.In such a particularly steel slag, which have been stockpiled for long
state a 'quick' condition can be set upin the foundation by periods, may cause pollution of water-courses or subsoil
vibration caused, for instance, by traffic, particularly water inareas surrounding the filledsite. Problems with
construction traffic, or by the drivingpiles. of interna[ erosion or leaching offines intodrainage systems
Granular soil when placedin layers and given suitable may occur when fine-grained materials such as pulverized
compaction formsa high quality fill material, although fuel ash areused
difficultycan be experiencedin the compaction of the final7.2.2 Suitabilityandtesting. The strength, deformationand
layer of single-sized material unless the grading is moisture suscepfibilityof foundation and fill material
improved by adding the appropriate material. should be established by means of:
7.2.1.3Cohesive soils.These soils havelow permeability, (a) in situ testingas part of site investigation;
and excesspore water pressures can develop within them
(b) laboratory tests;
when the soilis subjected to a change in loading. A
cohesive soil may therefore behave an in essentially (c) instrumented field trials.
undrained mannerwith very little consolidation occurring In the caseoflarge rock embankments field trials should
during embankment construction, and no significant be carried out in order to determine thebest procedures
increase in strength occurs during that period. The major both forexcavation andfor forming a satisfactory
proportion of the consolidation settlements occurs after embankment [44].
the endof construction as the excess pore water Some materials, such as silty sands, silty clays and chalk,
pressures dissipate.The strength and deformation have a critical level of moisture content above which they
properties of cohesive soilsas both filland foundation rapidly become unsuitable for normal methods of
material are largely a function of moisture content, but in earthworks construction. Laboratory examination should
the case of the foundation material the structure and be made of the relationship between moisture content,
fabric of the soil, resulting from itsgeological historyare density and undrained shear strength orCBR values for all
also important (see5.2). types of soil exhibiting predominantly cohesive properties.
7.2.1.4Silts. Silts are cohesive soils posing particular 7.3 Design of embankments
additional problems.With properties intermediatein
character between clays and sands their strength and 7.3.1 General. Embankments should be designed to
deformation behaviour arevery susceptible to instability provide an adequate safetyfactor forshear failure and to
caused by disturbance. ensure that any deformation is within acceptable limits.
The information required before the cross section of the
7.2.1.5 Peat. Peat, which can varyfrom peaty clayto embankment canbe designed includes:
fibrous peat, is unsuitable as a fillmaterial. Being highly
compressible, it should be removed or displaced from (a) ultimate widthof fop ofembankment;
beneath an embankment if occurring in layers of (b) loading on top embankment;
of
significant thickness. Where removal is impracticable, (c) geotechnical properties of the foundation and fill
efforts shouldbe made to accelerate settlementby materials;
surcharging the embankment, provided that such
(d) restrictions on width of land available;
surcharging doesnot endanger stability.
J
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BS 6031 : 1981
(e) special conditionsto which the embankmentwould the site investigation stage to determine their settlement
be subject,for example, tidal waters, active mining characteristics. The acceptable degree of settlement
operation and naturalcavities, andenvironmental and depends on the type of function the embankment is
other economic factorswhich may influence the final required to serve, e.g.to carry a highway or railway or for
choice of cross section, eng.earth banks for sound building developments.In some cases, it may be
screening or flattening of slopes to allow themto be necessary to induce the major part of the settlement
returned to agriculture. before the filledarea is required to be used. This may be
7.3.2 Stability. Calculation of the stability of the done either by completing the fill early in the contract and
embankment shouldbe undertaken using the methods of topping upas necessaryduring the completionstage, or
analysis describedin 6.4. In some instances, it may be by surcharging the fill byincreasing the height to
desirable to anabse embankment deformationsusing, for accelerate the settlement, the excess material being
example, finite element methods described in 6.4.3 to removed before completion.
determine whether deformationis acceptable. 7.3.3.2 Fillmaterials. The different materialswhich are
Parameters of theshear strength of the fill appropriate for suitable for fillhave varied consolidation characteristics.
use in the stability calculations are usually obtainedfrom Consolidation tests may have to be carried out on samples
laboratory tests on recompacted samples. Where an compacted to the anticipated site density in order to
embankment is built of rockfill or other granular material calculate settlements. Adequate compaction minimizes
with side slopesnot exceeding theangle of repose of the but does not necessarily eliminate future settlement. The
fill, it is inherently stablefor all heights as long as the degree of compaction achieved depends on the moisture
foundations are capableof sustaining theloads. However, content of the fill material and the amount of compactive
the angle of shearing resistancea well of compacted effort.
granular fill can be considerably greater than the angle of Care should be taken to avoid indiscriminate mixing of
repose and consequently the laboratory determination ofsoils of widely differing characteristics e.g. clay with chalk
this parameter and its use in the stability calculations can or drier than average cohesive soil with wetter than
lead to a more economic embankment cross section. For average material.
rockfill embankments, where laboratory determination of
the angle of shearing resistance offillthematerial may be 7.3.3.3 Foundationmaterials. Factors which may giverise
difficult, recommendedangles aregiven in table 3. The to settlement problems within the foundation materials
shear strength and pore pressure parameters ofand clays include:
silts can be measured in laboratory triaxial compression (a) cohesive soils of high compressibility;
tests. (b) peat;
If the natural moisture content of the material in the field (c) changes in groundwater levels due to extraction by
is high butthe permeability characteristics are such that it pumping or natural causes;
can be readilyreduced, the design could take advantage of
(d) underground voids such as old mine workings or
the resulting improvement inshear strength.
natural cavities;
Where embankments are constructed on sidelong ground
(e) active mining, including salt extraction by pumping.
and a layer of impermeable material underlies a significant
thickness of permeable material,a perched water table The site investigation should be directed towards the
can form, causing saturation of the coarser material with discovery of such features and necessary the laboratory
possible erosion or slumping where water the table and/or field testing should be carried outso that the
emerges onto theside slope. designer can take account of them.
The stability of an embankment depends not only upon 7.4 Drainage
the strength of the fill material from which it has been 7.4.1 General. Drainage systemsto deal separatelywith
formed butalso upon the strengthof the material on subsoil water and surfacewater run-off are essential,
which it is founded. An assessment isnecessary to check from both the constructional point of view and for the
the abilityof the foundation material to carry the required future stability of the embankment or general filledarea.
superimposed loadwithout shear failure or unacceptable 7.4.2 Pre-earthworks drainage. Before an embankment
deformations. The factors governing the behaviour of soils can be constructed, exisfing watercourses, ditches,
and rocks in cuttings (see 6.2) generally apply also to their subsoil agriculturaldrainage, springs, ponds, etc.,have to
behaviour as foundation materials for embankments. If be dealtwith so that the earthworks can be carried out
the site contains geological features as suchfaults orslip without detrimentto the existing ground water regime.
surfaces resultingfrom previous movements, due regard Existing field drains should be intercepted by collector
should be taken of these during the evaluation of thedrains in theform of open-jointed pipeslaid in a
stability of the embankment. gravel-filled trench.
Techniques are available for improving the strength In the case where a new culvert is provided, its size,
properties of filland foundationmaterials, andthese are gradient and invert levels have to be agreed with the
described in CP 2004 and [45]. appropriate RegionalWater Authorityto ensure that
The effects of embankment loading on materials oflow possible run-offfrom futureareas of development can be
shear strengthcan bemitigated by the use of berms or by accommodated andany future regrading of the
flattening theside slopesof theembankment. watercourse can becarried outboth upstream and
7.3.3 Deformations downstream of the embankment crossing.
7.3.3.1 General. Some deformationof the fill, of the Where it is necessary to provide a pipe under the
foundation materials or of both may occur and the embankment, it is always prudentto provide oneof
behaviour of the materials involved should be studied at sufficient size to permit blockagesto be cleared by
working from theends of the pipe. "

Standards
BS 6031 : 1981
To avoid damage by earthworks construction plant to amount of distortion of the pipe alignment are
or at shallowdepths, it
pipes laid at existing ground level recommended, in order to prevent leakage into the fill in
may be necessary to protect thepipes by means of a the event of settlement takingplace. Particular attention
concrete surround or by other methods. should be given to drainage design adjacent to structures
7.4.3Temporary drainage during construction. Adequate where differential settlement could cause leakagefrom
temporary outfalls have t o be providedfor the permanent the drains and wash out fine-grainedfilling such as
drainage systems where the permanent outfall cannot be pulverized fuel ash or cement ash. flue
provided immediately. 7.4.6Construction considerations.When drains are
During the formation of a care fill should be taken to leave constructed before completing the fill, the remainingfill in
areas which are not being worked withas smooth a thevicinity of the pipes should be placed and compacted
surface as possible.In the case of cohesive materials the in sucha way as not tooverstress thepipe.
surface shouldbe examined before resuming operations 7.5Special site conditions affecting embankment or
to ensure that aplane of weakness isnot created, The general fill design
surface should also slope to the outsideedge of the fill so 7.5.1Filldepositedin water
that rainfalldoes not pond on the surface and cause
7.5.1.I Standing water. Standing water is the term applied
deterioration of the material. In areas subjected to periods
to ponds, lakes, canals and water-filled mineral workings.
of intense rainfall, asin tropicalmonsoons, if the
Where it is impracticable or uneconomical to drain
embankment is constructedfrom erodible materialit may
standing water, particular attention in the design of the
be preferredto dish the embankmentto a centralditch
embankment shouldbe given to the maximumand
discharging to a suitable outfall.
minimum waterlevels andto the characteristicsof the soil
In times of heavy rainfall large volumes of water run down underlying the water. Where practicable, any soft silt, clay
embankment side slopes and may cause erosion of the fill. or peatshouldbe removed before placing fill, as if is
Where the surface of the embankment is to be left foran difficult to compact the fill material under water.Fill
extended period, the problem can be alleviated by forming should be selected from material which remains stable
temporary grips or ditches leading to a linedoutfall a t the when inundated orwhen within the zone of a fluctuating
lowest point to discharge to a ditch orwatercourse. In water table, particularly in saline tidal water. Broken
these situationsthe silting and pollution of existing concrete, brick rubble or granular material should be used
watercourses shouldbe prevented by providing to reduce setflement and maintain stability. Where it is
temporary stilling ponds or by forming filter bunds in the impracticable or uneconomical to remove soft materials
temporary ditches. displacement by end tipping of bulk filling can adopted.
be
7.4.4Drainage measures to improve andmaintain the Measures shouldbe taken to equalize water levels on
stability of embankment or general filling each side ofthe embankment by means of pipes or
7.4.4.1Verticaldrainage.In situations where the pervious blanketdrains.
horizontal permeabilityof thesoil is inadequate to For large areas of standing water, it may be practicable
dissipate excess pore water pressures in the time required and economicalto adopt hydraulic filling using a suitable
by the construction programme, the excess pore water type of granular material (see 7.6.3.4).
pressure in the foundation material resulting from the The slopes of an embankment in standing water should be
embankment loading can be reduced by vertical drainage flatter thanthose requiredabove water level and they
such as sand drains, wick drains or narrow width trench should be protected against wash or wave action as
drains backfilledwith granularfilter material. described in 1 1.4.4.
Provision shouldbe made to deal with the emerging 7.5.1.2Tidalandfloodwaters. In tidal waters the effects of
water, and thiscan beaccomplished by adrainage blanket the rise and fall ofthe water level and of wave action on
of rock or granular material in base the of the fill with the embankment require special consideration and
suitable meansof outfall. This drainage blanket can techniques suchas arenecessary in the design of
provide a useful haul road for construction traffic. maritime structures. Where a sudden rise orfall in the
7.4.4.2Horizontaldrainage. W e i cohesive fill can be level of thewater may occur, precautions shouldbe taken
improved bythe provision of horizontaldrainage, ¡.e. layers to avoid external erosion and to mitigate the effects of
of granular material placed at intervals within the sudden drawdown. This condition can occur where an
embankment which reduce the pore water, with the embankment crossesthe flood plain of a river where the
resulting benefit of increased strength and accelerated embankment is, for most of the time, on dry ground but
consolidation of the fill material. If granular materialis so where, under flood conditions, erosionof the slopes of the
placed then provision should be made to collect the embankment in the vicinity bridge of a or culvert is
emerging flow of water. The possible loss of finesat the possible owing tothe increasein velocity of the flood
interface has to be considered and either a suitably graded water passing through the opening. Theface of the
drainage layer or a permeable fabric membrane between embankment can be protected one by of the methods
the filland the drainage layer should be used. described in 1 1.4.4.
7.4.5Permanent drainage. Surface water run-off from the 7.5.2Embankments on softground. Methods of
and groundwhich falls towards it should constructing an embankment on soft ground
surface of the fill include:
be collected by the means described in 6.5.4.Drains and (a) removal of the soft material excavation
by plant or
services shouldnot be sited close to the toe of an displacement by surcharging with suitable material;
embankment in situations where lateral displacement of
the soil due to horizontal ground strain could overstress or (b) providing wide
a and deep trench filledwith granular
displace the pipework or other structures. Pipes with material at the toe of the embankment;
flexible jointswhich remain watertight under a certain (c) improving the properties of the foundation material
F I

BS 6031 : 1981
by ground treatmentmethods, e.g. installation-of vertical consideration should be given to:

drains to accelerate consolidation, vibroflotation (the (a) differinglevels of the floor of quarry,
the variable
forming ofcolumns ofcrushed stonewithin the soft deposited material, and standing water.These problems
material), dynamic consolidation[45], preloading with have been discussed in previous sections of the code
fill material; (see 7.5.11. In cases where wateris likely to be
(d) controlling the rate of constructionso that there is impounded at different levels on either side of an
time for the foundationconsolidate
to and hence embankment, large diameter drains should be provided
increase in strength sufficientlyto remain stable. In beneath the base of thefill to equalize water levels;
these conditionsit is desirable to monitor pore water (b) the transition between the quarry and the natural
pressures in thefoundation material and lateral ground. In manycases there will be a vertical ornear
movements which may take place [I 3,461; vertical faceat this point and even with very careful
(e) decreasing the loadapplied by the embankment to control of the compaction at the face quarry, of the
the foundations bythe use of lightweightfill, e.g. differential settlement is likely t o occur. If practicable
pulverized fuel ash; the face of the quarry should be graded back or stepped
(f) providing a permeable horizontal drainage blanket t o provide a more gradual transitionzone.
beneath the excavation at ground level. Such a blanket 7.5.5 Embankments onexisting filledground. Where an
facilitates rapiddispersal of flood water from the base of embankment is to be built over existingfilled ground the
the embankment, thereby assisting stability. A detailed history ofthe fill should be investigated in
permeable fabricmembrane can be laid over the topsoil addition to ascertaining the character ofthe fill from
followed bya layer of granular material. It may be boreholes and trial pits. Old filledareas often prove to be
necessary to restrict the weight of mechanical plant extremely variable and particular attentionis required
operating on theblanket:or on any shallow fill layer where theexistence of domestic wastesis suspected.
placed on theblanket; Extensive treatment may be necessary prior to
(9) where brushwood timber is available,the embankment construction, depending on the depth and
embankment may be constructed fascines; on nature ofthe fill. Vibroflotation and dynamic consolidation
are among the methods of ground treatment that may be
(h) where sufficient landis available, the slopes of the
suitable in some instances[45]. Alteration of thedrainage
embankment can be flattened by providing wide berms
pattern within the fill by the construction of an
at the toe and, if required, at intermediate levels;
embankment may result in inundation ofthe fill and
(j) bridging overthe softmaterial at ground levelby consequent leaking and collapse of archedmaterials.
means of reinforced concrete slabs or beams supported
7.5.6 Embankments overmine workings and other
on piles. This is an expensive method ofdealing with the
undergroundvoids. Where mining operations are carried
problem but in some cases canbe economicallyviable
out adjacent to a geological fault, movement on the
when there are considerqble depthsof peat to be
ground surfacein the vicinity of the outcropping of the
crossed and the only acceptable alternative is to
fault plane is likely to occur. Drains in embankments
remove completelythe unsuitable material.
should not be carriedacross the likely zone of movement
7.5.3 Embankments onslopingground. The inherent but should be terminatedat each side and led to separate
stability of thenatural ground forming a slope should be outfalls.
investigated carefully, particularly in regions known tobe
Problems of stability canarise from thepresence of the
prone to landslips. In some cases evidenceof existing
following:
instability can be seen on the site in the form of
undulations, hummocks, lobes and waterseepages. (a) old mine shafts;
Investigations should be made of the geological stability (b) olddrift mines;
of theslope andthe likely re-activation of the existingslips (c) shallow mine galleries;
under the loading conditions arising from the
(d) areas'of potential subsidence due t o currently active
embankment construction.
and future coal or other mineral extraction by mining or
Where an embankmentis to be constructed on sloping pumping;
ground and there may abe dangerof a slip developingat
the interface, benches or steps should be cut into the (e) natural cavities arising from theaction of
existing ground surface to key-in the new construction. underground water on soluble strata suchas limestone,
Preferably the bottomof the bench should be graded chalk, and gypsum.
awayfrom the surface of theslope, with provision for Methods dealing with these conditionsare described
positive drainage measuresto deal with any subsoil water in [47].
which maycollect atlow points of the benching. 7.6 Suitability of materials for fill
In order to deal with instability problems connected with 7.6.1 Unsuitable materials. The following materials are
the existing groundit may be necessary to design the unsuitable under anycircumstances for forming
cross sections of the embankment to obtain a safe load-bearing fills:
distribution of loading on the ground. Themethod of (a) organic soils,e.g. peat andsome alluvial clays and
building up the embankment may also require to be silts;
specified to prevent unbalancedloading. Drainage of the
interface between the slope andthe embankment and of (b) toxicmaterials, e.g. industrial waste containing
any potential slipplanes is most importantand adequate soluble compounds harmful to watersupply or
cut-off and subsoil drains should beprovided. agriculture;
7.5.4Embankments overquarriedground. Where an (c) materials containingcompounds harmful to other
embankment ist o be constructedover quarried ground elements ofconstruction, e.g.rejects from gypsum

mining which can contain a high concentration of (b) transport by means of limited weight
lorries or
soluble sulphates harmful to concrete; conveyors L491-this limits the
stress on the placed
(d) materials listed under7.6.2and 7.6.3 when theyare layers;
in afrozen condition; (c) apply compactionto each placed layer sufficient
to
(e) materials containing substances which can be close the surface
but not sufficientto puttifythe
dissolved or leached which
or may undergoexpansive material andcause instability in the earthworks.
reactions in the presenceof moisture, e.g. pyritic shales. It is recommendedthat [50,51 and 521 be studied before
7.6.2 Suitable materials commencing earthworks in chalk.
7.6.2.1 Acceptable under any circumstances.Material of 7.6.3.3 Wet cohesive fill, including some weak rocks. The
high shear strength unaffected bychanges in moisture use of cohesivefill withundrained shear strength lower
content, e.g. strong durablerocks, gravel, medium and than that defined 7.6.2.2
in can involve considerable
coarse sands,is suitable as a fillunder anycircumstances. construction problems. Thetype of earth-moving plant
that can be used will be restricted. Careful compaction
7.6.2.2 Materials suitable within shear strengthlimits.
sufficient to reduce air voids to an acceptable minimumis
Recompacted silty fine sands, sandy silts, silts,clays and
necessary, but over-compaction, which produces high
some weak or disintegrated rocks all show a reduction in
pore water pressures arid instability, is to be avoided.It
shear strength as moisture contentincreases abovethe
may be necessaryto adopt specialmeasures such as the
optimum a t which aspecified amountof compaction
provision of layers of higher strength and/orfree-draining
produces the maximum dry density (see figure 20 and
fill and a controlled rate of construction.
BS 1377). Some grades of chalk suffer reduction shear in
strength when wateris releasedfrom the cellular 7.6.3.4 Hydraulicfïll~This termis used to describe all types
structure of the rock as the rockis broken down by the of fill material thatare carried to the embankment and
operations ofexcavation, placing and compaction. In the placed while theyare still suspended in water. Excavation
case of predominantly siltysoils an increasein moisture is normally carriedout by suction or bucket dredger and
content ofas little as 1 % or 2 % can resultin a very the filltransported by pipeline to the area of deposition.
significant reductionin shear strength. Whether the The discharge of the fill materials onto the area
fill hasto
minimum undrainedshear strength of the recompacted be controlledto avoid undesirablesegregation, because
material is acceptable is dictated either by the design larger particles settle out first and accumulation of the
requirements of the earthworks or by the to need
allow compressive andless permeablefine material settles out
passage of construction plant [48]. furtherfrom the point discharge.
of Granular hydraulicfill,
which can be dewatered by pumping or natural gravity
7.6.3 Materials suitable with the adoptionof special
drainage, consolidates rapidlyto a reasonablydense state
construction measures
such that pavements or buildings can be constructed on
7.6.3.1 General. The following materials may be made the fill within relatively
a shorttime ofcompleting the
acceptable by the adoption of the procedures set out deposition. Fill deposited throughwater settles into a
in 7.6.3.2 to 7.6.3.5: loose state and where the fill is predominantly granularits
(a) chalk; load-carrying characteristics can be improved when
(b) wet cohesive fill; necessary by such techniquesas vibratory compaction
[45]. A hydraulicfill thatis cohesive may continue to
(c) hydraulicfill;
settle by self-weight over a long period and where such
(dl combustiblematerials. . settlements cannot be tolerated in the completed works
7.6.3.2 Chalk. It is important that the excavation and pre-loading of the fill may be necessary.Consideration
subsequent handlingof chalk should be undertaken in should be given to discharging the dredged cohesive
such a manner as to preserve as much as possible of the material into lagoons with provision for removal of
natural structure of the rock. Chalkis one of the most supernatant water.The material in the lagoons is allowed
difficult materialsto handle in earthworksbecause any to dry and consolidate in stages followed by pumping in
crushing of the cellularstructure of the rockreleases the further layers of dredged soil. Drying is greatly accelerated
water contained in thecells, which in turn saturates the by the growth surface
of vegetation.
crushed fragmentsof the chalk. Thequality of the chalk 7.6.3.5 Combustiblematerials. Fills with a high organic
should be assessedbefore deciding on the type of plant content, such as carbonaceousshales, ash, some slags,
and methodsto be usedfor excavation, haulageand coal wastes, timber residue and other organic industrial
compaction. wastes, aresubject to continuous degradation in moist
It is possiblefor the excavation and handling operations to aerobic conditions. Where sufficient air is available the
cause degradation of the intact blocky chalkto a 'putty' degraded material can ignite. It is essentialthatthe
chalk which is unatile to support earth-moving equipment. system adoptedto place thefill be designed to prevent
If thisstage isreached, either sufficient time should be combustion, as described in 8.1 1.
allowed to elapse for the pore water pressure and the
moisture contentto reduce, or the degraded material 8. Excavation andfilling
should be stabilized by alternating it with layers of adry
8.1 Planning
granular material.
8.1.I General considerations
The problemincreases in severity with increase in the :
natural moisture content of the chalk and for the higher 8.1 . I
. I
Extraordinarytraffic.The Highways Act 1959
moisture contents, particularly in theweaker grades of the requires that highways be not subjected to extraordinary
upper and middle chalk, it may benecessary to: traffic within the
meaning of the Act. Routesand vehicles
should beselected, and loadsrestricted or distributed,
so
(a) excavate by means of face shovels-thesecause
that no unnecessary damageis caused to highways and
much less crushing per unit volume than other
bridges by the movement of plant and materials bv
excavation equipment; 7

Standards
BS 6031 : 1981
extraordinary trafficto and from the project. This may During the extraction period and before restoration,
require arrangementswith the HighwayAuthority to borrow areas have to be kept adequately fenced to
strengthen the carriageways of bridges of minorroads. prevent trespass and illegal tipping. Borrow pitsare often
8.1 .I.2Public utilities.All works should be carried outin dug below normal standing water level and therefore have
full consultation with the relevant authorities.
All services direct access to aquifers which may beusedfor domestic
affected by the work should be protected or diverted as water supply. In order to safeguard thissupply, it is
required by the appropriate statutory authorities. It may be essential to ensure that neither the utilization of plant nor
necessary to carry out investigatory works to locate its operatives increase the pollution hazard. [t may be
affected services. necessary to install temporarydrainage with satisfactory
outfalls. Rather thancause temporary disturbance by
Privately owned apparatus should be treated similarlyin excavating borrow pits in previously undisturbedland,
full consultation with the owners. industrial wastes can sometimes be incorporated into
8.1 .I.3Ancient monuments andarchaelogicalfinds.The embankments. When spoil tips are adjacent to the
existence or non-existence of ancient monuments or sites earthworks use can frequently be made of the material,
of archaeological interestwithin the earthworks and work on the tip may be extended to incorporate
boundaries should be established with theappropriate landscaping.When the tips are a t a distance from the site
authority during the planning stages. Unless permissionis it may be uneconomic tö use them unlessthe opportunity
given forremoval, it may benecessary to delay is taken to remove all or part of the in tipa single operation
commencement of the work toorhalt construction whilst for the overall benefit of the community.
the findis surveyed. It is importantto ensure in the siting of borrow pits that
8.1 .I.4 Highways. Where access isrequired to and from landslides or other movements are not initiated or
the public highway, even though only of a temporary reactivated. The working of borrow pitsis subject to the
nature, the position, form and size of theaccess hasto be same regulationsthat apply to construction and quarrying
agreed with the highway authority. works. Protectionis required in asimilar manner and the
Where the works affect traffic using a highway it is works themselves shouldbe undertaken in a safe manner.
essential that they be phased in a manner acceptableto It is essentialto avoid dangerto the publicfrom standing
the police and the highway authority and that an agreed water in borrow pits (Control of PollutionAct 1974).
programme be drawn up. All signs and traffic signals 8.1.2 Planning ofwork. In British climatic conditions the
should be in accordance with the regulationsof traffic dominant factor inpreparing a programme of earthworks
signs. construction is the needto avoid major earth-moving
All existing highways should be kept clean and clear of all during the winter months. In these months, normally from
dust, mud or other debris and the requirements of the October or November to the following March or April,
highway authority in this respect should be còmplied with. rainfall exceeds evaporation from theground surfaceso
8.1 .I.5 Noise abatement regulations.Attention is drawn to that it may be impracticable to achieve efficient operation
the Control of PollutionAct 1974. of excavating and compaction plant, particularly inheavy
clay soils[48]. Granular soils and rocks can be excavated
8.1 .I.6 Location ofborrowareas. As with thedisposal of in wet weather but it may not be possible to achieve the
spoil, borrow areas should be sited as near aspossible to specified standardof compaction when the excavated
the area to be filledso that direct access to the site can be material is placed in areas.
fill Earthworks commencedin
achieved as far as possible withoutuse of public roads the summer should not be continued into the winter
(see 5.2.1 and 8.1 1). months if the effect of earth-moving inwet weather is to
Proper site investigation should be carried out so that the damage the workalready done.
quality of the materialsis correctly ascertained and the Before commencing excavationall relevant data should
quantities available estimated to withinreasonable limits. be collected and drawings prepared showing the location
In coalmining areas the possibility of coal seams close
to of theexcavation, tipping andfilling. On these drawings
the surface shouldbe investigated. Problemsof stability both theexcavation and the filling should be divided into
can arise whereold mineworkings are present,and there sections, and the quantity of material to be excavated and
is also arisk of spontaneous combustion.
In these filled stated in these sections. This information
is required
conditions reference should be made
to the localArea in ordertoplan economic hauls throughout the work.
Office of the NationalCoal Board. Where the material to be excavated consists of different
Planning permission should be sought fordevelopinga types, and if thevarious types have to be used separately
borrow pitso that all interested partiesare consulted and in the fill run
or to a spoiltip, the quantities of each class of
suggestions made by them can be ìncorporatedhto the, material in each area should be shown on the drawings.
final scheme. In order to lessen the impact of a pit on the . From the nature of the material to be excavated and the
environment it is often desirable to incorporate into the method of its disposal, the type of excavation, the length
scheme at the design stage plans for refilling the pitwith of haul, and the amount of compaction necessary, it is
the surplus spoil arisingfrom the project and thus possible to select themost suitable typeof plant for
reducing thetotal area of land required. excavating, transporting, placing and compacting the
Land used for borrow should be reinstated, If the land can material.
be madeto increase in value by theend of theproject, this 8.2 Preparation of site
assists inits acquisition at the outset. Where existing 8.2.1 General. Before all or any part of the site is occupied
contours prevent agriculture or development taking place, adequate fences should be erected on the boundaries of
land canbe modified after the borrowhas ceased. Pits . the siteto define its limits, to restrict construction plant to
formed below normal watertable level may be usedfor .
the site of theworks, to protect the public and to prevent
recreational purposes.
36
BS 6031 : 1981
farm or other animals from straying onto the site or onto result of flow of undergroundwater insoluble rocks. They
adjoining roads. Following this and before any earthworks may be dry or they may form underground watercourses.
operations are commenced, pre-earthworks drainage, if In the lattercase they can present special problems since
required, should beput in hand (see 7.4.2). measures takent o fill them could interfere with the
8.2.2 Site clearance. All items within the site of the works ground water flow and cause serious trouble some
required for re-use should be carefully removed and taken distance from the site. An example is
when the
into store or re-erected immediately e.g. fences, gates, underground watercourse formsa supply to a community.
stone walls. Where articles are relatively small they 8.2.5.2 Man-made cavities. These cavities have been
should be clearly markedin order that theymay be easily formed in a varietyof ways and may be documented, as in
identified. Buildingsare not tobe left in adangerous partly the case of modern mining, or be unrecorded.
demolished state. Identification of their position and extent is usually done
Items notrequired for re-use should be removed and by a systematic grid of boreholes or trial pits or by
disposed of as soon as possible in order to ensure a clear geophysical methods. Enquiries amongst local inhabitants
site for the earth-moving equipment. Care should be taken can often be helpful and reference should also bemade to
to ensure that theroots of all trees, hedges and any old records suchas early ordnance sheets the
maps
brushwood are removed and disposed of as they canbe a and memoirs of the Institute of Geological Sciences
and,
source of danger. Buried pipelines, concrete foundations, in thecase of coal, records of the National Coal Board.
piles or slabs should be located as shown on site Aerial photographs should be carefully checked for signs
clearance drawingsso that they can be removed safely of underground workings.
before or during bulk excavation. 8.2.5.3 Treatment. The treatment of cavities depends
8.2.3 Stripping topsoil, Care is needed in the location of upon circumstances and it may be necessary to seek
topsoil dumpsto ensure that the soil accessibleis and expert opinion. Where the cavities are permanently dry
able to be easily transportedto the section of the works the treatment depends on the of the works
location
where it is tobe placed. Careshould alsobe taken when relative to the situation and size of the cavities. The
stacking largevolumes of topsoil that the heap is instable location, identification and treatment of underground
itself and that the underlying natural ground is strong cavities are detailed in [471.
enough to support the additional weight. It is also Foundations, walls ofcellars, cesspools,and similar
important that only good organic topsoil is set aside for underground structureswithin one metre of formation
use in restoring landfor agricultural use, and care should level are normally removed and those aat greater depth
be taken to prevent the development of anuisance from cleared of material and backfilled with suitable granularfill
noxious weeds. Thereis often alayer of sterile soil which material or by grouting methods.
is unsuitable for agriculture, and it if cannot be used for fill Where the backfilled areas are allocated for later building
in embankments it should be disposed of. If parts of the development, thefill should consistof granular material
works are to be turfed and it is plannedto obtain it from placed and compactedin layers. Demolition rubbFe
the site the turf should be cut and within re-laidone or two containing masses of brickwork, random lengths of timber
weeks of cutting, depending upon the time ofyear. A and plasterboardis unsuitable for fillingand, where used,
proper turf-cutting machine ortool should be used which is likely to be acause of continuing subsidence. A record
produces either regular rectangles of turf or rolls of should be kept the of location of cellars, pits etc. so that
constant width and uniform thickness. future buildings and services can be sited,whenever
In some cases embankments are constructed on the possible, clear of these undergroundhazards.
natural ground without first removing thetopsoil, for The treatment ofdeep mineshafts and wellsdepends on
example, where the topsoil and vegetation are required to the nature of the backfill, if any, and the depthto bedrock
form a mat to as acta strengthening layer oververy poor or firm strata surrounding the shaft. Regardless of
ground, or whereit is impracticable or unnecessaryto whether the shaftis backfilled, it is normal to cap or plug
.remove the topsoil. the shaftwith a well founded reinforced concrete slab, of
8.2.4 Treatment of ditches and watercourses. Where suitable proportionsto carry any load which is to be
watercourses are to be maintained through theworks it imposed uponit without relying on support from the
may be necessary to carry out a temporary diversion backfill. Liaison with theNational Coal Board is mandatory
whilst thepermanent structurewhich isto carry the in thecase of old coal mine shafts.
watercourse is constructed.Conversely, the watercourse Where the extent of cavities is not readily determined by
may be diverted into a new channel to carry it around or drilling or other means, pressure grouting or sand stowing
through the works at some other point. In either case the may beadopted. Injections should be made ainpattern of
invert and sides of the abandoned watercourse shouldgrout be holes covering the area suspected to contain the
cleared of all unsuitable deposits, piped with open-jointed cavities.
pipes, covered by filter material and carefully backfilled
8.2.6 Treatment of subsoils. After completionof the
with suitable material deposited and compacted in layers.
foregoing operations and the removal of any unsuitable
The object at all times is to minimize the possibility of
material it is advisable where practicable to compact the
differential settlements occurring between line the of the
ground with suitable plantin order to minimize the
abandoned watercourse and the surrounding ground.
amount of any subsequent settlement.
If, asa resultof theworks, disturbance and disruption
8.3 Excavation
occur to existing agriculturaldrainage, appropriate action
should be taken to restore or replace the affected drains. 8.3.1 General. Clause 1O of thiscode describes the many
See also7.4.2. types of plant which may be employed in excavation. Their
8.2.5 Underground cavities suitability for a particular site
depends on several factors
of which the most important are the nature of the
8.2.5.1Naturalcavities. These cavities are usually the

Licensed by Information Handling Services -
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B S I B S X b 0 3 1 B1 m Lb24667 OOLbLL7 B M
BS 6031 : 1981
materials to be excavated,the prevailing weather 8.4Earth-moving. Earth-moving is the removal of

conditions, and the type of transport
to beused. excavated materialfrom the point excavation
of to a
8.3.2In cuttings orborrowpit areas. Unsuitable material permanent or temporary point ofdeposition. Unnecessary
excavated in cuttingsis normally disposed of in off-site rehandling of material adds to thecost ofthis operation
tips orin landscape or longterm reclamation works. but it is not alwayspossible t o deal with excavated
Off-site tips should be located adjacent to the works in material in one operation.
order to minimize haul distances and taxation ofvehicles. The excavated material should be moved as quickly and
The provisionof landscape areaswithin the site of the economically as possible to its final destination, which
works in which any of theunsuitable material can be may be on or off theconstruction site.
placed is obviously both desirable and economical The method ofearth-moving should takeinto account:
(see 8.1.1). Care should be taken in the creation of all
off-site tips or landscape areasto ensure adequate (a) the alternative distances and routes
between the
points of excavationand deposition;
stability and draingage of the newly contoured areas in
relation to their surroundings. (b) the type and quantity of material
to be moved along
each of the requiredroutes;
Any unsuitable materialfrom borrowpit workings may be
stacked and later used in the reclamation area.of theHere (c) the economics of using existing
roads, constructing
again care should be takento ensure stability and specific haulroads, or merely using existing
surfaces;
adequate drainage. Raising the ground levelaround living (dl theavailability of themost appropriate earth-moving
trees shouldbe avoided. equipment;
8.3.3Below water, When excavation hasto be carriedout . (e) the weatherconditions which mayaffect the
below waterlevel draglines or grabs aregenerally used. condition of the haulage roads[48];
Deep or wideareas of water may necessitate the use of (f) any environmental considerations, such as noise,
floating dredgers or conventional excavating equipment which may limit the selection of plantor theroute it may
mounted ona pontoon. follow.
Sheet piling, ground water control, cofferdams, caissons The movement of earth-moving plant across the sitehas
with pumps and other special techniques arefrequently an influenceon thesequence and method of construction
employed to enable work which would normally be carried of other works on that site. It can affect thecondition and
out below water be toachieved in dry conditions, when stability of the ground over which theplant travels, and
the ease of excavation may achieve savingsin cost which the routes should be designed to take account ofthis.
outweigh thecost of these methods of excluding the Some ofthe plant commonly used on construction sitesis
water. forbidden t o travel along public highways.
Working over or adjacent to waterinvolves particular The excavation of an area of cutshourd be so timed that
hazards for operatives. the formationlevel is not exposed to the deteriorating
8.3.4In rock. Methods ofbreaking, loosening and influence of the weather for longer than can be avoided.
excavating rockand other hardmaterials vary according Exposed soils in the formation can be adversely affected
tòthe conditions prevailing, the quantity andhardness, by swelling due to rain or frost action, or by cracking due
and the equipment available. The rockhas t o be broken to heat or drying winds.Relief of overburdenpressure
down to a size suitable for excavation, transportation, caused by excavation may result in ground heave. With
deposition andpossible compaction. It may benecessary certain soilsthis maylead to fissuring, thus permitting
t o carry out fullscale excavation trials if theexcavated easy accessof waterand consequent softening of the soil.
material is to be produced to a suitable grading, e.g. a free Formations should, therefore, be protectedas soon as
draining materialor one which is well graded [44]. possible after theyare exposed. This protection may take
Clause 1O details types of plant suitable for excavating in the form of concrete blinding where the following work
rock afterit has been treated by either blasting or will be of reinforced concrete construction, a surface
mechanical techniques. Blasting methodsare described in dressing with a sealer such as bitumen or tar, or covering
clause 16 of thiscode. with a sub-base material in thecase of road works.It is
A ripper/rooter may be usedto break up heavily jointed or desirable, with both cuttings and embankments, that bulk
weak rocks andlarge pieces may be broken down witha earth-moving be carried out toa level slightly higher than
heavy weight.Where ripping techniques are employed a the finished formationlevel and that theremaining
limiting factor may be the ability of the machine tracks to material be removedat the last possible moment.
grip therock surface. 8.5 Deposition and spreading. The method ofdeposition
Where ripping is impracticable, and particularly in and spreading depends upon theavailable plant and the
trenches and other restricted areas, the rockcan be means used to transport the fill material.
broken andloosened in one of the following ways: The most satisfactory way in which to form embankments
(a) bythe use of pneumatic, hydraulic or mechanical or other deep areas of fill is by depositing the material in
paving breakers; layers, spreading it as evenly aspracticable and
compacting it. The thickness ofthese horizontal layers
(b) quarrying it out byhand using rock wedges and
depends on the typeof material and its behaviour under
hammers, steel bars, picks etc., and breaking with rock
compaction and on the compacting equipment available
hammers;
(see clause 9 and 10.6).
(c) drilling suitableholes with pneumatic drills and then
Suitable material shouldbe used as soon after excavation
breaking up therocks with plugs andfeathers with
as possible so as to avoid moisturechanges dueto the
limited blasting andsplitting devices, or hydraulic
weather. It is generally impracticable and uneconomical to
bursters.
adiust the moisture content of soils during earth-moving

BS 6031 : 1981
operations other than on a relatively small

scale and in predictions (basedon conventional laboratory tests)
favourable conditions. which have been used in thedesign. Stability chartson
The amount of tolerable settlement of a compacted fillwhich themeasured deformations and pressures are
depends upon the intended utilization of the fillarea. For marked can be prepared for use in site control.
example,on landscape areas a large degreeof settlement The following instruments are commonly used:
could be accepted providingit does not adversely affect piezometers to measure pore water pressures;
drainage or the stability of fill.
theMaterials should be
selected so as to ensure that fillingis used most settlement gauges to measure the settlement;
effectively to take account of its varying strength and inclinometers to measure lateral movement (5-1.3.5);
deformation characteristics,e.g. high strength materials earth-pressure cellsto measure total pressure.
should be placed where the stresses are highest. In some Computer programsare available to analyse stability and
instances it may be possible to improve the mechanical settlement atall stages of filling and to produce rapid
properties of soilsbythe admixture of more stable translation of instrument readings into safety factors for
granular material or the mixing into thesoil of stabilizing use in the control charts.
cement, lime or similar materials. Such procedures should
be evaluated by laboratory testing and field trials. 8.6.3 Earthworks adjacent to structures. Earthworks
operations adjacentt o structures are frequently carried
Site conditions may necessitate stockpiling material for out separately from themain earthworks operations and
subsequent use. This requires the introduction of can be considered in the followingcategories:
additional handling operations excavation,
of
transportation, depositionand compaction. There area (a) filling over large pipes and culverts of either concrete
number of cases where thisdmble handling maybe or metal construction.In these cases it is important that
cheaper than the disposal of excavated material and its fill is brought up equally each on sideof the structure to
subsequent replacementwith imported fill, for example, prevent unbalanced loading and
that great care is taken
where thefill area is inaccessible dueto the construction with the firstlayers of fillover thetop of the structure;
of a bridge or where selection of excavated material
is (b) against abutment and wing walls
bridges
of and
required in particular
areas. Allowance shouldbe made for retaining wallsof all kinds;
the possible deterioration of the stockpiled material
dueto (c) around and between skeleton abutments, buried
weathering. piers and bank seats.
Care is necessary in siting stockpilesin accessible areas Because satisfactory compactionoffill adjacent to
on or off site so as to reduce the amount of further work to 'structures is often more difficult to achieve owing to the
a minimum. Precautions should be taken to ensure restricted natureof the operation, it is usual practiceto
stability, taking into account the strength of the underlying $pecify special types fill, of such as selected granular
ground andthe effectondrainage. It may be necessary to . . materials or pulverized fuelash, in theimmediate area of
carry out partial compaction of the stockpileand provide ' thestructure. Satisfactory compaction to reduce to a
protection to maintainthequality of the material. minimum differential settlement between backfill and
8.6 Control structure is important enoughto warrant the additional
8.6.1 Preliminary trials.Where thereis no previous expense. Both the type of compaction plant and the
experienceto guide the selection of equipment and method of compaction may have to be modified from
construction methods for particular soils, it is desirable to those used in general embankment construction.
The
carry out compaction trials on the different typessoil of possible developmentof horizontal forces on foundations
which may be incorporated in the fill usingvaryinglayer or on piles should considered.
be
depths and compaction plant to confirm or establish an 8.6.4 Shallowcutandfill. In general most types of soil,
-economical methodof work. These trials should also when insuitable condition, can be used for fillup to about
determine the suitabilityof the proposed filling materials 5'm in height carry
to superimposedloads, provided due
for use in different weather conditionsand take into care is takenwith the foundations, compaction and side
account thelikely variability of these filling materials
as slopes. In the cases of fills of the order 2of
m inheight
they mayarise in practice(see 7.2.1 1. special precautionsmay be necessary for the following
8.6.2 Methods of monitoring deformationsandstresses. It reasons.
may be necessary to monitor the settlementand stability (a) It is veryoften thecase that thezone of soil
of boththe fill and the foundation during and after immediately below the topsoil is at a lower shear
construction. strength than the underlying subsoil. It is also likely to
The extent and the method of monitoring depend on the have a varying moisture content which willinfluence its
nature of the ground, the significanceof theoperations, behaviour under operational conditions.
and the accuracy required. This mayrange from simply (b) In the larger embankments a weaker material can
levelling at regular intervals of timea series of pointson either be placed at locations where it is not detrimental
the fill and therebyassessing when settlementhas to stability orbe mixed with better material.In the case
effectively ceased or becomeacceptable, to a fullrange of of shallowcut and fill thismay not be possible and
instruments installedto measure accurately thepressures problems canarise with the use of such material.
and deformations occurring in the sub-soil and (c) Specialcare hasto be taken in theselection of
embankment. Steel pins set in concrete blocks make earth-moving and compaction plant and in the
suitable reference points for simple levelling(see 6.6). organization of the deposition and compaction offillthe
Observations of settlement, lateral displacement and in order not tooverstress weaker subsoil.
dissipation ofpore water pressure during construction It is essential not todisturb ordamage anyexisting field
may be used t o govern the rate filling,
of t o ensure drains or drains incorporated in the fill. These may require
continued stability and also to assess the accuracyof the F
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BS 6031 : 1981
protection, or interceptionby a collector drain(see 6.5.4.1 Rainfall mayso affect theexposed surface ofcohesive
and 7.4.21, particularly if the fill is to be used as a soils as to result in interruptions both in the use of
construction road before completing the construction ofexcavating plant and in the transport ofmaterials. Road
the permanent pavement or otherworks. and airfieldworks, with their extensive useof
Consideration should be given to adopting a minimum pneumatic-tyred plant over shallow cuts and fills, are
height of fill avoid
to differentialmovements due to the particularly affected by intermittentwet periods.
causes described in 8.6.4. 8.7.2 Freezing conditions.It may be difficult or
8.6.5 Earthworks adjacent to properties. Care hast o be uneconomical to excavate soil in periods of severe frost or
exercised when carrying out any works adjacentto to achieve satisfactory compaction of filled earth.
existing propertiesto minimize damage and nuisance. However, earthworks can be carried in out
frosty weather
Particular problems associated with earthworksare dust, provided that material whicfi is frozen is set aside in both
vibration andnoisa. the cutand fill areas. In thecase of rockfill and coarse
grained granularmaterials, frost has little effectand
(a) Dust. In dry periods water spraying should be should not unduly interferewith theprogress of work.
employed to keep down dust. Excessive watering,
Those areasof fill which have been subjectedto frost
causing slippery conditions on haul roads, should be
action should be recompacted before further materials are
avoided. placed. Increase in volume and consequent loss of
(b) Vibration.Vibration due to compaction or heavy strength caused by freezing porewater evidenced asfrost
plant maycause damage to adjacent property and heave are most troüblesome inchalk,silt, silty clay and
should, therefore, be avoided byusing static finesan!s.
compaction and suitable earth-moving plant. 8.8 Haulroads. Haul roads should be constructedt o
(c) Noise. Appropriate measures should be taken to provide all weather access to.the works for construction
comply with any statutory orlocal requirements plant. They should be so constru'cted-as to balance the
concerning noise emission. initial construction cost against cosfof the maintaining a
To avoid litigationwith theowners and tenants of standard of riding quality suitable for the plantusing them.
properties adjacent to earthworks it is recommended that They may thusvary from thegraded earthtoad.to a
they are informed andevery effort is made to minimize metalled surface.
damage and nuisance. Whenever possible work should be The maintenance of a uniform running surfaceon a haul
confined t o normal workinghours andnight-time and road is essential to cut down mechanical wear and tear
weekend workingavoided. and enable full advantage to be taken'of the maximum
Surveys of all properties likely to be affected should be travel speed of theearth-mooing equipment.In thecase of
carried out before workstarts and records agreed an earthroad, regular trimming bymeans of a grader is
between theproperty owners, the contractors and the necessary to prevent deterioration under adverse
employers. In particular, any existing cracks or conditions.
deformations shouldbe recorded. Dust cloudsmay be a hazard where haulroads areused
8.7 Inclement weather during construction by general site traffic. Dusting and deterioration of
8.7.1 Wet weather. Areas of cut and fill should always be surfaces can be minimized by frequent sprayingwith
formed witha sufficient crossfalland surface smoothness water or by
surfacing with a bitumen spray coat ora
t o shed surfacewater whichcould otherwise accumulate fabric.
from rainfall or fromsurrounding areas. Where necessary, Where an existing highwayis crossed by thehaul roadit
trenches, either temporary or permanent, should be may be necessary to strengthen the highwayt o carry the
formed todrain thewater from the earthworks. Thisis construction traffic.
especially important in road and airfield construction for8.9 Advancedearthworks. Where an embankment is t o be
which drains should be formed at the earliest possible constructed over soft or otherwise unsuitable foundation
time and so arranged to maintain thë formationor soils it may be possible to avoid removal of these
subgrade freefrom water. Continuous compaction during materials if the embankment can be constructed well in
filling operations produces a surfacewhich discharges the advance of otherearthworks, providing that access onto
bulk of this water. the landcan be arranged. This either causes displacement
In excavating for cuttings, it is advisable to maintain a of underlying soft soil or induces consolidation, each of
longitudinal fall and provide an outlet for surface water. which reduces the settlement taking place after
The construction ofa drainage channelto take surface construction (see 7.3.3).
water clear of theexcavation during the progress of the 8.1O Stage construction.A n embankment constructed on
work may beadvantageous. Gripsor ditches should be a moderately weakfoundation soil may, if stability is
cut in the bottom of the excavation to drain into the questionable, be built in stages. .
drainage channel or the sump and theseshould be kept Piezometers may be installedin an embankment to
clear at all stages of thework. Where during the monitor thedissipation of excess pore pressures, thereby
construction ofa cutting existingdrains or watercourses providing a means of controlling the rate fill of placement.
are interfered with, means should be adopted for Alternatively, if no monitored control over the rate fill of
conveying the water to the permanent drains in the placement is to be exercised, a calculated waiting period
cutting. Alternatively, longitudinaldrains may be between successive layers of fill should be incorporated in
constructed at the top of the cutting whereare they
not the earthworks programme to allow dissipation
for ofpore
detrimental to thelong term stability of the slope. The water pressure.
excavation should be carried out so that waterwill not be 8.1 1The disposalofspoil. On any large project the
trapped but will easily get to the drainage channels disposal of spoil formsan important part of the
provided. r -,
40
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BS 6031 : 1981
earthworks programme. Normally the spoil consists of not toosevere. Restrictions placed upon the work by the
materials which,owing to their physical characteristics, planning authorities should be strictly observed.
cannot be incorporated into the embankments,although Disposal of spoil off thesite should be considered as part
occasionaliy it may derivefrom an excessof cut over fill of the design and arrangements should be made before
requirement. For economic reasons, tips shouldbe located construction commences.It is particularly importantto
close t o the areas of cuttingso as to minimize haul ensure in the siting of spoil tips that landslides orother
distance. Discussions should be held with the occupiersof movements are not initiated or reactivated by the placing
nearby land, as it may be possible to use surplus spoilto of thespoil, and that existing surface and subsoil drainage
improve their fields by levelling hollows. In the case of systems are not adversely affected.
topsoil, which is usually needed for cuttingand
embankment side slopesor reinstatementof farmland, 9. Compaction
the contractor mayhave to arrange for areas of land
outside thearea ofthe worksto be made available for 9.1 General. Soil compactionis the process wherebysoil
topsoil tips. When thesoil tip has been removedit may be particles are constrained to pack more closely together
necessary to aerate the existing topsoil and if demanded through a reduction in the air voids by rolling or other
add to it topsoil from the siteof the works.The mechanical methods.The engineering propertiesof soils
opportunity shouldalso betaken to utilize spoil for and rocks used filling,
in e.g. their shear strength,
landscaping purposes or reducing embankment slopes. consolidation characteristics, permeability, etc., are
related to the amountof compaction theyhave received.
If a spoil tipis to be permanent,licensing and planning
permission is normally required.All interested parties A highdegree of compaction assistsin:
should thereforebe consulted. If delays or extensive (a) reducing the cost subsequent
of maintenance;
modifications to the original planare to be avoided, (b) reducing the risk of slips;
schemes for tips should be presented carefullyand in
[c) permitting permanentstructures such as roads or
detail.
buildings to be constructed without delay;
In rural areas land for tips should
be sought inlocations
(dl permitting theuse of higher bearingpressures in the
which are currently underproductiveso that agricultural
design of foundations for permanent structures.
benefit is eventually derived by the deposifionof thespoil.
Tipping canbe used to restore previously derelict land, for The increase in the dry density of soil produced by
example oldquarries. It can also be used to fill up old compaction depends mainly on the moisture content of
excavations orto raise the level low
of lying areas with a thesoil and on the amQunt of compaction applied. With a
view to future development. Whereno such easy solution given amount of compaction, there exists for most a soils
exists, ground contours should be so planned that moisture contenttermed'the optimummoisture content'
agricultural development can confinue after tipping at which a maximum dry densityis obtained.
ceases and the land has been resoiledto the appropriate The degree of compaction necessaryis determined by the
depth. engineering properties requiredfor the fill tocarry out its
Where spoÏl is deposited on tipswhich willbe usedfor designfunction. It can be specified in terms of any ofthe
building development the material should, where following properties of the compacted material:
practicable, be compacted in layers as described in (e) minimum drydensity;
clause 9. (f) maximum air voids associatedwith a maximum
Spoil containinga substantial proportionof combustible moisture content;
material should be so placed as to avoid future (9) minimum percentageof themaximum dry density
undergroundfires.The infillingbelow water level of obtained from a standard laboratorytest;
quarries, rivers, and canal basins any
or other available
locations with a permanently highwater tableis possible, (h) minimum shearstrength.
subject to soluble productsnot polluting the surrounding Alternatively, if the properties of the materials to be used
water. For the majority of cases however,spoil is in the fill
have previously been related to the compactive
deposited above the water table and in order to reduce the effect of the various types of available plant, the degree of
risk of combustion minimumair voids should be achieved. compaction maybe controlled by specifying the thickness
Any potentially combustible materials should
be placed of layers and the numberpasses of of specific categories
and compacted in layers between impervious of plant.
incombustible materials.The combustible layer should not 9.2 Test for compaction of earthworks. The tests which
exceed 1 m inthickness-The top shouldbe coveredatthe are normally carried out in connection with earthworks
end of each day'swork with500 mm minimum of compaction are detailed in BS1377. They enable shear
non-combustible material (cohesive or fine granular)
to strength and densityhnoisture content relationship both
prevent fires on the surface igniting the mass below. in the fieldand in thelaboratory to be established.
Slopes shouldbe similarly coveredwith 300 mm 9.3 Methods of compaction. The objective of the
minimum of fine sand or crushed stone sand
to control operation isto achieve the required degree of compaction
fires and air access. by the most economical means.
tips should be
Before final restoration takes place The method of compaction employed depends upon:
provided with adequate temporarfdrainage,so that (al soil type, including its grading and moisture content
surface waterdoes not affectadjacent land or pollute at the time of compaction;
water courses, either chemically orby the actionof
suspendedsolids. Dust and noise from earth-moving plant (b) specified Compaction requirements;
should be kept to a minimum consistentwith the works (c) total quantity of material and arate t which it is to be
taking place, so that their impact
on the environment is compacted;
-I
BSI BS*b033 B3 4
BS 6031 : 1981
(d)geometry of proposed earthworks; can beachieved evenif the materialhas initially a high
(e) environmental restrictions(e.g. noise). moisture content.
Earth-moving plantis continuously being developed and In the compactedstate, granular soilspossess high
improved. The various types of compaction plant which load-bearing capacityand arenot usually susceptibleto
are commonly available are described in clause 1 O of this frost action unless they contain a high proportion of fines.
code anda guide to their suitability for different soil types They are, therefore, to be preferred forfill purposes and
is given in table4. are generally easy to compact. However, where the
material containsan appreciable quantityof fines, high
To establish the method of compaction to be adopted for pore water pressures can develop during compaction if
a site, field compactiontrials, should, where appropriate, the moisture content of the material is high, resulting in
be conductedto determine the most suitable compaction lack of stability,With uniformly graded granular material it
equipment for the conditions which are likely to pertain is difficultto achieve a high degree of compactionnear to
during the construction period, taking into account: the surface of the fill, particularly when vibratingrollers
(f) soil moisture content; are used.This problemis normally resolvedin that when
(9) thickness oflayer; the next superimposed layer is compacted the loose
surface of the lower layer is also compacted satisfactorily.
(h) number of passes;
Improved compaction of uniformly graded granular
(i)variability in thegrading of the material.
material can be achieved by maintaining as high a
Economic considerations should be taken into account. moisture contentas possible by intensive watering and by
For example,it may haveto be decidedwhether it is more making the finalpasses a t a higherspeed using a
economical to compact in1O 0 mm layers with a light non-vibratory smooth wheelroller or gridroller.
roller or in300 mm layers with a heavy roller. Again,
9.4.4 Cohesive finesoils
consideration mayhave to be given to thenumber of
passes requiredwith smoothor tampingrollers to 9.4.4.1Silts. The moisture contenthas a great influence
produce the specified end product. on bath the strength and compaction characteristics of
A combination of two or more types of equipment may silty soils. In particular, an increase in moisture contentof
give the best results. as little as 1 %or 2 %,combined with disturbance created
by spreading and compaction, can result in a very
9.4Soil compaction characteristics significant reduction inshear strength, making the
9.4.1General. For compaction purposes, soils canbe material intractable and impossible to compact,
classified into thegroups describedin 9.4.2to 9.4.5. 9.4.4.2 Clays. The compaction characteristicsof clay are
9.4.2Rockfill. Rockfill shouldbe compacted in thick layers highly dependent on moisture content in that greater
a
with the maximum diameter of the rock fragments not compactive effort is required as the moisture content
exceeding two thirds of the layer thickness. The material reduces. It may be necessary to adopt thinner layers and
obtained from excavations in sound rock is normally more passes by heavier compaction plant than required
spread byheavy crawler tractors inlayers up to 1.5 m for granular materials. Where clays are compacted at the
deep. This processis beneficial in thatit re-mixes the upper limit of moisture content feasible for compaction,
material should segregation have taken place during there is a dangerof instabilityas a resultof excess pore
haulage, and provides a relatively flat and even surfacefor water pressures caused by such compaction.
the compaction plant to work on. Vibration techniques Where cohesive soilsare excavated in large lumps the
give the best results in the compaction of rockfill and amaterial shouldbe broken down by tamping or grid rollers
heavy vibratingroller with 1 O tonnes to 15 tonnes static after spreading, to bring it to a size suitable for obtaining
weight normally compacts rockfill efficiently in layers up the required compacted density.
to 1.5 m thick.
9.4.5Specialfills-wastematerials. Such materialsare by
It is desirable to place rockfill obtained from excavations their in nature extremely variable and should always be
strong or moderately strong rock with as high a moisture subject to site trialsto determine the compaction
content as possible in order to prevent collapse specification.
settlement dueto subsequent saturation of the material.
To thisend the material may be sluiced with water after 9.5 Control of compaction in the field. The following
placing and before compaction. operations, which influence the degree of compaction,
should be monitored:
Fill material obtainedfrom aweak parent rock can
degrade rapidly by compaction and problems arise can if (a) forming the correct depth of layer for each material
the materialhas a moisture content sufficiently high to type;
produce excess pore pressure causing local instability to (b) segregation of materials where different compaction
develop during the compaction operation. It is therefore required;
important that the standard of compaction to be adopted (c) routeing of earth-moving plantto avoid uneven
avoids the creation of these conditions. Generally, layer compaction ofany areaof thefill;
thickness shouldnot exceed 500 mm.
(d) correct number ofpasses being givento each layer
9.4.3Granularsoils. Granular soilsare generally defined of fill by compactionplant;
as non-cohesive orcoarse soils with high permeability
(e) fillingbeing placed correctly to enable full
containing a small percentage of fines less (saythan 1O %
compaction of the edge of the embankmentto be
smaller than0.06 mm). The percentage of fines which can
achieved;
be accepteddepends on whether they are cohesive or
non-cohesive. Under pressure from compacting plant, (f) correct operationof compaction plant, particularly
water can be forced out and a high degree of compaction vibratory plant;

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B S I BSmb03L 81
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BS 6031 : 1981
(9) maintenance ofa free-draining surface during fill (e) compaction ofmaterials;
placement. (f) maintenance of haul
roads;
In addition, the moisture content and the density and/or (9) groundwater control.
shear strength of the resulting earthworks should be
Earth-moving comprisesany processof excavation and
periodically checked.
disposal of excavated materials.In many situations the
9.6 Compaction adjacent to structures excavated materialis divided into materials suitable for
9.6.1 Culverts. Filling should be brought up and use asbackfill or for compactionin fillareas, and
compacted uniformly onboth sides of culvertsto avoid unsuitable materialswhich have to be disposed of i n some
unequal loadingof the structure.Filling over thetop way or other. Material to be disposed of is, in mostcases,
should be carried out under close supervision to avoid transported directlyto its finalposition, whether thisis on
unacceptable point loadings due to construction plant or or off site.
fill containing materialwhich may damage the structure. Construction plantis an expensive investment requiring a
The method and meansof compaction should be high rate of utilization. Most smaller plant items for
approved in relation to the design and construction excavation comprise a basic excavating machine which
sequence of the culvert. Certain types of culverts, e.g. can be equipped with a variety of attachments enabling
those formed of corrugated metal plates, require the use the prime mover to be employedas near continuously as
of selected fill materials immediately adjacent to the possible. Such equipment is likely to be employed all the
structure. year round.
9.6.2Abutments andretaining walls.One of the most By contrast, the larger pieces of excavation plant can only
frequent maintenance problems which occurs in be used economically on large projects. It is essential that
connection with embankments is due to the differential plant operators and drivers are fully trained and
settlement of fill at the rear of abutment and wing walls. It
competent to carry out their duties in accordance with the
is therefore essentialthat the material placed behind Construction Regulations. Thevarious typesof plant are
structures is of a type that can be compacted to such a described in appendix A in relation to the conditions and
degree that only insignificant differential settlement soils most appropriate to their use.
occurs subsequently. This frequently necessitates the 10.2 Particular factors affecting earth-moving plant. In
exclusion of naturally arising cohesive materials and order to make the appropriate decision regarding the
certain weak rocks such as chalk. In these circumstances, excavation plant and the associated equipment for
it is necessaryto import selected granular material or transportation andcompaction, the total quantity of
pulverized fuelash. Where the embankment adjacent to material requiringto be excavated should be considered in
the structure has already been constructedit is essential terms of the following:
that when filling the space in between, stepsare cut into
the faceof the existingfill toenable full compaction in (a) quantities arisingfrom individual excavations and
horizontal layersto be achievedoverthe infillarea. the times at which these excavationsbecan carried out;
Because this area is usually restricted in space and (b)the individual destinations for the material from each
irregular inshape, small hand-operated compaction plant excavation;
has to be used and it is important to ensure that the (c) the haulage routes and the likely variation in
thickness of layers offill is-not too greatforthe condition of each haul road from theofpoint excavation
compactive ability of the plant being employed (see to the pointof deposition;
also 8.6.3). (dl the natureof the material, whether it is in loosea or
9.6.3 Obstructions. These can take the form of manhole dense state,whether it is weather-susceptible and
shafts, piers forbridges, columns etc., or temporary whetherit will be necessaryto lower the water table in
obstructions suchas polesor towers supporting overhead order to excavate it;
cables or settlement monitoring equipment. (e) the feasibility of excavating material by equipment
In order to obtain the required compaction around the standing or running across area, the or onlyby
obstruction, it is usually necessaryto employ suitable equipment on prepared foundations or on stable soil at
supplementary compaction plant which is able to operate ground level;
efficiently in these conditions without damage to the (f) the suitability of the material for rubber-tyred plant
obstruction. (the ground may be abrasive to tyres orso soft thatonly’
tracked plant can operate);
1O. The operation of construction plant for
(9) the depth of excavation,
the accessinto the
earthworks
excavation and mefhods support,
of if any, around the
10.1 Classification of plant.The construction plant perimeter of theexcavation.
employed for earthworks is designed to perform oneor
more of the following operations: 10.3 Preparation for excavation. The extent of the work
should be assessed,the perimeter details decided and
(a) breaking up the soil or rockinto suitable’condition for then the excavation area and perimeter set out. Reference
it to be excavated; pegs and profiles should be established clear of the
(b) removing the soil from theexcavation and depositing excavations and associated works so that the position of
it directly into spoil heaps or ontotransporting the operationis never in doubt, and in such a way thatthe
equipment; operators of the plant and those in attendance on them
(c) handling and transporting the excavated material to can readily assess the formation level and other details of
the point of disposal orarea thefor filling; the shape to be achieved.Account should be takenany of
particular requirements regarding the formation, whether
(d) levelling of deposited materialsfillinareas;
it should be initiallyexcavated to a higher levelto offer

43
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BS 6031 : 1981
protection as long as possible, or whethercare is jets. The presence of steel reinforcement in these
necessary intrimming toavoid excessive overbreak.It foundations may require the use of a burning torch. Where
may be necessary to carry down the setting out profiles the foundation consists of a prestressed concrete
from ground levelsto near formation levelso that the member, the advice should be sought ofa specialist with a
necessary accuracycan be readilyachieved. knowledge of the design of the member before it is
The term 'excavating plant'does not include attacked, in view of the possible release of the large
rock-breaking plant.Rock excavation requires preparation amount ofenergy stored within the member.
by drilling and blasting or, if the rockis weak, by the use of 10.4 Excavation and earth-moving plant. Construction
rooters, rippers, or scarifiers which break the material plant suitablefor excavation is described in appendix A.
down toa size that can be handled by the excavating The selection of the earth-moving plant should not be a
plant. separate choicefrom the selectionof the excavation plant.
Bearing in mind the factors listed 10.2,
in the excavation In some instances the same plant is for usedboth
plant is selected, with the advice of the plant purposes. The most commonly employed method of
manufacturer whereappropriate, from the equipment earth-moving is by the
use of lorries, dumpers and thelike.
available so as to provide the most economical solution The choice is influenced in part by any needto travel along
for digging, hauling and placing. Any particular of type public highways and/or the need to dispose of material
plant mayappear more attractive it if reduces the number away from the site from which
it arises. Forhauls over
of individual operations. The output of the excavation 1 O00 m, large dump truck or
lorry transport are usually
plant should be matched to the ability of the transporting employed. Theestablishment and maintenance of good
machines or other equipment to remove the excavated haul routesare a prime featurein theeconomics of the
material to the point of deposition. An economical balance operation, affecting the round trip timeand wear and tear
should be found between the numbers of excavating units, on equipment and operatives. The economics of haul
the numbers of transporting and compaction units and the route preparation have to be considered in conjunction
overheads associatedwith the total time for the with the operational costs for the plant involved.
excavation and filling operation. Conveyors and pipelinescan beused economicallyin
In order that such plant, which is selected in the hope of certain situations[49]. The installation cost and
continuous operation, may proceed with a minimumof maintenance and replacement costs ofboth conveyor
interruption, it is necessary to take stepsto avoid belts and conveyor pipes are comparatively high,
stoppages. These stoppages may occur because of the particularly when abrasive or clogging materials are being
presence of obstructions in theground, usually a t higher moved. With granular materials and the availability of
level, or the accumulation of water. Possible obstructions plentiful supplies of water, the use of placing methods
include tree stumpsand heavy roots,foundations of employing pipelines can often come into consideration.
buildings or other structures which have beendemolished, Conveyor beltsare particularly attractive where large
large boulders, and waste deposits. It is usually preferable quantities of materialhave to be shifted betweentwo
t o take steps before commencing the main excavation to areas when haul routeaccess between themis difficult to
remove these obstructions so that the plant may proceed obtain and maintain. Where the gradient may be too
without hindrance. severe for aconveyor, the introduction of elevator
equipment should be considered.
Trees canbe removed by mechanical equipment
specifically designedfor the purpose or by bulldozers Graders arefrequently employed for the maintenance of
fitted with.special attachments for dragging out roots. haul routes and large areas of formation.The graderblade
Alternatively, they maybe felled with power-operated trims a t a preset heightabove tyre surface level and so
saws and the stumps tackled separately. It is most removes loose material which accumulates on haul
common to cut trees to a height not more than 1 m above routes, andby employing variable blade levels trim can the
the ground andto remove the stumps by grubbing out haul route or the surface'of a formation to a required level
with winchgear, by theuse of bulldozers, or by theuse of or crossfall. Also associated with earth-moving operations
high velocity explosives (see clause 16). are powered brushes or
sweepers, either purpose-made
or with the brushesfitted totractors. Water bowserswith
Small boulders maywell be disposedof by the excavating
spray bar attachments may be required to control dust on
plant it is intendedto use. Largerboulders may need to be
exposed surfaces or haul routes in dry weather. In
broken down tosize a which enables them to be handled
exceptional circumstancesit may be necessaryto
by the excavating plant and then directly incorporated in
increase the moisture content of thesoil to improve
the area within which they are to be deposited.
compaction.
Occasionally, large boulders may be removed to one side
of the works and usedas part of alandscape feature. Earth-moving can alsq,utilize transport by rail, barge or
When boulders haveto be brokendown, oneof the ship. When barges or shipsare used the material is
following methods may beused: normally unloaded by grabs. Bottom-dumping bargesare
economical for placing fill in sfanding water.
(al drillingrequired: cartridge explosives, plugs and Purpose-made rail equipment running on standard or
feathers, hydraulic and gas, burster cartridges;
narrow gauge track is available. Narrow gauge track and
(b) drillingnotrequired: blaster charges, boom-mounted electric-battery-operated locomotivesare used in tunnel
hydraulic hammer, drop balls, pneumatic or hydraulic excavation. Diesel-operated locomotives and side-tipping
picks. trucks canbe used overground on monorail systems.
It is sometimes most convenient to break old foundations Standard gauge bottom-dumping rail trucks are used to
into sections which can be removed. Thebreaking up may bring fine materials such as pulverized fuelash to a site.
be achieved by theuse of pneumatic breakers, plugs and 10.5 Compaction equipment.Compaction is the
feathers, hydraulic cartridges, thermic lances or water application of load cycles to soil and rock bya process of

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BS 6031 : 1981
rolling tamping, and/or vibration. The extent to which close to an existing cutting large timber baulks should be
compaction can be achieved is a function of the soil securely fixed along the crest of the slope to act as a
properties and the energy applied. Unless theseare safety barrier.
harmonized it could be difficult to achieve the compacted The existence of public utility apparatus, ¡.e. gas, water,
density with any speed and economy under practical electricity, sewers or overhead cables, and thepresence of
conditions. pipelines should be thoroughly checked and the protection
The earth-moving plant employed to take the excavated of such apparatus and the safety of plant operatives
soil to the depositionarea is capable of applying a discussed with the owners and proper preventative
compactive effortto thefill, provided that the plant can measures initiatedt o avoid accidents.
easily traverseit and is systematically routed. This is Proper stop logs shouldbe provided to prevent lorries and
normally considered additional to thatprovided by the dumpers from reversing into a dangerous position when
compaction plant. tipping their loads over edge the of a tip or excavation.
To minimize turn round times on the area being filled the No plant should be overloaded and no load disposed such
deposition of fresh material should be adequately that materialis dropped andcauses a hazard. All haul
controlled to avoid the creation of temporary soft areas, roads should be kept clean and where appropriate the
steep gradients and obstructions to maintain reasonable wheels of plant should be washed or otherwise cleaned
access. When wet weather or the use of wet fill is before travelling on a highway, in compliancewith
anticipated, appropriate measures such as self-draining Section 127 of the HighwaysAct 1959.
crossfalls should be employed t o avoid the accumulation
of water on or infill.the 1 1. Maintenance and protectionof slopes
The types of compaction plant in common are use 11.IGeneral. This clause deals with factors causing
described in A.2. slopes to deteriorate from their designed condition and
10.6 Specialist plant and equipment. Specialist with the methodswhich may be adopted to prevent
equipment and techniques for ground water control by erosion of thesurfaces. Methodsof protection against
pumping, grouting and the construction of coffer-dams, wave forces in open sea conditions arenot considered.
methods of improving the characteristics of the ground11.2 by Maintenance of slopes
deep compaction and other in-situ operations are 1 'I.2.1 Factors leading to instability
after construction. The
described in CP 2004. factors leadingto various formsof instability of cutting
10.7 Safety measures. The maintenanceof safe slopes in the short and long term are described in 6.2.
conditions both forpeople employedon the site and for Many of these factors are also relevantto the slopesof
the general public, particularly children, have t o be embankments.
considered atall stages of designing, planning and 11.2.2Inspection. Regular inspectionof slopes isan
executing earthworks.All aspects of current legislation essential basis for programming the frequency and extent
have to be adheredto, in particular the Factories Act of maintenance work. Factors to be consideredin periodic
196 1 as amended by theHealth and Safety Work at etc. inspections are described in 6.6.1.
Act 1974, and the associated Construction Regulations.
11.2.3 Checkandmaintenanceof drainage systems.A
All earth-moving plant is potentially dangerous and the description of drainage systemsfor slopes is given
operator mayoften be unableto see people or obstacles in 6.5.4.Regular inspection is required to ensure that the
close to his machine. The noiseof the plant may prevent drains are working effectively and that they are not
him fromhearing shouted warnings. Audible reversing becoming silted up or blocked as a resultof pipe fractures
warnings can protect people working in the vicinity of or slope deformations. Where access to a drainage
lorries tipping their
loads. When unattended, plant should system is available through manholes, the manhole
always be left in a safe position (e.g. scraper bowl covers should be lifted atregular intervals, silt traps
.lowered, excavator bucket resting the on ground) and the cleaned out and pipes examined for blockage and rodded
power units immobilized. and flushedas necessary.A watch should be kept for
Earthworks should be designed and supervised to be infiltration of soil into open or closed jointdrains, piped
stable at all stages of construction andto constitute no and remedial measures taken if there are signs of
risk to the construction operative o r t o the public appreciable internal erosion of soil into the pipes, or
(including trespassers). This may necessitate the placing indeed if theyare not carrying anywaterat all. In this
of restrictions on the method of working or the provision latter case it may be that water is being discharged into
of certain temporary works. Excavation should always the be slope at some point where the drain is broken and this
surrounded by safety barriers when a hazard exists. may present a threat to itsstability. In addition water
All bridges andcrossings, temporary or permanent, shouldseeping out of the ground may also indicate pipe a
be adequateto allow the safe passage offully laden plant, fracture. The fracture should be located and repaired
with
or alternatively adequate warnings and restraints shouldas little delay as possible. Special inspection should be
be supplied t o avoid overloading such bridges and made at times of heavy rainfall to check whether or not
crossings. Likewise, where planthas to pass through any of thedrains are surcharged orare carrying eroded
openings of restricted width height,
or frameworks should soil.
be provided ahead of these openingsto indicate the Outfalls of drainage systems should be checked to ensure
maximum acceptable plant dimensions. Within these that pollution or damaging erosion of water courses is not
openings suitable provision has t o be made forthe safety occurring, andto check that the water courses have
of pedestrians andwell securedsleepers or similar adequate discharge capacity for the run-off of the
devices installedto restrain the wheels of theplant to the drainage systemat timesof storm. They should also be
required access way. Where plant is required to operate checked in freezing weatherin case water is impounded in
the system by icing.

E S 1 -BS*6033 B3 m
BS 6031 : 1981
Coarse backfill to drains may become cloggedtime in and not have a detrimental effect in the short or long on term
require replacement.When this is done the insertionof a slope stability.
filter fabric to surround thebackfill will keep clay and Animal grazing oraccess by the general public should be
coarser particles out of the collector system. restricted to ensure that damage to the grass cover does
1 1.2.4Checkandmaintenanceof structures.Retaining not leadto erosion of bare soil.
walls shouldbe checked forsigns oftilting or bodily Control shouldbe maintained on ground clearing
forward movement and the appropriate remedial operations at the toe of theslope to ensure that thetoe is
measures taken if these movements are judged to be not undercut or toe drains disturbed or blocked by
excessive. Thegrowth ofvegetation on structures should dumping soil onto them. A small revining wall or kerb to
be kept in check and growths removed ifcause they define and maintain the boundaryqovides a measure of
damage to joints inconcrete or brickwork, or blockage of control.
the drainage systems. Weepholes should be inspected to
In areas subjected to mining su'bsidence the cutting
ensure that theyare working effectively andare not
slopes and surrounding areas should be inspected at
discharging soilas a result of erosion behind the retaining
regular intervalsto ensure that any tension cracks or
structure.
pressure ridgesin thesoil or rockare not detrimentalto
Gabions shouldbe inspected forsigns of corrosion of the stability.
metal baskets. Any discharge of water through the infilling
1 1.3 Sources of erosion
material should be inspected signs for of soil erosion. If
soil particlesare being carried by the discharge water, the '11.3.1 General. Before adequate steps can be taken to
gabions a t the point ofseepage should be removed and prevent e'rosion, it is necessary to define the normal
replaced on bedding and backing material consisting of a sources of erosion. Though not exhaustive, 11.3.2
properly designed graded filter (see CP 2004) or a porous to 11.3.5 cover the sources most commonly encountered
plastics filter cloth. in practice.
1 1.2.5Checkandmaintenanceof anchorsystems.Where 11.3.2 Water. The most common source of erosion is that
maintenance of a specific amount of prestress is an resulting from wateraction. Rain, which constitutes the
essential factorin the design of temporary or permanent most significant erodingagent, affects the slopes of
stressed anchors for retaining structures, a regular check earthworks both during construction and in the finished
should be made on stress levels all inanchors, and condition and should be considered as a serious threat to
re-stressing carried outas required. It may be desirable in stability in bothcases. Heavydownpours of rain initially
particular situationsto incorporate a load cell in the loosen the surface material and can thereby allow the
anchor headso that theanchor loadcan bemonitored earthworks to absorb the waterinto thesurface,
continuously, with a permanent recordif desired. Any producing saturated conditions. Generally, the action only
re-stressing work has to be done underexperienced affects the outer surfaces of the earthworks and usually if
supervision. these are shaped correctly the water willrun off into either
permanent or temporary drains.In so doing however, and
'Dead' anchors used as dowels or rock bolts for stabilizing
depending upon the type of material in theearthworks,
rock slopes-shouldbe inspected forsigns of looseness or
large washouts may occur and the arisings cause may
distortion.
serious hazards to adjacent property. Absorption of heavy
All stressed or'dead' anchors shouldbe inspected for rainfall within thebody of the earthworks can increase the
signs of corrosion a t anchor heads andassociated moisture content of the material to unacceptable limits
components. Removal of corrosion products and and the subsequentseepage of thisexcess water from the
application of protective coatings should be undertaken as earthworks in the long term can cause surface erosion
required. and slips. In most cases, these slipsare fairly shallow,
1 1.2.6 Controlof development. Control shouldbe usually being confined to the outer surfaces only, and
exercised onall forms of development on or beyond the although not structurally damaging themselves, in they
crest of slopes. Tipping of spoil or waste material on are unacceptable both aesthetically and in general to the
slopes, berms, or above retaining walls should be maitltenance of the slope.
prohibited or kept under control. Streams or other water courses running along foottheof
Harticultural activities such as allotment gardening should a slope mayerode the toeand in times of flood may
be inspected and controlled to ensure that terracing of immerse pBr.tof theslope, lessening itsstability. Increased
slopes or thedischarge of water does not endanger runoff from the new works themselves may affect the
stability. Any building developments proposed for the land behaviour of existing streams.
above the crest aofslope should take into account the When water stands against earthworks, soft or loose
possible effectsof surcharge, andwhen necessary piled material may intime be eroded by wave action and this
foundations shouldbe adopted to carry the new action shouldbe considered separatelyfrom general flood
foundation loadings below zones of critical stressing of conditions. Existing surface protection may be loosened
the massof soil or rock behind the slope. by suction action of the waves.In tidal waters the
Discharge of water from agricultural drains or surface constant raising and lowering of ground water levels may
water fromroads, buildings,or otherpaved surfaces, cause migration of soil particles from slopes.
should not be permitted onto the face of acutting slope. If Erosion by solution may occur from chemical waste tips
it is not possible for such drains to be-intercepted before and other forms of industrial waste, particularly during the
reaching thecutting slope then drainage
a system giving construction stage when large areas may be exposed for
adequate protection of the slope surface is required down long periods.
the face, Any soakaways from surface water drainage
1 1.3.3Frost. As an eroding agentfrost is normally
systems should be sited in such a manner that water
considered in conjunction with water action. Alternate
absorbed into the soil or rock mass behind a slope does
48
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BS 6031 : 1981
freezing andthawing loosens the surface of rock cuttingsbed materialswith additives to hold the mulch to the bed.
and opens cracks and fissures that mayhave been caused In general the type seed of chosen shouldbe one which is
by the construction processes or occur naturally. Frostlocally established and which does not produce a long
action has to be consideredalso in connectionwith cuts stemmed grass. Regular cutting of the swarddesirable is
and fills insoil when surfaces previously compacted are to reduce weed growth, but economic or other
lifted and loosened, thereby givingeasier accessfor wafer, circumstances may prevent cutting ofother than noxious
once athaw has taken place. weeds. In some cases it is desirable, both froman
11.3.4 Wind. As aneroding agentwind action combined environmental andfrom aconservation point of view, to
with dry weatheris usually a t its mosttroublesome during allow freedom of development to the vegetation in order
the constructionperiod, particularly inareas of excavation to encourage native flora and fauna. It should howeverbe
and filling in coarse soils. In areas of earthworks where remembered that grass banks provide a useful haven for
ground conditions indicate the presence of fine granular small animals, so that only controlledcutting and spraying
materials, the risk of erosion should always beconsidered should be carried out, unlessenvironmental or other
carefully and action taken during the construction period factors determinethat the growth should remain very
to stabilize exposed surfaces. short.
11-3.5Othersources. Changing patterns of agriculture, Where surface protectionis required quickly, turfing of the
particularly those leading to increased rurr-off, can leadto slope canbe carried out.Generally, turfing is more
erosion. Habitual passage of pedestrians and animals expensive than sowing and seeding. After placing the turf
along restriced routes especially at the boundaries of it should be well beaten andif necessary held in position
eärthworks, also leadsto erosion. with netting. Turf placed in.timeshot of dry weather may
shrink exposingthe underlying surface. The space
Erosion of earthworks may be acceleFatedor started by
between the turves then acts as a channel for rain and
excavation in thesmpletedearthworks andby the
v\iater,so'that observation of turfedareas after placing
passage ofconstrdctiontrafficoverdefinedioutes . . should be made andif necessary action taken eitherto '
without due regardto the care of the works. Structures
pfevent shrinkageby watering, orto fill the cracks with
pr6duce an impervious surface from.whicb water may
fine soil.
flak on to the earthworks.Careless backfilling adjacentto
structures, poorly compacted drain trenches the andlike Trees provide better cover and deeper root growth than
all cause the concentration ofwaterto erode previously that provided bygrass. In addition to their aesthetic value
adequate earthworks.With the increasinguse of artificial they may have an economic valuein so far ás some long
materials forfills, combustion either spontaneous or term benefit may be derived and the adjacent surface
caused by the lighting of fires may occur which can need not be mown. The type of tree should be suitable for
progress internally and therefore go undetected for longthe surroundings and care should be taken that infiltration
periods. by rootsdoes not damage drainage or services. The
dangers of mature trees falling should be recognized and a
11.4 Methods of protection
suitable cutting programme initiated. In clay soils, growing
11.4.1 General. In addition to recognizing the factors trees cancause settlement of paved surfaces and
causing erosionit is important to choose the method of structures dueto extraction of moisture from the clay by
protection best suited to the site conditions. Economic roots extending beneath the paving or foundations. When
considerations should take into accountthebalance of trees are cut downre-absorption of water by the clay can
costs between adopting an ideal form of protection which result in heave of paved surfaces or foundations [53].
will prevent any erosion of a slope, anda less costly
Bushes and plants provide a quick and very satisfactory
solution which will involve periodic maintenance.
ground coverin areas where topsoil andgrass may be
Allied to the engineering and economic factors isthe difficult to establish andmaintain, and addto the aesthetic
environmental factorin thechoice of protectivemeasures. qualities of the earthworks.
Protection should be considered as part of the designof
11.4.3Drainage. Drainage is an important method of
the earthworks, and can be used as a featureto lessen the
preventing erosion. Methods ofdrainage aredescribed
environmental impact of the project.
in 6.5.4 and 7.4.
In 11.4.2 to 11.4.4 methods are described which are in
11.4.4 Other forms ofprotection. Pitching or paving forms
general use for protecting the slopes of earthworks from
a very effective protection to slopes, particularly those
eroding forces.
subjected to wateraction. The method tendsto be
11.4.2 Vegetation.The most widely used and effective expensive and shouldbe used only when no reasonable
form of protection is that whichfalls into the general alternative exists. Careshould be exercisedto ensure that
category of vegetation. It is only effectivein climatic the toe of a pitched slope cannot easily beeroded or
conditions where the selected vegetation is able to thrive excess water pressures be allowed to build up behind the
and self-propagate.Most forms of vegetation canbe pitching. Pitching should comprise heavy stones well
chosen so as not toimpair the environment unnecessarily, bedded with the longest face into theslope. If joints are
and if correctly designed can be shown tobe of positive mortared weep holes to allow escape of water should be
environmentally benefit. provided. Paving has also been usedextensively, either in
Of this group, a grass sward is the most generallyused. It the formof interlocking precast concrete blocksinor
is formed by either seeding a on layer of topsoil, of random stone, in areas where vegetation cannot be
thickness varyingfrom 1O0 mm to200 mm, spread on established; it is also used cosmetically. Wherever paving
the slope, or usinga nutrient mulch mixed with the seed is used, the bedhas a t all times to be fullycompacted,
and sprayed directly onto the natural material of theslope. preferably blankettedwith a weak sand/c&ment mixture.
Various types of mulch are available,and specialist Paving joints should be sealed to prevent the ingress of
services existto provide mixes designed for different seed rain water. Once the sealed surfaceof apaved area is
I

BS 6031 : 1981
broken, erosion can berapid and remedial works prove lead to another. If this appears to present no threat to life
very expensive. or property orif it is considered that any subsequent
In cuttings in fracturedrock, the removal by hand of movement could be dealt with safely whenit occurs, the
localized unstableareas and filling by masonry can be slip may best be alone, left provided that the visual
adopted, although it should onlybe considered for small appearance is acceptable.
areas, This procedureis sometimes referredto as 'dental' If space is available in the cutting the most economical
work (see 6.5.5.5). form of remedialwork is not to attempt restore to the
Gabions, although used structurallyas retaining walls, original slope but toadopt measures to stabilize the
have wideapp1icatio.n. in the protection slopes,
of slipped profileby improving stability conditionsa t the toe
pafiiculáriy in preventingwater erosion (see 6.5.5.2). and cutting back the steep scar face at thecrest.
Where stone,filled.mattresses are usedto protect a slope Where the slip overflows to
ona road or railway, removal
at the junction of the protected length and the natural of material from the toe may re-activate the
slip. In the
ground, care.shouldbe exercised to ensure that the short term, therefore, onlya minimum of clearance should
mattresses are fixed into stable material. In order to beundertaken. If space is availableon the downslope
prevent erosion of material behind the mattress a short slide ofa cutting, consideration should be given to
length of gabion may be fixed atangles right to the main diverting the road or railway around the slumped material
protective mattress.The top edge offhe mattress should at the toeof alarge-scale slip. This maywell be more
also be fixed intdreasonably solid material to aílow the economical than adopting methods of supporting a
mattress to rotate some
if erosiondoes take place at the restored slope,
toe. . ..
In considering a remedial scheme after the itslip may be
Synthetic fabrics can be used to provide rapid protection necessary to undertake thework intwo stages, the first
against.erosionwhere growthis either difficult ordelayed. stage being immediate measures to re-open a road or
A programme of mulch treatment of the surface of the soil railway orto safeguard a structure, and the second stage
should be undertaken before laying the fabric [54]. being long term measures to ensure reasonably
permanent stability. Where no interference with other
Bitumen, either hot-applied-or more usually as an
works is entailed the least expensive solution may be to
emulsion, can be used onslopes in loose materials to
acquire sufficient land to allow the slopes to be reduced to
provide.temporary bindingof the surface until the
vegetation is established.
a stable angle. .
1 1.5.2 Immediate measures. The first.step should be to
Where industrial wasteis used as fill,consideration
make a general appraisal of the mode of instabilityso that
should be given.at the design stage to the environmental
the risksof attemptingto restore the original profile can be
hazards that may arise, particularly through the leaching
assessed. Many slipsare caused by the ingress water of
action of water. A clay blanket gives adequate protection
and this has to be controlled as soon as possible.All open
although thë cost of importing and separate handling-of ,
cracks should be sealed to prevent water entering the
the material maywell nullify thesavings arising from the
slope. Surface water.or shallow subsoil water should be
use of industrial waste. Alternatively additional filling to
diverted awayfrom theslip area by open ditches or piped
allow sacrificial.erosion may be provided outside the
drains. Any water ponded in the slipped mass or flowing
struotural limits of thesmbankment.
from thescar slope shouldbe drained or pumped away.
On cutting faces with a periodical tendencyto weep, a Temporary deeper drainage measures by pumpingfrom
blanket of granular material is an alternative to extensive timbered shafts or boreholes shouldconsidered, be
herring bone drainage systems.In this case the granular -including theuse of exploratory boreholesas pumping
fill becomes a continuous filter drain and therefore actsas wells [55].
a protective layer on surface.
the
The methodsto be adopted for clearing the slipped debris
Wiremesh, plastics and rope netting may be used on should take account of the geometry of the slide, the
crumbling rockfaces, although this couldbe regarded not means of access for earth-moving plant, and the risks
so much as a protection of the face but more as a involved in clearance atthe toe. In the case of rotational
protection of the adjacent land users. The useof mesh is slips (6.3.21,if space is available, immediate restoration of
described in 6.5.5.4. stability canbe achieved by removing material from the
1 1.5 Remedial works after slope failure top of the slipped-off masses and placing the excavated
11.5.1 Genecal. Movements which occur in the course of material on the toe of slip. the
slope failures of the type described 6.3infrequently result It is often desirableto flatten the rear scarpas well, but in
in temporary restorationof stability. Thus the rotational the case of translational slides(6.3.4)such mass shifting
shear slide (6.3.2)has the effect of achieving an overall is less effective.In any case careshould be taken that
flattening of the slope with a restoring force provided by further slipsare not brought about by either the
the debris a t the toe and a reduction in the disturbing forceexcavation at the head or the loading at the of the
toe
at thecrest of theslope. However, in the longerterm there slide. This practice of toe weighting is effective when the
may be renewed instabilityas a result of softening and weighting materialis placed ona horizontal ground
slumping of the debris pile at the toe and retrogressive surface, but if may cause further slippingif the weighting
slipping of the steep scar face at the crest. material is tipped ontoa sloping surface.
Consideration-should be given to the possibility of Mechanical methodswhich can be considered as
toleratinglhe movement. This can be doneonly if no immediate measuresare driving sheet piles to support the
transportation routeis blocked andno dangerto life or toe of slip,
a the use of gabions backed by porous filter
property is involved. Before deciding that no actionis a t close centres or
fabric, driving oldrails or timber piles
required it is necessary to consider the probable future settina timberDlanks or sleepers between the flannes of
behaviour of the slope. Oneslip is likely sooner or later
to H-section piles driven into the slumped Taterial. Where- a ,
COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and50

Standards
flow slide (6.3.4.5) or mudflow is endangering an onto the face to fillopen joints or crackstoor support
important structure, stability can be restored immediatelyoverhanging blocks.Larger rock overhangs can be packed
by freezing the sliding mass. This canbe achieved by by building walls in masonryconcrete. or If necessary
driving tubeswith closed ends into the soil at these walls orpillars can be anchored to stable rock
close-spacing. Liquid nitrogen or other refrigerant is then behind by means of bolts or simple dowels. Means should
injected into thetubes tö freeze the surroundingsoil. be provided in the form of weep pipes to prevent build-up
Although this process is effective it is costly to maintain in of hydrostatic pressure behind these retaining structures.
operation overan extended period of time. In severely corrosiveconditions, stainless steel rock bolts
Temporary slopes for foundation excavations be can can be used.
stabilized against surface erosion by spreading tarpaulins, Where theappearance of a rock face is an important
polythene sheeting, or porousfilter fabrics over the soil. consideration, the 'dental' concrete (6.5.5.5) should be
Where a clay slopeis exposed to drying shrinkageit is faced with stone rubbleto match the surroundingrock.
often helpfulto maintain stability during later rainy periods Where blocks of rock are anchored thebolt heads should
by covering the exposed clay with tarpaulins, polythene be set intorecesses cut in the rock face and the recesses
sheeting, or a layer of mass concrete.For best effect these then filledwith cement mortar textured and coloured to
measures should be taken before the opening of shrinkage match the surrounding rock. Consideration canalso be
cracks. Temporary slopes.insoft clays and silts can be givizn to spraying areas of weak disintegrated rock with
stabilized by electro-osmosis (6.5.4.6). resins or mortar similarly coloured and textured.
e .
Immediate measurestore'store stability of a rock slope 11.5.3.6 Grouting. Two formsof grouting may be
include drilling holes to relieve water pressure, pinning _ considered as a remedialmeasure: penetration and
unstable blocks of rock by bolting or dowels, and packing hydrofracture. Penetration grouts of the suspension or
opencracks with concreteormortar [56,57]. . colloidal solution type may be used to stabilize open
11.5.3 Long term measures textured granular soils loose or rock masses. Thegrout
penetrates the voids between soil the or rock particlesand
11.5.3.1 General. Before decidingon any long term . .
sets to form a rigid mass. Thetechniques and materials for
measures to restore stabilityto a cuttingslop.e, the causes
grouting are described in 2004. CF
of movement should be studied. A topographic survey and
a general geological appraisal of the site should be The method of grouting shouldnotbe such as to cause
followed by sub-surface exploration intrial pitsor , further deterioration of an already dangerousslope.
boreholes including measures to locate the surface of Advice shouldbe sought from the Healthand Safety
sliding (see5.1.31. Pore pressuresand ground movements Executive before using a chemical grout.
both inthe sliparea and the adjacent stable ground should Hydrofracture of 'claquage' grouting is an injection
be monitored using the methods described 6.6.
in technique whereby the soil or rock systemis displaced as
Having obtainedall the necessary information on the the grout shears its way through zones or planesof
ground conditions and completed an analysis of the weakness to form seam.
a The required grouting pressure
causes of instability, the longterm remedial measures is a function of soil the strength.
should be decided in the light of economics
the of A grout of higher viscosity is required thanthat for
construction, the importance assurance
of of stability(e.g. penetration grouting,so suspensions of Portlandcement,
to the maintenance of communications in aroad or sand, mineral fillers and wetting oraerating agentsare
railway), the life
of theworks, and the existence of generally used for economy. There is little penetration into
buildings or other works which maybe endangered by the surrounding fissures or voids unless these are large.
continuing instability. Environmental considerations such As the distance of travel of grout from the injection points
as the appearance of the restoration measures may is limited by its relatively high viscosity a grid of injection
influence the scheme adopted. Thelong term measures holes is required to deal with the massto be treated.
given in11.5.3.2 to 11.5.3.7 may be considered. Stability is probably achieved by a chemical bonding
1 1.5.3.2 Slope profireadjustment. Slopes canbe trimmed action of the grout at the soil-grout interface involving a
to a shallöwer profile if land at the top available,or
is base exchangemechanism between the cement and the
berms canbe formed on the slope with the excavated clay minerals.
material placed at the toe.These measures may affect Once started,a claquage processfor treatinga slip should
stability elsewhereas new areas of underlying groundare be continued untilcompletion of the scheme; the process
loaded; appropriate consideration should be given. cannot be interrupted for a period much greater than a
The removal of vegetation cover during trimming may week as otherwise stabilityis not achieved. Although
seriously reduce stability at the onset of-wetweather. used successfullyon a few cutting slips the method is
Measures thereforehave to be taken to replace more applicableto embankment slips[55].
vegetation cover(11.4.2). 11.5.3.7 Electrochemicalmethods.Electrochemical
11.5.3.3 Drainage. Reducing porepressures within the methods of stabilization function on the principle of
slope can be an effective and economical measure. Oneor introducing chemical solutions into the soil such that there
a combinationof the methods described in 6.5.4 may be is an exchangeof the mineral particles and hence an
adopted. increase in shear strength of thesoil. Electrochemical
stabilization canbe appled to soils suchas silts or clayey
11.5.3.4Mechanicalmethods. A retainingwall oran
silts whichare too fine for stabilization using cement or
anchorage system may be required as described in 6.5.5.
conventional chemical grouts.
115 3 . 5 Rock bolting anddentartreatment of rockfaces. Because of thelow permeability of these soils there are
Stability of shallow masses of rock canbe restored by difficulties in introducing the electrolyte into themass. soil
rock bolting(6.5541, or by spraying concrete or mortar

BS 6031 : 1981
Two methods are possible: collapse unless theyare cut back to a stable slope or
(a) in conjunction with theelectro-osmosis system restrained in position by continuous sheeting. The
(6.5.4.6).when theelectrolyte is fed into the anodes, problem of confinement granular
of soils is aggravated by
and the presence of ground water. Under no circumstances
should the apparent cohesion imparted by water sulface
(b) bya mix-in-place method, where drilling equipment tension in damp granular soils be relied upon for the
is used to mix the soil with the electrolytein powder, support of vertical facesin excavations. If, however, the
slurry or solution form. lateral distances requiredfor side-slopes are available
In cases where the soil mineralsare favourable for base within the site, then open excavation methods may be
exchange, the latter method can be adoptedto form employed in these soils. In some instances, a combination
close-spaced columns ofsoil stabilized with hydrated lime of side-slopes and vertical sheeted excavations is
t o support steepslopes [58]. advantageous. If the formation of side-slopes in granular
soils is demonstratedt o be economical but a high ground
pits and shafts
Section three. Trenches, water tableexists then the problem is often solved by
using some suitable method of dewatering (see CP 2004).
12. Design considerations
12.1 Site investigation. A general appraisal of the project
and a site investigation should be undertaken as described Excavations in cohesive soils, such as sandyand silty
in 5.1.2 to 5.1.7. clays and clayey silts, generally present little problem of
confinement. Themain problems are those of stability in
Ground waterlevels may vary seasonally or in conformity the shortand medium term whethera of vertical-faced
with changes in level of adjacent tidal or river waters. excavation or ofside-slopes. Stiff cohesive soils or weak
Therefore it is desirable to monitor fluctuationsin ground rocks often have sufficient strengthto permit open
water level for as long a period as possible before excavations to be readily formed bymechanical plant,
commencing constructionwork, by means of
provided that there are no restrictions on the magnitudes
observations in piezometers or simplestandpipes.
of ground movements which inevitably occurboth within
The ground water observations madeduring the sinking of and immediately surrounding the excavations. The
the siteinvestigation boreholes areoften misleading problem of the stability of unsupported vertical or steeply
owing tothe rate of drilling, the necessity t o add water to sloping faces involves many uncertain factors, one of
assist drilling, the installation of temporary casings in the which is the period oftime during which thestability ofthe
boreholes, and the nature of the ground. face can beassured (see 6.2.5).
Site investigation information should be made available to Silt-size soils present the greatest difficultiesin
all tendering contractorsand, wherever practicable, the excavation work particularly wherea high water table
ground conditions and water levels should beshown on exists. Such depositsare difficult t o dewater andare often
the constructiondrawings, of sucha consistency that theyrequire to becompletely
12.2 Ground conditions confined by sheet piling.The installation of a lateral
12.2.1 General. Knowledge of the ground conditions and support system prior to excavation is a safe practical
land-surface features gained from the site investigation is method of forming excavations in water-bearing silts.
used for the following purposes: It should not be assumed that vertical ornear-vertical
(a) t o determine the appropriate methpd ofexcavation faces can safely
be formed in excavations in rocks since
and related plantrequirements; unfavourable orientationsin thebedding planes and joint
systems can resultin dislodgement of the rock blocks
(b) t o determine the appropriate form ofsupport to the soon after the formation of exposed the rock face. Weak
sides of theexcavation andto ensure its adequacy; layers of rock stratawithin inclined rocks having relatively
(c) todetermine suitablemeans of maintaining the high intactstrength, soft clay filling in fissures, and ground
excavations freefrom ground water; water under pressure in thegeological planes of
(d) toensure that any potentially buoyant structures separation also significantly affectthe stability ofexposed
which maybe constructed within the excavations will rock faces(see 6.2.1.4 and 6.3.4).
not be subjectedt o water pressures sufficient t o cause Rock strata inclined inwards and downwards into the
uplift forces at any stage of their construction. exposed rockface should not be unquestioninglyregarded
12.2.2 Influence of ground conditions on construction as stable sincethe joints between therock blocks can
methods. The methodsof excavation-and types of form failure surfaces if thebedding planes of therock
temporary or permanent support depend on the following strata are inclined at steep angles.
factors: Soils containing boulders or large cobbles can be
(a) the variationsin thegeological structure, and hazardous where the face is left exposed evenfor short
whether theground consistsof cohesive or periods, because of the risk of falls
from theface.
non-cohesive superficial deposits, or soliddeposits; Excavation in domestic or industrial wastes containing
(b) the depth of the excavation; toxic or asphyxiatingcompounds or gases can also be
hazardous to operatives.
(c) theexistence of a groundwater table;
These considerations shouldbe studied carefullyin
(dl the type and extent of theexcavation; relation to thesafety ofpersons required to enter orwork
(e) the topography of the site andthe proximity of in.close proximity to theexcavations (see 4.1).
existing land features such as roads, buildings, and 12.2.3Sources and control of ground water
buried services.
12.2.3.1General. Ground water mayenter an excavation
Excavations in non-cohesive soils, such as sands, present by the following ways:
problems ofconfinement, since granular soils readily

(a) as sutface or shallow subsoil water due to rainfall on should be taken to guard against the risk of accidental
the site and on the surrounding catchment which flooding, particularlywhere the effects would endanger
diverts waterto the site; life and property.
(b) because the excavation extends below the ground During periodsof heavy rainfall loss of stability may result
water table at thesite; from a rapid increasein theelevations of the ground water
(c) when an excavation in relatively impermeable tabIe andthe corresponding increasein hydrostatic
ground exposes a permeable layer containing ground pressures.
water under a hydrostatic head, orwhere such a layer 12.2.3.5Excavation in sloping ground. Consideration
exists below thebase of the excavation; should be given to the overall stability of the site where
(d) accidentally,e.g. by the bursting of a water main. excavations are made on side-sloping ground. Particular
care is necessaryon sites with a past history of instability.
12.2.3.2 Surface or near surfacewater. Flow of surface or The stability conditions at various stages of the
shallow subsoilwater towardsan excavation is inevitable excavation work can be analysed by the methods
in sloping sites during periods heavy of rainfall. Problems . described in 6.4.
of ingress may be avoided by the provision of some
suitable form of interceptor drainage or dam partly or 12.3 The design of stable slopes and supports to
totally surroundjng the excavation. excavations
Field drains or service trenches carrying subsoil water 12.3.1 General. In general the application of soil
encountered in theexcavation work should also be mechanics theories using strength parameters obtained
intercepted and diverted from excavation.
the Excavation from fieldand laboratory investigation work tothe design
should, wherever practicable, commence a t the lowest of excavation supports or the determination of stable
point and progress in an uphill direction intoorder angles of slope is unnecessary in thecase of relatively
facilitate the maintenance of a relatively water-free shallow trenching for services or shallow excavations for
working surface. structural foundations. In such cases, the design of the
earthworks and support systems is based on experience
Deep excavations mayalterthe local hydrology by and referenceto standard published works.
transferring sutfacewater intopermeable strata causing
flooding in adjacent excavations, cellars, orbasements. For trenches having depths not exceeding 6 m a simple
investigation of the ground conditions normally provides
12.2.3.3 Ground water. Ground water may be significantly sufficient informationto permit the selection of the most
excluded from an excavation which extends below the suitable system of support without theneed for the
water table by surrounding it by acofferdam constructed application of soil mechanics theories. It is essential,
of interlocked steel sheet piles or of in-situ concrete however, that even a simple site investigation should be
walling. Permeable soils canbe injected with cement,. carried outwith sufficientcare and attention toascertain
chemicals, or clay slurries to forman impermeable curtain as far as is reasonably practicablethat the ground
around the excavation (see CP 2004). conditions have been properly defined that and all
If the interlocked steel sheet piles or concrete walling variations of a which would affect the stability of the
cofferdam can be taken down toa thick relatively excavation are investigated in nature and extent.
impermeable deposit, the ground water in the overlying The selection of suitable types of sheet piling or timbering
permeable groundwill be excluded, apart from leakage is likelyto be governed by considerations of avoidance of
through the interlocks or joints which is readily removed damage to these components during installation and by
by normal pumping methods. Considerable care hasto be the requirementsof re-use. Modifications to the selected
taken where the relatively impermeable deposit at the system maybe required in the light of changes inground
base of the excavation is either.thin andis underlain bya conditions revealed during excavation. The choice of
water-bearing permeable deposit containing ground construction method usually lies between open
water under hydrostaticpressure, or is thick and contains excavation with the formation ofstable side-slopes, or the
'thin waterbearing permeablesoil layers and considerable use of temporary or permanent support to a verticalface.
hydrostatic head. In such cases, instability of the base of Guidance on the design of safe side-slopes for most
the excavation canbe experienced dueto hydrostatic excavations can be found in 6.5. It should be noted that
upliit forces. The hydrostatic pressure may be relieved by the design of steeply sloped or vertical unsupported faces
deep filter wells. in cohesive soils presents considerable difficulties and the
If arelatively impermeable deposit does not exist within assessment of the rate of decrease in the safety factor
reasonable depths of penetration of the steel piling, sheet after excavation cannot be determined by theory. Even in
it is still possible, with considerable pumping,to achieve a stiff glacial till or other stiff over-consolidatedcohesive
stable relatively water-free excavation. Alternatively, open soils the presence of permeable layers or fissureswithin
excavations with side-slopes may be formed beneath the the soilcan have a dominating influence stability, on as
ground water table by utilizing appropriate methods of positive porewater pressures may develop rapidly behind
lowering the water table. Reference should be made to the slope for whichnegative pressuresare required to
CP 2004 which gives detailsof methods of dewatering maintain stability.
excavations. It may be possible to rely on the stability of an
l2.2.3,4Accidenta/flooding. Accidental flooding may ariseunsupported vertical face of a trench excavation less than
from causes such as prolonged heavy rainfall or bursting 1.2 m deep, where precautions are taken against
of a water main and often results i n considerable damage. overloading the ground surface close to the edge of the
Consequently there is a statutory requirement t o provide trench and against risks
to operatives from localfalls, say
ready egress from excavations (see4.11. Where the from thedislodgement of boulders. Relianceshould never
excavation is formed within low-lyingland orwater mains be placed on the ability of the ground to remain stable
exist in close proximìtyto thesite, adequate measures whenexcavated to averticalface over- .
BS 6031 : 1981
between completing the excavation of a length of trench excavation. The likelihood ofbase failure by shear
and settingand bracing the support system. A vertical deformation may be predicted by conventional methods
face deeper than 1.2 m may be adoptedin a large open of stability analysis; for supported excavations the
excavation where falls or dislodgements from thesides analytical method ofBjerrum andEide may be used [61].
would notcause a danger to operatives or damage to A safety factor of atleast 1.5 should be employed against
permanent works or neighbouring structures, and where overstress.
the excavations are suitably fenced for the safety of 12.3.4 Movements at base of excavation. The magnitude
operatives and the general public. and rate ofupward movement which occurs at base the of
The shortterm and longterm stability ofthe unsupported an excavation dependon the reductionin vertical stress
slopes andbase of deep excavationsshould be verified by caused by the removal ofsoil from within the excavation,
calculations. on the nature of the strata underlying theof the
base
12.3.2 Magnitude and distribution of lateralsoilpressures. excavation, and on the ground water conditions.
Lateral pressures on the support systems of excavations The upward movements which take place arecaused'by
should be calculatedin themanner described in CP 2. The immediate elastic strain which occurs simultaneously
earth pressure distribution on the sheetingor other form with the deepening of theexcavation andby long term
of supporting wall should bein accordance with volumetric strainsdue to moisture contentchanges. In
conventional practicefor thedesign of retainingwalls. The stratified cohesive deposits which display high horizontal
maximum loads on strutsor anchors canbe represented permeabilities, heave causedby volumetric strain can be
by an envelope of rectangular or trapezoidal form rapid.
(figure 2 1 and [59]). This envelope should not be The magnitude ofupward movementis generally greater
assumed t o represent earth pressure distribution for at thecentre of thebase ofthe excavation thanat the
calculating bending momentsin the supportingwalls. periphery, but upliftcan takeplace beyond theperiphery
Bending moments and forces in the walls and bracing and thus act as a counter to the settlement which may
members should be calculated each for successivestage occur as a consequence of yielding of the excavation
of excavation and installation of the support system and supports. The magnitude ofheave may be predicted by
its subsequent removal. elastic theorybut the rate heaveof cannot bereliably
The Institution of Structural Engineers hasproduced a predicted onthe basis of theoryand few field
report [60] on the design ofdeep basements and measurements have been made.
reference should be made to thispublication for 12.4 Practical considerations
information on the procedure to be adoptedfor thedesign
1 2.4.1 Methods of excavation and types of support. It
of temporary works for structures of this type.
should be appreciated that no matter what method of
1 2.3.3 Stability of base of excavation excavation is used,ground displacements occur-both
12.3.3.1 General. Base failure maybe experienced in deep within and immediately surroundingan excavation. These
excavations eitherby uplift ofgranular soils dueto large ground displacements depend partly on the geological
seepage forces caused by high hydrostatic heads, or by structure andare principally due to elastic strains. In
shear deformation of soft saturated cohesive soils dueto cohesive soils,volumetric strainsdue to changes in
overstress. moisture contentalso take place. If the method of
12.3.3.2 Water-bearingpermeable soils. For supported excavation and the type of support are unsuitable for the
excavations below the ground water table in granular soils particular groundconditions, then shear deformations or
it is customary to use interlocked steel sheet piles driven shearfailures of the soilfailures
or due to hydrostatic
to a prescribed depth of penetration below the base theof pressures may occur. Vibrations from construction
excavation. Where thesheet piles do nothave sufficient equipment maycause consolidation ofcohesionless soils
depths of penetration below thebase of the excavationto or havea detrimental effect on existing structures in a
reach an impermeable stratum which would provide a weak condition. The sequenceof excavation and
cut-off to the inflow of water beneath the toes the of sheet installation of lateral supportshas a significant effecton
piles, then upwardseepage occursat the base of the the stresses and strains induced in theground.
excavation. If the head of water outside the sheet pilingis It may notbe practicablet o prevent significant vertical
such as to cause a steep hydraulic gradient over the and lateral ground displacements immediately beyond the
length of the seepage path,then the velocity of upward limits ofan excavation, so the effects ofthe inevitable
seepage may besuch as to cause instability in the form of movements onany adjoining structures have to be
uplift or'boiting' of thesoil particles (figure 22). considered. It may be necessary t o underpin adjoining
Boiling mayalso occur as a result of strong flow froma structures before commencing an excavation, in order to
permeable layer underlying less permeable soil at the base protect them from the ground displacements.
of theexcavation. Alternatively, and with the agreementof their owners,
damage to the adjoining structures may be accepted and
The designof deep excavations in water-bearing granular repaired after completion of the permanent work.
soils should consider this possibility and if necessary, However, the damage should not besuch as t o cause any
ground water lowering methods should be usedto lower danger to theoccupants of these structures, or to the
the external head of ground water, or alternatively the general public. A simple construction procedureis
sheet piling should be driven to a deeper penetration to desirable since alterationsto a complex construction
lengthen theseepage path so decreasing the hydraulic sequence, when unexpected variationsin ground
gradient (see CP 2004). conditions are encountered, isoften difficult.The work
12.3.3.3 Soft cohesive soils. Failure by heavingmay occur should not beundertaken without experienced
in deep excavationsin softcohesive soils through supervision, and inspection should bemade several times
overstressing of the soil in region
the of thebase of the each dayto ensure that stable conditionsare being

Narrow trenchesare sometimes excavatedwith 12.4.4 Disposal of spoil
unsupported verticalfaces, depending on rate of 12.4.4.1 General. The method of handling excavation spoil
construction, soil type and strength and depth of trench depends on such factorsas the proportion and quantity to
excavation. Where trenches are deeperthan 1.2 m they be usedas fill material and on the working space available
should be supported where menare required to enter within the site.
them. Stability conditions should be regarded as
unfavourable even in firm and stiff clays andin fissured The specification and drawings, should, where necessary,
and closely jointed rocks. give clear instructions as to the disposalof all spoil so that
the procedurefor excavating and transporting material
It may be economical to incorporate support systems can beplanned.
such as steel sheetpiling, concrete diaphragmwalls, or
contiguous boredpile walls in the permanent The amount of material which can be used as fill depends
construction. on the nature of the structure
and the suitability of the
spoil. It may be necessaryto separate spoil suitable for
No lateral supports for any part of an excavation should be fillingfrom that which is unsuitable. Topsoil, which is
altered or dismantled except under the direction of the valuable as vegetable soilbut unsuitable as fill,should be
designer ora competent person possessing adequate stripped and either used or stored separately. Thework
experience. A store of suitable supports should be on kept should as far as possible be arranged to avoid the
site to provide immediate strengthening, if found necessity for temporary spoilheaps andthe consequent
necessary. double handling. Transport and, to a lesserdegree,
12.4.2Existing buildings, buried structures andservices. excavation methods may be influenced by the distance
The age, types of construction and the type and depth of from and access to disposal sites (see 8.11.
foundations of existing buildingswhich wouldbe affected 12.4.4.2 Temporaryspoílandmaterialheaps. Temporary
by the excavation should be ascertained before spoil and material heaps should be sited to interfere as
commencing work onsite. An appraisal of the dead and little as possible with the work to be carried out. For
superimposed loads from thefoundations of existing convenience in handling it may be necessary to place
buildings should be made since the stability of the them near excavations but the following points shouldbe
excavation may depend on an accurate prediction of borne in mind.
imposed loading on the selected system of retention for
First, they shouldnot interfere with free access to the
the excavation.I t is advisablethat all buildings and buried
structures which are likely to be affected by the excavation (in trench work it is desirableto place the
excavation work should be surveyed with the material which is to be used for backfilling onone side of
representatives of the owners, and dilapidation reports the trench only).Secondly, they should be so disposed
prepared and signed by all interested partieS.The that there is no danger of the spoil slumping wet
in
dilapidation report should contain photographsany of weather and entering the excavation. Thirdly; the spoil
heaps should not be placed in such a positionas to
building defects. Significant structural cracks should be
instrumented by simple strain gauge devices and levelling endanger the stability of existing works above or below
points installedto permit any building movementsto be ground or
of the excavation, the sides or
side supports of
which should beso designed as to be capableof
monitored [62]. Where ground anchors used for
excavation supportspass beneath existing buildings and withstanding the additional stresses due to any
highways the effects of fhe drilling and grouting processes superimposed load.
used to install the anchors should be considered.It is of Spoil heaps should be graded to safe slopes takinginto
course necessary to obtain the permission of the building consideration the nature of the material and the effects of
owners or highwayauthorityfor the installation of wet weather. With coarse sand orclean gravel the natural
anchors beneath their property. angle of repose of the tipped materials should remain
The design and construction of excavations and their substantially unalteredin wetweather, but withmaterials
retention systems should also take into consideration the that soften and slump, e.g. clays, silts, mudstones etc., a
prior location and safe support all services
of suchas substantial reduction in slope has to be anticipated and an
water and gas mains,and buried structures such as adequate distance maintained between the periphery
of
the spoilheap and theedge of excavation.
underground tunnels and stormwater and foul sewers.
The clearance between the toe of the spoil heap and the
12.4.3 Workingspace. On confined sites the whole
available workingspace may haveto be within the edge of the excavation should give sufficient working
boundaries of the excavation. Certain items of the plant
space a t all times, and for this purpose a minimum width
may be supported at near or ground level on temporaw of 1.50 m is recommended.
stagings, or may at later a period be carried on portions of
the completed work. It may be necessaryto operate other 13. Construction procedure
plant, or to store it temporarily, in the
bottom of the 13.1 Temporary supportof excavations
excavation. In thiscase the workingspace varies as work 13.1.IGeneral. Temporary supportscan make use of
proceeds. A careful preliminary study should be made of timber, steel sections or precast reinforced concrete.
The
the use to whichthe workingspace may beput ateach same general principles apply irrespective of the material
stage of the job to ensure that concurrent or successive employed for the supports.
operations are not obstructedunnecessarily byplant, spoil
heaps, materials, roads,temporary trenches, sumps etc. The selection of the method of support is largely
Care should be taken that heavy plant,spoil and materials influenced by the fype of ground encounteredbut the
are never placedsoas to endanger adjoining buildings, plant usedfor excavation andthe amount ofre-use
buried structures,services, the stability of the excavation, expected from thecomponents are alsofactors to be
or the safety of operatives. considered. All supported excavations should be provided
with guard rails, hand rails, walkways, staging andladders
--"7"-----
B S I BSmb03L B L m L b 2 4 b b 70 0 L b L 3 7 T m
BS 6031 : 1981
in accordance with the Construction(Working Places) provided. When it is known that the supports haveto be
Regulations, 1966, as may be required to safeguard left in, particularly above standing groundwater level,
operatives workingwithin or around the excavations. pressure creosoted timber, precast concrete, or steel
The following types'of supportare commonly used. sheeting should be used where the formation of ahas void
to be prevented. Consideration should also begiven to
(a) Poling boards. Placed in a vertical position againstan pressure groutingwith cement where componentsare left
excavated face standing vertically to a height of 1 m or in support of public highways or adjoining property.
more whilethe boards are set in position (figures23
and 24). They can alsobe used in a top frame to When constructing reinforced concrete retaining walls in
facilitate the pitching of runners (figures 26 (dl a restricted working space the relationship of the bracing
system to thereinforcing steelhas to be allowed for.
and 33 (al).
Where the vertical steel bars are fixed in front of the
(b) Horizonralsheeting. Used to support ground standing walings the space available for removing the walings and
up to face
a of300 mm to 600 mm while the sheeting drawing the timbers has to be considered.The spacing of
members are being placed and wedged against the the bars should also allow for positioning and withdrawing
face. Themethod isadvantageous for supporting very the struts.Space can be saved by packing out the walings
deep excavations (figure 25), particularly where from thesheeting members thus allowing the bars to be
drainage of the soil can beallowed, thus avoiding fixed between the t w o (figure 29).The useof diaphragm
hydrostatic pressure on the supports. walls or contiguous bored pile walls can often be more
(c) Runners. Used in softor loose ground which requires economicalintheseconfinedsituations(see 13.3). 1
continuous supporta t all stages ofthe excavation. They Theuse of ground anchors as analternative to strutting to
are drivendown slightly in advance of the excavationto support walings or to give direct support to diaphragm
avoid flow of thesoil below the toe (figure 26). Runners walls or bored pile walls may notbe feasible becauseof
are alsoused in betterground where their employment the presence of existing basements, sewers,or tunnels
as open or close sheeting is considered more around theexcavation, or the inability to obtain wayleave
practicable and economical than otherforms of face. to install anchors beneath adjacent property.
support.
The faces of excavationsin rock can be given temporary
(d) Sheetpiling. Used for softor loose soils,and in
support by mesh-fabric or short walings restrained by
water-bearing soils where it isdesired to avoid
anchors grouted into therock behind the face.
~
drawdown of ground water levels outside the periphery

of the excavation and also to prevent 'boiling' of the 13.1.2Effect of width. The method adoptedfor supporting
base of the excavation under conditionsa of high the sheeting, walings, or soldiers depends on the width of
external head of gro-undwater (12.2.3). The sheet piling the excavation.
is drivento the full required depth and is supported by- (a) Trenches upto about 6 m wide can be strutted from
walings and struts or ground anchors in therequired side to side by single timber or steel struts.
stages as the excavationis taken down (figures27 (b) Trenches exceeding about 6inm widthrequire the
and 28). use of king piles or soldiers to permit the use two of or
(e) Movable shoringsystems. Proprietary shoring more single lengths of timber to span thewidth of the
systems consist of sheeting panels or face 'boards' trench thereby reducing the effective length of the strut.
which can be lowered intoa trench orpit and jacked Alternatively trenches 6 m or more in widthbecan
against thesoil by means of hydraulically-operated strutted withsteel or reinforced concrete members with
struts or rams. The whole assembly of sheeting . or without theneed for restraint by king piles.
members, walings, and struts may be towed along a (c) For excavations which are so wide thatsupport of
trench in the form of a sled. Alternatively, individual the sheetingby walings and strutswould be
components, for example a pair offaceboards linkedto uneconomical one of the following methods canbe
a hinged adjustablestrut, can belowered into a trench used.-
or pit and subsequentlylifted out without theneed for
(1) Cutting of earth facesto a slope so that theyare
an operative to enter an unsupported excavation.
stable withouttimbering.
While timberhas been shown for strutting in figures 23,
24,26,27 and 28, adjustablesteel screw struts may be (2) Supporting the sheeting by raking shores taking
their reactionfrom the groundslab concrete
more economical in many cases.
previously constructed within the interior of the
The methods used for bracing the sheeting members excavation.
described above, whether by walings or vertical soldiers,.
with struts or ground anchors, dependon the type of (3)Tying back the walings or soldiers by means of
structure to be constructed within the excavation and the anchors restrained by the ground behind the
excavation face. Where cast-in-place concrete walls
site conditions around the excavation. The drawing of -
sheeting members requires consideration since timber ..
a.re used the anchors can be connected directlyto the
which has to be left in rotsand forms a void, and for walls wit-hout the needfor horizontal walings.
economic reasons the materials shouldbe re-used as far (4) Constructing the permanentearth supportin a
as possible. trench around the perimeter of the excavation. This
Struts can nearly always be drawn out but sometimes acts as a retaining wall subsequently allowing the
walings can be extracted only in short lengths andwith - ground inthe interior of the excavation (the dumpling)
. to be removed without further temporary support.
considerable difficulty, especially if reinforced concrete
work is being carried outin arestricted workingarea. The retaining wall should be designed to be
Poling boards or horizontal sheeting often have to be left self-supporting at thisstage, and shouldnot rely for
in when work carried
is out on confined sites where a stability ona basement floor or ground floor slab
working space outside the permanent structure cannot be constructed at a later stage of the work.

Standards
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BS 6031 :1981
(5) Constructing permanent support across the full this purpose (figure24).The advantage of the
width of the excavation in the form of the ground floor'tucking-frame' system is that when the hole has to be
slabs or intermediate lower ground floor slabs of a filled withconcrete and the boards are left in position the
deep basement, Strutting by this method is followed earth faceis supported atall times as the filling proceeds
by removing the soil from below the slabs throughand as each waling is drawn; also,that the boardsare
openings left for this purpose. Restraintto buckling of always supported at the topand bottom.In the alternative
the slabs is normally required this and can consistof middle board system the walings are set onlyat the
the permanent columns af the building, or temporary middle of the boards (figure 23).
bracing can be provided. This method most is 13.1.4Suppo1t by hörizontalsheeting(figure 25). Deep
economical when used in conjunction with excavations are supported by first driving steel H-section
permanent supportto thesides ofan excavation by soldier pilesto the full required depth around the
means of in-situ concrete, diaphragm walls or excavation. If the ground conditions are such that the piles
contiguous bored and cast-in-place piling. cannot be driven to thefulldepth or if driving has to be
1 3.1.3 Support by poling boards or steel trench sheets . avoided from considerations of noise orvibrations, a
(figures 2 3 and 24). Poling boardsin timberrange in size drilling rig is usedto form holea into which the pile is
from 1 mlong by3 2 m mthick to 1.5 m long by50 mm lowered. The bottom ofthe pile, below excavation level, is
thick. A common size, suitable for excavations to 1O m fixed in position by surrounding it by lean concrete or
depth is 1 m by3 2 mm, butfor deeper excavations where cement-stabilized sand. Excavation is startedand the
the ground swelling pressures can be high thicker boards horizontal timber sheeting boards are set in position as the
will probably be required. The upper supporting frames are excavation is taken down.In reasonably good ground the
often sheeted by 1.2 m x 5 0 m mboardS.The levels of the boards are set between the flanges of the H-section and
frames and supporting walingsare frequently determined are held tightlyagainst the face by wedges driven
by the dimensions of the permanentwork and it is between theends of the boardand the innerflange of the
undesirable to have to adjust the positions of supporting pile. This necessitates exposing the face below the board
members duringthe progress ofthe work to conform to already setby adepth equal to the width of two or three
these dimensions. boards.
Normally, and provided that safeworkingconditions are In weak or loose ground which cannot standup
obtainable, the groundis excavated to a depth equal to the unsupported overthis depth, the soilis exposed fora
length of the boards or trench sheets theand
sides are depth equalto only oneboard. Thelatter is then placed
roughly dugto a verticalface, care being takento leave against the inner face of the innerflange of the H-section
some groundto be trimmed off by the timberman. The and held to it by clips.
length of the waling having been decided, the timberman As the excavationis taken down the soldier pilesare
carefully sets a board to plumb andline at each end the of strutted oranchored at therequired levels. Thestruts or
length of face to be covered by the waling.The ground anchors may be providedfor each soldierpile.
intermediate poling boards are then fixedto a line Alternativelygroups of soldiers may be supported by
stretched between the end boards. The small amount horizontal of walingswith single or pairs of struts or anchors
earth which has to be removed before each board is is set to each waling (figure 25).
cut away by the timberman who should care taketo
In very deep excavationsthe soldier piles may be provided
remove only sufficient earth to permit the boards to have a
in two or more settings.
good bearing against undisturbed ground.
The soldier pilesare unlikely to be set truly vertically or at
When bothfaces have been poled, the walings are placed
constant spacing, particularly when they are installed by
against the boards and temporarily propped off the
driving.Timber is therefore the best material for sheeting
bottom of the trench at their intended level. The struts,
since it can be readily cut to the required lengthfor
which have beencut tolength outside the trench with
insertion between thesoldiers. However, steel sheeting
their lip blocks already fixed, are droppedinto positionand
can be used and the ends burned off whereadjustments in
held bythe lipblocks (figure23) until the strut is tightened
length are required. Where a concrete facing wall is
against the waling by wedging. Alternatively,strut the can
desirable this is best cast-in-placein short lifts between
be tightened by cutting it slightly over-long and then
the soldiers rather than constructed from precast concrete
driving it at one end to bring it square to the waling which
planks that cannot readily be to cutlength.
is forced back by strut.the Adjustable screwstruts can
also beused. 13.1.5 Supportby runners. Runners arepitched and driven
down as excavation proceedsto formopen or close
After tighteningall struts the waling should bear against
vertical sheeting (figure 26). In badground close sheeting
each individual poling board and generally the frame
is adopted and the ends of the boards are 'toed-in' below
should be well-désignedand have a neat workmanlike
the bottom of the excavation to prevent theloss of
appearance. Theframe can then be ground propped and
ground. Timber runners are square edged and can be
puncheoned and laced to any frame already setabove it
provided with splayed chiselends. Theshape shownin
(figure 23).
figure 2 6 keeps thetimber hard against the ground and
Infirm or stiff clays in orweak rockswith widely spaced the adjacent board. The edgescan be tongued and
joints, close support of excavated faces may not be grooved for watertightness but this practice is rarely
required, and the poling boards or trench sheets can be adopted if interlocking steel trench sheets are available for
placed ata wider spacingwith gaps of one or more board use as runners.
widths betweenthem. Usuallythe walings are set at the
Timbering commencesby fixing a waling a t the toplevel
top and bottom of the poling boards or trench sheets.
(figure 26(a)).In determining the spacing of the waling
When this is done the boards ineach lower settingare
from side to side of theexcavation, allowance is made for
tucked behind thebottom waling, using tucking boards for
the insertion of wedges (pages) between~each runnerand 5
r

Licensed by Information Handling Services I ~~-
BS 6031 : 1981
the waling.To facilitate spacingand proper alignmentof driving them.The piles in each panel shouldbe corrected
the waling frames short timber uprights are set behind the for alignment,as required,by pulling the panel by steel
walings opposite theends of eachstrut and hard against ropes. If thisis not done an initial tendencyto lean
the earthface, Therunners are then set behind the becomes cumulative, requiring a special taper pile to close
walings betweeneach upright, and the main excavation the interlocks when completing a box or ring of sheet
can be commenced (figure26(b)). Ingood ground the piles.
excavation canbe taken below the toes of the runners and Sheet pilesare driven by air or steam-operated
an open spacing can be adopted. When excavatingbelow double-acting hammers, or by diesel hammers, or by
the runners the latter are held from dropping by their vibrators held by grips to the top of the sheetpiles. Drop
wedges, which shouldbe kept firmlyin place atall times. hammers or single-acting hammers may be used but
On completing the stage excavation,
of the wedgesof these require the use of apile frame or a set of hanging
each runnerare releasedin turn, the boardis driven down leaders with which to guide the hammer and keep it in
by maulto toe it into the ground below the bottom of the alignment with the pile. The noise of driving steel sheet
excavation and the wedges are then replaced and tapped piles canbe greatly minimized by enclosing pairs of piles
into position. In bad ground the toes of the runnersare and the hammer in a sound-absorbent box, by usinga
kept below excavation level a t all times. They are driven hammer or vibrator designed for low emission, noise or by
down instages of150 mm to 200 mm working using a proprietary jacking system [63, 641.
progressively along the cut. To fill the space beneath the
The sheet pilesare driven to theirfullintended depth
uprights at the strut positions short boards (cross-poling)
before commencing the excavation. As the excavationis
are packed behind the adjacent runners. Oncompletion of
taken down thesheet pilesare supported by successive
the upper section of the excavation a second waling frame
frames of walings and struts (or ground anchors). The
is set in position and strutted (figure 26(c)).
frames should be prevented from falling into the
In good groundan unsupported excavation can be made excavation by puncheons props, or suspending themfrom
to a depth of1.2 m in which thetwo frames of walings . steel rods hooked over the tops of the sheet piles or by
and a setting of runners are installed. In badground it may setting them on brackets fixed to the face of the piles
be advantageous to timber theupper 1 mto 1.2 m with (figures 27 and 28).
poling boards fixed as described in 13.1.3,except that the
Any soil whichis hanging upin the troughs ofthe sheet
first stage of excavation is taken only down to top waling
piles shouldbe removed as the excavation is taken down.
level and the short poling boards are driven down in a
If thisis not done it is liable to become dislodged, creating
manner similarto runners. When the excavationhas
a hazardto operatives workinga t the bottom of the
reached justabove the bottomof the poling boards the
excavation.
runners are fixed inside the top waling frame, which acts
as a guidein conjunction with inner guide timbersto keep 13.1.7Adjustments to supports to enable the permanent
the runners in alignment as they are driven down to work to be constructed.It is often necessary to adjust the
support thedeeper section of the excavation position of support frames during the construction of the
(figure 26(dI). permanent work.When the permanent structuredoes not
completely fill theexcavation, a t least one face has to be
This deeper stage of excavation is supported by a second
supported during the progress of the work. A typical
setting ofrunners pitchedwithin the walings supporting
example is the construction of a retaining wall in a trench.
the firstsetting. Uprightsare again usedto align the
waling frames. The upper endof the uprightis tucked The walings which are to be left in position until the
behind thebottom waling of upper setting, and the bottom supports are finally removed haveto be held in a manner
end is setabove the bottomof the next waling to give which allows the struts to be taken out, Thisis normally
space for tuckingin thenext upright belowit. done by soldiers placed vertically between strut the
positions and held at the lower ends by packingoff the
In planning the dimensions deep of excavations allowance
permanent structureand at theupper ends by struts
should be made for setting in the timbering of each stage
across the excavation. The permanent structure should
of excavation with successive settings of runners installed
have attained sufficient strength and should be in a
as described above.
condition of stability adequate to resist the thrust from the
13.1.6 Sheetpiling of excavations. Sheet piles for soldiers.
supporting excavationsare rolled steel members either In the interestsof safety andto minimize the movement of
trough orZ-shape in cross section and with interlocks to the adjoiningground, alterations of the struts in the
enable themto be driven toform a watertight wall. Guide support system shouldbe kept to a minimum.
timbers are first laid on the ground together with a guide
trestle to control the alignment and verticality of the piles. When a waling has to be removed as-thework proceeds
A pair of piles is pitched within the timbers, guide carefully it is the normal practice to bring the permanentwork up to
plumbed and then partly driven down with adjustment to the underside of the waling before removing it.
plumb as required after this first stage of driving. The Where spacehas to be provided for reinforcing steel
adjoining pilesare then interlockedwith the first pair, a projecting from partly constructed work, the positions of
panel of ten to twenty being pitchedwithin the guides. walings can be adjusted by moving them inwardsand
The last pairof the panelis driven to two-thirds of its full supporting the poling boards or sheeting members by
penetration, then the remaining piles aredriven to their full blocking or chogs (figure 29). The reinforcing steel is then
depth working backwards towards the first pair to be .- accommodated between the walings and the poling
pitched. The next panel ofpiles is pitched and driven and boards. Temporary walingsare used while adjusting the
the procedure repeateduntil the area of the excavationis previously placed members.
surrounded completely by the wall of sheet piles. In the 13.1.S Maintenance of supports. Constant inspection of
case of small excavations it may be advantageous to pitch the support systemis necessary to ensure that all
the piles around the full perimeter of the excavation before

B S I BS*bO3L 81
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BS 6031 : 1981
signs of overstressing
as indicated,for example, by struts Where poling boards have to be left in, the concrete of the
punching into walings or bowing of sheeting.Loosening or permanent structure, or backfill material, or other
distortion of frames can occur owing to drying shrinkage construction should be broughttoup the underside of the
of previouslywet timber, loss of ground from behind the waling so as to supporttheboards overa t least one-third
sheeting, shrinkage of the retained soildry in weather. and of their length before removing the waling.
accidental blows fromexcavation machinery or crane Where the ground is stiff or compact and open polingcan
skips. be used the timbering can be withdrawn before placing
Heavy pressure on the supports can occurowing to the backfill, but the filling
should be performed
swelling of timber, originally installeda dry
in condition immediately after drawing the timbers.
but thenbecoming wet in theexcavation, or swelling of a Horizontal sheetingcan be removed,board by board, as
previouslydry soil. the backfill or permanent construction is rammed against
Sheeting shouldbe kept firmly in contact with the the earthface. Finallythe H-section soldiersare
excavated face and any ‘runs’ of soil through gaps should withdrawn by jacking, or bypiling extractors. It may be
be stopped immediately. Folding wedges and wedges to more economicalto leave them inposition.
runners shouldbe inspected periodically and tightened as Operatives shouldnot enter narrow trenches or confined
necessary. If struts showexcessive punching into walings spaces in wider excavations to perform the operations of
additional struts should be introduced or hardwood facing withdrawing timbering if this involves their working in
blocks shouldbe inserted between the ends of the struts unsupported ground.
and the walings.To prevent accidental displacement of
timber atany stage in the construction the rubbing boards13.2 Backfilling. With the possible exception of trenches
and lacings shouldbe fixed between settings of struts, and in openunpaved ground, backfilling needs as much care
if required between walings also. both inplanning and construction as other portions of the
permanent works, and unless satisfactorily carried out can
Dry rot islike‘ly to occur if timbering is required to be kept be the source of much future trouble expense. and
in place for long periods. Thefaces in contact with the soil
are the first to be affected and the rot may eventually The general objectivesin backfilling are to permit safe
extend to walings and struts. When observed rapid action removal of the supports, to restore the stability of the
should be taken to prevent infection of the adjacent sound earth sides and bottom (where this is not done by the
timber by the dry rot fungi. The infected timber should permanent
be structure) and to restore the ground surface
removed and burnt. If replacement is required theuse of with a minimum of future settlement.
precast orin situconcrete or steel sheets should be The degreeof compaction givento backfilling depends on
considered. Creosote shouldbe applied liberally to timber the amountof settlement which can be tolerated in the
left inposition. Whereit is anticipated thattimber will restored ground surface and the support necessaryfor
remain in place for along period pre-treatment with a any pipesor other services which may be buried in the
fungicide isdesirable. backfill or in the adjacent unexcavated ground. The degree
13.1.9 Striking of supports. A well-designed support of compaction which can be attained depends on the
system shouldbe capableof being struck easily without nature of the backfill and on the methods
used. Generally,
risk to the operatives or damage to the permanent work. if excavated materialis used for backfillingits moisture
Unless the operations are properly planned and content anddensity, after compaction, should be as near
undertaken to a prescribed sequence the removal of the as possible to that of
the undisturbedsoils, particularly
supports may involve hazard to the operatives. Operatives with clays which maydry out or conversely become wet
should not be allowed to work in confined spaces to and soft whenin the spoilheaps. Such material cannot be
remove componentsin situations where collapse or compacted satisfactorily and it may be desirableto
yielding of the ground would trap orbury them. The replace it by granular backfill or lean concrete wherever
scheme should permit the operatives to work from ground load-bearing capacity or minimum settlement are
level or from properly supportedground while performing important. The compaction of the imported backfill has to
the striking operations. The supports are removed in the be undertaken with care, each layer being well rammed or
reverse order of installation, ¡.e. the strutsare removed vibrated as described in clause 9. Spaces left by drawing
first and the walings are strutted temporarily off the timbers shouldbe properly filledin.
permanent work as may berequired. Then backfilling Where it is necessary to place fill throughwater, only
should be placed between the permanent structure and coarse granular material should be used. Concrete placed
the sheeting. This gives temporary support to the sheeting in bags can be used where load-bearing capacity is
and allows the walings to be removed. Finally the sheeting required from underwater fill.
members are drawn. In water-bearing ground the space between the backfilled
In order to remove a strut it has first tobe relieved of excavation and the permanent structure may asact a
pressure, which may bedone by one of the following four reservoir in whichground water can accumulate.The
methods: effect of such impounded water on the permanent
(a) by driving one end sideways (where folding wedges structure or on existing adjacent works should be
have not been usedfor tightening); considered, andif necessary drainage should be
undertaken to control ground water levels. Existing land
(b) by extracting folding wedges; drainage systems intersected by the excavation should be
(c) by the temporaryuse of a screwed steel strut or a properly reinstated or diverted around permanent
jack at the end of a strut; underground structures before the backfilling is
(dl by cutting out the wedges or by cutting a short piece completed.
of strutaway from theend. This expedient may be Where new pipes are to be laid or existing pipes have to
necessary where heavy pressures havedeveloped and be re-supported, particular care is needed in backfilling if
methods (a) to (c) cannot safely beused. future troublesfrom bursts or leakages callsnrlh\r--

B S I BS*b03L B L H I b 2 4 b b 9 OOLbL42 I H
BS 6031 : 1981
differential settlementare to be avoided. Thebackfilling (c) Trench opening.The length of trenchto beopen at
should therefore be undertaken ainmanner which gives any one time and the periodit is toremain openare
uniform supportto the pipework, and in thecase of governed by the requirements for installation,
existing pipes the supportshould, as nearly as possible, be inspection and testing of the permanent works. No
equal to that of theadjacent ground intowhich thepipe trench shouldbe left open longer thannecessary.
passes. (d) Nature ofground Trial pits and intermediate
The necessary uniformity of support can achieved be by boreholes, taken to a level below the bottom of the
backfilling with selected materialplaced andcompacted trench, provide useful information, including ground
by hand and carried high enough abovethe pipes to water levels. It should be appreciated that ground
profect them fromdamage by the mechanical equipment conditions can vary widelyand frequently along a
used to place andcompact the remaining backfill.fillIfof trench and investigations before excavation are at best
suitable qualityis not available it may be advisable to use only a guide.
lean concrete instead, Consideration should also be given Excavation alongside an earlier backfilled trenchis t o be
to theuse of flexible joints in new pipework in or avoided if possible. If a trench in such a position is
connections to existing pipeworkto accommodate essential, extra care is necessary with trench supports.
settlement in the backfill or from the permanent structure.
(e) Remova1of ground water. See 1 2.3 and 14.6.
13.3 Support of excavation by diaphragm wallsor
(f) Statutory obligations. See 14.2.
cast-in-place bored piles. Permanent structures can be
used as excavation supports. They may take the form of (9) Obstructions. These may beabove and below ground
concrete cast-in-place in a trench supported by.bentonite level. Some information on obstructions below ground
slurry (diaphragmwalls), or walls formed from touching can be obtained from siteinspection, enquiries of public
bored and cast concrete piles (contiguous boredpiles), or utility authorities and trial holes.
interlocking boredand cast-in-place concrete piles 14.2 Statutory obligations. The highway authority
(secant piles). Thesemethods are useful for constructing should be consultedat an early stage in the preliminary
underground structuresin confined situations where investigations for a trench to be excavated along a
insufficient space is available for conventional timbering highway. If the work is to be carried out by a statutory
outside the permanentwork; they can alsobe used for undertaker, it is necessary to give notice of intention to the
constructing permanent retaining walls close to existing highway authorityand to receive its prior approval for the
foundations. Because of their rigid design and the position and depth the of trench, the width of carriageway
avoidance of ground disturbance caused by installing and to be keptopen for trafficand the procedure for
striking conventionaltimbering, these forms ofsupport reinstatement ofthe surface. The highway authority may
are advantageous where theyielding and settlement of require the undertakerto excavate works incontrolled
the adjacent ground surface or property have to be land abutting the street or road instead in the
ofstreet. If,
reduced t o a minimum. for any reason, it may be necessary to close a road to
Yielding of thesides of excavations for deep basements through traffic, early application shouldbe madeto the
can be further minimized by combining supportfrom highway authority.
cast-in-place retaining wallswith the rigid strutting If the trench on a highway or other land is to be opened on
provided by theground floor and any iower suspended behalf of a non-statutory undertaking, approval has to be
floors of the basement. These floors are cast on the obtained eitherin the form licence of or bya wayleave.
ground abutting the permanent retaining walls. Under theprovisions of thePublic Utilities Street Works
Excavation within theretaining wallsis then takenout Act, 1950, a statutory undertakerhas t o give notice of
beneath thefloor, the spoil beingremov'ed through proposed excavationsto other statutory undertakers
openings left for thepurpose. Although these methods when their apparatus is likely to be affected, to afford
greatly minimizeinward yielding of the sides of the them reasonable facilities for supervision, and to comply
excavation and hence settlement of the surrounding with their reasonable requirements.
ground surface, such movement cannot be prevented Where thepublic has accessto an excavation, the sitehas
entirely. Inward movement of the retaining'walls occurs to be adequately fenced, and guarded and lighted so as to
as they deflect under the external earth pressure, and as give proper warning to the public during the hours of
the strutting provided by theground floor slab or . darkness. Traffic signs are to be placed, operated and
basement floors compresses underload or shrinks with lighted in accordance with directions givenby the
the maturing,of the concrete in thesubstructure. Where highway authority or the police.
ground anchors areused temporarilyto support the
Legislation which may affect the excavation of trenches
cast-in-place concrete walls, stretch in theanchors and
yielding andcreep of the soil rock or into which the on a highway includes the Highway Acts, the Public Utility
anchors are grouted canalso cause deflection ofthe Street Works Act, 1 9 5 0 and the Road Vehicles
(Legislation and Licensing) Regulations, 1 97 1.
retaining walls.
Measures t o be takento ensure the safety of workmen,
14. Trenches trenches and adjoining works are governed by the
Construction (GeneralProvisions) Regulations, 1 9 6 1 and
14.1 Construction methods. The designof a trench and other ConstructionRegulations (see also clause 4).
the method of excavating, supporting and backfillingit In thevicinity of certain ancient monuments, historical
should take intoaccount the followingfactors. . buildings and beauty spots, private Acts of Parliament
(a) Purpose andlocation of the trench. may be in force regulating or prohibiting any excavation
(b) Size of the trench. The depth andwidth have t o be work. The planning authority should be consulted where
sufficient to allow-the permanentwork tobe properly restrictions apply. Permission isrequired from the British
constructed. Railways Boardwhenever excavation work-si
undertaken beneath or adjacent to a railway.
60
~~ ~~ -~ ~~
~ ~~~
BS 6031 : 1981
14.3 Excavation procedure devices have been developedfor use in trenches. These
14.3.1 Methods available.The principal waysin whicha are moved along or lowered into the trenchas required
trench maybe excavated are: and provide a shield for the men working in the If trench.
spoil is to be deposited alongside the trench as the work
(a) a short section of trench is opened ata time and the
proceeds, it should bedone in such a manner thatit does
work iscarried out by a single gang. This is thenormal
not form hazard
a in itself, or cause the trench sides to
method for small pipes and sewers;
become unstable.
(b) a longer section of trench is kept opento enable a
14.3.4Bottoming of trenches. Whateverthepermanent .
number of gangs to carry out all stages of thework
work, some handtrimming is usually necessary in the
concurrently. This spread method of working applies to
trench bottom. In most soils, therefore,the main
pipelines in open country;
excavation shouldcease aboveformation level, leaving
(c) the excavation for the full length of the trench the remainderto be trimmed and shaped accurately to line
proceeds stageby stage from top to bottom, frames and level. During this operation it is desirableto avoid
being added as required until the final depth is reached. trampling or otherwise disturbing the soil at the formation
This is the normal method employed in digging for level, particularly inclays, silts and fine sands. Depending
foundations ata considerable depth on a confined site, upon the purpose of the trench it may be helpful in such
particularly in areas where thereis surrounding property soils, therefore,to lay gravel, broken stoneor weak
which must not be disturbed,when consideration concrete as soon as the formationis exposed to form a
should also begiven to the needfor underpinning the protective layer. Ground water should meanwhile be kept
existing foundations. below formationlevel.
It is sometimes advisable for a part of the work to be In rock it is usually necessary to excavate to below
carried out in heading or by thrust boring between open formation level and then to place uniformly compacted
trenches or between pits sunkon the line of the work. Thissand or other fine granular material, concrete,
or to
course may be adopted when obstructions on the line of produce a true bottom. Where the longitudinal gradient is
trench cannotbe disturbed,or where the depth is too steep, the materialhas to be sufficiently coarseto resist
great for open trenchingto be practicable. erosion by apermanent flow ofground water along the
14.3.2 Trenches with sloping sides.Any widthor depth of base of the trench.
trench maybe constructed with sloping sides, provided 14.4 Mechanical excavationof trenches. When
that: mechanical excavating machines as described in
(a) the natureof the ground is suitable and the ofsides appendix A are used,the fulldepth andwidth of a trench is
the trench can stand upa at stable angle without made in one cut fromthe surfaceto the bottomof the
support for the required time; excavation, but the final trimminglevels to is usually
(b) dewateringof the ground can be effectively carried completed byhand. Temporary supportsto the sides of
out to prevent the sides slipping or the trench flooding. the trench shouldbe placed as quickly as possible as
This applies especially to water-bearing granularsoils; excavation proceeds. It may be advantageous to use a
and movable shoring device (13.1.I1for this temporary
(c) the permanent work can be installed safely in the support. Operatives should not enter the trench until
trench. In this connectionit should be appreciated that adequate protection has been provided. Ladders should be
the permanentwork, e.g. a pipeline, may be subject to available at frequent intervals
to allow safeaccess to the
greater vertical loading and have less lateral support in a trench and easy egress in an emergency.
trench withsloping sides than inone with vertical sides. 14.5 Hand excavationof trenches. When conditions
If these conditionsapply, all the excavation can be carried make it impracticable to excavate mechanically, hand
out mechanicallyby dragline, backacter,or scraper. This excavation becomesnecessary. Such conditions include
type of trench involves excavating and storing the following:
considerably more spoil than trenches with supported (a) ground too steep for amachine, or workingspace
sides, but savings in cost andtime can be made when restricted (as in narrow streets);
using such mechanical equipment. A support-free trench (b) road and railway crossings where a machine would
is advantageous where long pipes are to be laid or where interfere with traffic;
large cast-in-situ culverts or similar works have to be
(c) sites where cables, mains,drains and other
constructed. Figure 30(al shows a trench of this type up
obstructions are known toexist;
to 5 m deep, and figure30(b) asimilar trench between
5 m andTO m deep. Thedewatering system shown in this (d) paved surfaces or lawns where damage to the
illustration wouldbe adopted only if the trench were surface by amachine cannotbe tolerated
excavated below ground water level in a granular soil. (e) very bad ground which is incapable of supporting the
14.3.3 Trenches with verticalsides. Supports should be weight of a machine;
provided for all vertically sided trenches more than 1.2 m (f)when the job is small or where anyfor
other reasonit
deep which menare required to enter. Support maybe is more economicalto use hand labour.
necessaryfor shallower trenches where the system of 14.6 Methods of dewatering trenches.The various
work requires operativesto worksubstantially below methods of removing water fromexcavations referredto
surface level, e.g. kneeling orlying. Supports should be in 12.2.3.3 are generally applicableto trenches (see
inserted i n a manner thatdoes not involve risksto CP 2004).
operatives dueto instability ofthe sides of the trench,
Details of various methods for supporting vertical sides The method to be adopted, including the typeand sizeof
are given in13.1;in bad orwet ground it may be pumping equipment, dependsupon the nature of the
necessary to drive sheet piles or poling boards before ground and the volume water of tobe dealt with.It is
commencing the excavation.In addition, movable shoring important to ascertain whether the
flow of water is
61
BS 6031 : 1'981
intermittent orcontinuous and whether the rate is compacted to a dense, relatively incompressible mass for
corptant; lf*the work near is tidal water, obseyations use asbackfilling instead of the excavated material.
should bemadeto determine whethertheground w a t e r 14.9 Special cases
level varieswith the tide.
14.9.1 Narrow trenches
If there isa continuousflow ofwater,a sub-drain with
14.9.1.IGeneral. Narrow trenchesare used for cables,
sumps'af intervals may be installed below the permanent
small pipes, trench fillfoundations and land drains. They
work tokeep the trench dry. Thesesub-drains should be
are generally shallow,are not entered by workmen, and
so positioned a~nd constructed as not toweaken the
require no support to the sides if thecables or pipesare
permanentwork. Wherever possible excavation should
laid immediately after the cutting of the trench. They may
proceed inan upgrade directionso that water drains away
be excavated by hand using special narrow spades,by
from:the working face.
mechanical trencher, or by plough-type trencher.
In excavating trenchesin water-bearing soils, the
14.9.1.2 Hand-dug trenches for land drainage work. These
well-point systemof ground water lowering is particularly
trenches are dug with tapered sides, and special tools are
useful where the ground is of suitable grading or structure.
used for each spit. The first cutis made with an ordinary
Ground water should not be allowed to accumulate in the spade or graft and the second with a long tapered spade.
bottom of thetrench, and pumpingfacilities should be Lastly, a half-round scoop is dragged horizontallyto forma
provided to deal with any excessground water or shaped bottom tothe trenchto fitthe particularsize.of
temporary flood water.If wateris allowed to accumulate pipe. If the pipeis to be.surroundedby granular material,a
in thetrenches, there isa risk of displacement of practice to be preferred, this last operation maybe
completed work, including damage to timbering and lifting omitted. The pipes are placed in position by means aof
of pipes. Thedisposal ofwater fromtrench excavations pipe hook (wooden shaft with metalhook a t end).
may requiremeasures to prevent pollution of
14.9.1.3 Trenchers fornarrow trenches.There aretwo
watercourses. Approvalfrom the statutory authority is
main types of trencher for narrow trenches.
required before discharging water into a sewer or
watercourse. (a) Mechanicaltrenchers. The machines described
in A.1.4 and A.1.5 are suitable for excavating narrow
14.7 Installation of permanent work or materials in
trenches. Trailing pipe layers in the form of open chutes
trenches. Small drains or pipes and small quantitites of
may be used for laying agriculturalpipes.
concrete are usually loweredand placed byhand. Heavier
units can be placed with the helpof tripods or travelling Backacters (A.l .I1 may be equipped with special
gantries fitted withhand-operated chain blocks and narrow bucketequipment, the spoil being ejected from
tackle; with very long pipes'soldiering' arrangements are the buckets mechanically.
made in the timbering for the temporary removal of struts(b) Plough-type trenchers.These vary widely in type and
(see 13.1 - 7 ) to allow the pipesto be lowered and placed in weight andare drawn bya self-anchoring
position (see figure 3 1). Alternatively, the timbering tractor-mounted winch, by a heavy diesel-engined
system can bedesigned to permit the insertion of long winch orby a crawler tractor (direct haulage) as
pipes without the needto remove members. appropriate. Some machines aim a t excavating thefull
Heavy items maybe placed with mobile power-driven depth in one cut, others require a number runs. of
cranes travelling alongside the trench. In some instances 1 4.9.2Trenches for docks, quays and similar refaining
the excavator can beused for installing the permanent walls. Figure 32 shows a method of trenching in sloping
work inthe trenches provided that the machine is ground either partly or wholly submerged, such as might
designed to. be capableof safe operation while be found on the banka river of or in tidal waters. The steel
undertaking this task. sheeting is driven and the trenchexcavated, timbered and
14.8 Backfiiling and reinstatement surface. of diagonally bracedto prevent distortion under varying
Backfilling and compacting around any pipes or conduits pressures. A land anchorage may be required to resist the
should bedoneby hand, using selected materials, to a earth pressuresfrom the landside when the level of water
height at least sufficient to prevent damage by falls. Alternatively, fill can be placed over the area of the
subsequent compacting operations (see also13.2). permanent work and brought up
to form a working
platform above high water level. Trenches arethen
The remainder of the backfilling is then completed in excavated through the fill tothe required depthin the
layers which are levelled by hand and thoroughly underlying naturalground. Support to the sidesof the
compacted by mechanical equipment. The maximum trenches is given by means of a bentonite slurry. The
thickness.of layer should suit the nature of the backfill concrete walls of the permanent structure are then cast in
material and the type of compaction plant, having regard place through the slurry, or are inserted in the form of
to the acceptable settlement of the reinstated ground precast concrete units to the required configuration.
surface.
Bulldozers maybe used to push spoil back into a trench 15. Pits and shafts
where subsequent settlementis acceptable; in such cases 15.1 General. Pits and shafts are usually constructed on
the fillis left high to allow for consolidation. Care is needed the principles describedin clause 13. Methods of
to avoid damageto permanent workand collapse of the excavation are governed by the confined space and by
trench sides. obstructions causedby timbering. These reduce the
In maintainable highways temporary reinstatement of effectiveness of mechanical plant and may necessitate
surfaces for aperiod is often adoptedto allow the final the adoptionof specially designed equipment. Hand
settlement of the backfilling before the permanent excavation followed by loading the spoil into buckets or
reinstatement of the surface is carried out. To minimizetrays maybe more economical than machine excavation
settlement the highway authority may require, particularly The use of drilling equipment for
in small pits and shafts.
a t important roadcrossings, a materialthat can be sinking shafts is described
in 15.4.
62
BS 6031 : 1981
15.2 Methods of support of excavations. The normal reinforced concreteshoe (or curb) provided with a cutting
methods of support described in 13.1 are used. The edge. Thesoil from within the lining and below the shoe is
choice of poling boards, runners,horizontal sheetingor removed by grabbing, air-lift pump orhand excavation
sheet piling depends on the depth excavation,
of the soil or while thepermanent liningis allowed sink to in a
rock conditions,and the purposefor whichthe pit orshaft controlled manner. Thelining is extended above ground
is beingdug. Thetop of the pit or shaft should be made level as necessaryto keep pacewith the rate of sinking
large enoughto allow for the combined set-inall of the and to provide dead load to overcome skin friction on the
waling frames whererunners, or combined poling boards outside surfaceof thelining from thesurrounding soil. It
and runners, are used.Guard rails, handrails or other may benecessary t o increasethe road on the lining by
safety measuresare necessaryaround thepit or shaft at kentledge in the form of concrete blocks.
ground level. Alternatively, or additionally, the skin friction becan
The chief difference between timbering of pits and shafts reduced by injecting a bentonite slurry into the annular
and that of trenches isthat in the former'end' timbering is space between the lining and thesoil.
present i n each successiveframe, so that the walings 15.5.3 Underpinningwith segmentalliníng. A concrete
which are"caught' at their ends by the abutting walings collar is constructed in-situ at ground level andofa ring
act as sfruts (figure 33(aI). Where intermediate struts are precast concrete segments with bolted radialand
necessary to support the walings on the long of side circumferential joints is cast into collar.
the Excavation
rectangular pits or shafts, they can conveniently be then takes place within the ring by grabbing or hand
provided as diagonal members restrained from movement methods. After the soil has been removedfor the depth of
by liners. This arrangementof struts gives a clear space in r a segment overthe whole shaft area, a ringof segments is
the centreof the pit or shaft (figure 33(b)). Proprietan/ assembled and bolted to the ringabove. Excavation then
supportsystems incorporating hinged struts and walingscontinues ring by ring to the baseof theshaft. At intervals
with hydraulic jacking arrangements can also be used in cement grout is injected behind the segments to fillall
pits and shafts. voids andto prevent thelining from sinking underits own
Propping and lacing of pits and shafts follow trench weight and under dragdown forces from theloosened soil
practice exceptthat in wide and deep pits intermediate surrounding the shaft. This method can be used in
only
props and diagonal lacings are sometimes needed. soil whichcan stand unsupported over the depth of the
In loose water-bearing ground, 'runs' of soilfrombehind segment.
the sheetingmay relieve the load on the walings and 15.6.4 Cast-in-place concretehing. This methodis similar
struts causing themto collapse. To preventthis happening to thatdescribed in 15,5.3 except that concrete
the laced-up frames should be slung from long baulk cast-in-place insideformwork is used insteadof aprecast
timbers or steel beams placed acrosstop theof thehole concrete segmentallining. This method again requires the
on to an adequatebearing. The'runs' of soil should be ground to stand unsupportedwhile the formwork is
stopped by stuffing the gaps in the timbering with hay, assembled and the concrete placed. Aformwork depth of
straw, cementbags, or plastic sheeting. 1.5 m is convenient for stable ground conditions.
15.3 Drainage. The various methodsof removing water In soft, loose or water-bearing groundthe concrete can be
from excavations referredto in 12.2.3 are generally cast-in-place in a ring trench excavated with support by a
applicable to pitsand shafts.In water-bearing ground the bentonite slurryto form circular a diaphragm wall. The
mostfavourable working conditions are achieved by techniques usedfor this form of construction are
maintaining one or more temporary pumping sumps about described in-[60].
0.5 m belowthe general level of the excavation at all The concrete lining to the pit or shaft can alternatively be
stages. On reaching final excavation level the sump may cast-in-place as a ring of touching (contiguous) or
have to be timbered or provided with aperforated steel interlocking (secant) bored and cast-in-place as piles
lining surrounded by a graded gravel or filterstonein order described in CP 2004. In the case of the diaphragm wall
to allow for long-continued pumping without loss of or the bored pile wall theexcavation is taken out
ground or clogging of the pump intake. It may be subsequent to completion of the lining. The cast-in-place
convenient to construct thesumpoutside the periphery of diaphragm wall can be designed to be self-supporting
the mainexcavation. without theneed for walings orbulkheads. However,
The use af well-points or bored wells around the support in theformof ring walings maybe needed in deep
excavation for a pit or shaft
has the advantage of drawing pits or shafts lined with bored and cast-in-place piles. The
water away from theexcavation thus giving-drier workingwalings may consist of reinforced concrete sections
conditions. These methods of lowering ground water are cast-in-placeorstee1 rings assembled inside lining the and
described in CP 2004. packed off the piles with dry concretewell rammed into
15.4 Striking of supports and backfilling. These place.
operations generallyfollow large excavation practice as 15.5.5 Steellining installedby drilling methods.A
described in 13,I.g and 13.2. Care should be taken to temporary or permanent steellining can be installed using
avoid unbalanced loading either of the permanent a casing oscillator machine with moving clampswhich
structure orof the supports, impart a semi-rotary and downward movement to the
15.5 Alternative methodsof sinking lining as the soil is removed from withinlining the by
grabbing. Alternatively the pit or shaft can be drilled by
15.5.1 General. Medium anddeep pits and shafts can
mechanical auger or grab, the permanent or temporary
often be sunk economicallyby one or a combination of the
casing being installed as the drillingproceeds. In stable
methods describedin 15.5.2 to 15.5.5.
ground the pit or shaft be can
drilled to its fulldepth
15.5.2 Wellsinking.The permanent lining is constructed without support, after which a steel lining can be lowered
above ground levelin concrete or brickwork on a to the base of the hole if operatives are required to enter it.
~
-F

BSI BSmb031 B1 m
BS 6031 : 1981
Weak groundcan be supported by a bentonite slurry excavations for, trenches,pits and shafts, the main
which is pumped out after installing the liner. The requirement is to produce an effective blastwith the
permanent work can then be constructed within the steel minimum of explosive and the minimum of disturbance to
liner which is either left inplace or extracted by means of the rock surrounding the completed excavation. In both
the casing oscillator by or jacking. cases careshould be taken to cause the minimum noise
If the liner is extracted care hasto be taken toavoid and vibration and to avoid flyingrock.
damage to the permanent work. The most effective blast is achieved by drilling near
15.6 Use of ground treatmentprocesses. The sinking of vertical shot holes in rows behind and angled towards a
free face, so that the force of explosion
the is directed
deep pits or shafts in soft, loose or water-bearing ground
transversely towards the face, rather than upwards which
may, in suitable circumstances, be facilitated by one or
would result in excessive flying rock. For general
more of the special ground treatment processes. These
excavation work a face up to6 m high gives economical
include the injection of cement or chemicals to stabilize
employment of drilling equipment and explosives.
the soil and support by compressed air or groundfreezing.
Maximum effectivenessis achieved by using delay
These methods are described in CP.2004.
detonators in each row with the delay increasing with
16. Excavation in rock increasing distance from the face, thus keeping the
burden or distance between the charge and the face to the
16.1 General. Methods ofbreaking, loosening and optimum value for each row ofholes (figure34). The use
excavating rock or other hard materials are chosen of delayed charges alsominimizes the noise and vibration.
according to the conditionsprevailing, the hardnessof the
Overbreak around the sides an of excavation canbe
rock, the volume of excavation and the equipment
minimized and, in favourable rock conditions, awkward
available. Possible methods are described in 16.2
angles or re-entrants can be excavated by using of one
and 16.3.
several techniquesknown coflectively as 'controlled
Drilling and blasting is usually the most effective and blasting', and including techniques known as pre-splitting,
economical method of excavatinghard, a massively smooth blasting and cushion blasting. These techniques
bedded rock formation.Reference should be made to involve the drilling of closely-spaced holes along the
BS 5607. Blasting may not be desirable where: excavation line, and spacing the charge over the length of
(a) the site is enclosed or built up to an extent that each holein aplanned layout. Either all holes, or only
protective measures against damage to buildings, certain of theholes, are charged,some methods using
services or other property through blast, vibration, flying stemmed, others spaced charges. Thecharges in the line
material, and other hazards arenot practicable; of holes are either detonated before drilling and charging
(b) the site is adjacent to thoroughfares where blasting the holes within the main body of the excavation, or are
would cause undue inconvenienceto the public or detonated at the
same time as the charges within the
stoppage of traffic; main bodyof the excavationbut using a system of delayed
detonators.
(c) the site adjoins buildings such as hospitals and
schools where annoyance or health hazard would be When excavating in pits and shafts the centre holes
caused to the.occupants; ('cutholes') are fired first to blow rock the upwards. Then
the concentric ringsof holes are fired usingdelay
(d) blast orvibrations mightcause instability of slopes;
detonators to blowthe rocktowards thecrater formed by
(e) damage might be caused to excavation supports. the cut holecharges. Finally thetrimming hole charges
16.2 Rock excavationby mechanical or hand methods. around the periphery of the excavationare fired
Weak rocks or well-jointed and thinly bedded hard rocks(figure 35),unless pre-splittinghas been used previously
in large excavationareas can be loosenedby ripping to maintain the shaft profile.
mechanisms attachedto tractors. In confined areas such In large pit excavations it is advantageous to keep the
as trenches or pits the ripping action be caneffected by centre of the excavation at a lower level than the
teeth on the bucket ofa backactor excavator, by a toothed surrounding area, thus forming circular benches from
grab, or by a toothed rotary bucket auger. which therock is blasted towards the centre for removal
Rock can be loosened by means of mechanical impact by grab or shovel.
devices suchas air-, hydraulic-, or diesel-operated Special techniquesfor loosening rockby means of devices
hammers with chisel points, mounted on the bucket arm employing liquid carbon dioxide or by hydraulic bursters
of an excavator or suspended from a crane. are available.Thermic lances can be used to drill
Hand methods of loosening rock formations include the close-spaced holeswithout noise or vibration, but care
use of pneumatic breakers, picks, andwedges. When has to be taken to ventilate the atmosphere in confined
using mechanical hammers or handheld pneumatic spaces. Therock is then split along row the ofholes into
breakers it is desirable to excavate in the form of shallow suitable sized masses for lifting out theof excavation.
benches. The levelsof thebenches maybe governed by For the most effectiveuse of explosives with proper
the bedding of the rock and the mechanical equipment safeguards to the public and protection of property and
available. the minimum of annoyance, expert advice should be
16.3 Rock excavation by drilling and blasting. The sought. Such a service can be provided by the
techniques of rock excavation drilling by and blasting in, manufacturers of explosives.
trenches pits and shafts are different from those usedin The storage,and handling explosives,
of the loading of shot
quarrying. In the lattercase the spacingof drillholes and holes, and the connectingandfiring of the charges isto be
their loadingwith explosives is mainly governed by the undertaken with fullregard to the safety ofthe operatives
need to produce rock suitable for crushing and screeningand the public and in compliance with the
with the minimumof secondary blasting. In the case of governing theuse of explosives.

Standards
In confined surroundings the ground surface over the explosives is removed by normal earth-moving
charges should be covered with mats fabricated from equipment. Loosened rock in trenches is removed by
sleepers, heavy wire netting, ropecoils, or chains to backacter excavator, and in pits and shafts grabbing.
by
prevent damage by flying rock. Adequate warning Loosened rock in large excavations is removed by
arrangements should be provided for all persons working front-end loading shovel or face shovel
with suitable
in orpassing through the danger zone, with control of means of protecting operatives against materialfalling
vehicular traffic as necessary. from theface. Alternativelyit can be removedby dragline
16.4 Removal of loosened rock. The rock loosenedby excavator standingon the bench above the cut.
ripping, by mechanicalor hand-operated breakers or by

Licensed by Information Handling Services 65
I
BSI B S * b 0 3 1 B L m Lb24bb7 O O L b L 9 7 2 m
BS 6031 : 1981
Original ground
Finalpore pressure waterlevel
I I
/y / pore
pressure
pressure
at P
Pore hI
,originall
End of excavation
pressure pore
Shorttermmethodof
,
stability analysis
Finalgroundwater
g r o u n i waterlevel
Intermediate method of stability analysis (c', @'I

- Time
level
I L)
Safety ter'm method of stability

factor
l i Time
I
equilibrium
I Pore Dressure
redistribution
I Pore Dressur:
Rapid
excavation .... .
(a) Stability of cuttings

Embankmentraised .in layers
Groung water\eve\
Pore pressuredue to
c
Pore
pressure
atP yI
I
I
ground water level
Time
I
Safety
factor
,
e(@u
Short term methodof
= O)
I
of construction)
stabilityanalysis(end
Intermediate method of stabilityanalysis ( c ' , @)
I
Ø
Lon termmethod
- of stability
anaqysis ( c', a11
Pore pressure Pore pressure

dissipation equilibrium
-e -4
Rapid
construction
(b) Stability of embankments
Figure 1. Shortlong
term
stability
and of cutting
embankment
and slopes -
66
Licensed by Information Handling
." Services
surface
(a) Circular
(b) Non-circular
r.
(c) Diagrammatic representation
Figure 2. Types of rotational slide
Figure 3. Successive rotational slide
Figure 4. Multiple retrogressive slide
67
Figure 7. Wedge failure
Figure 9. Fall
y is the density of the soil

Centre of gravity of
strip of weight W
W
Figure 1 1. Slip circle analysis (undrained
shear strength S, varies laterally and with depth)
,Slip surface
Piezometric
head U
YW
NOTE. An arrow head hasbeen added

W to the bottom end of the force P line.
Figure 12. Slip circle analysis (effectivestress method)
Tension cracks
A
/
Resistance torotationalslide
not available over this depth
Figure 13. Effect of tension crackson slope stability
A
c ' L + W ' tan e'
Weak layer (C: @ '1
Figure 14. Non-circular slideon weak soil layer
69
BSI BS*b03L A L Lb24bb9 OOLbLSL 4 U '
BS 6031 : 198~1
For limiting equilibrium

yz sin ß cos ß= c' + (y-my,) z cos2 tan 9'
If c' = o:
. I . ..
tanß= ( P " y w ) tan @#
Y
Figure 15. Planar slide on infinite slopestability analysis
. Concreteslabs
(steelrods or cables)
Figure 16. Steep soil slope retained byground anchors (see 6.5.5.3)
wit h concrete
Rock bolts
(stressed or
unstressed 1
Figure 17. Unstable rock slope stabilized by rock bolts (see 6.5.5.4)
surface
s n g
Figure 18. Slab slide stabilized by dowel bolts(see 6.5.5.4)
70
BS 6031 : 1981
Metal or
plastics ties
Cladding
elements
Figure 19. Reinforced earth(see 6.5.5.2)
30
Silty soil
(medium plasticity
20
10
I I
'2 5 35 3
Moisturecontent %
Figure 20.Variation of undrained shear strength with moisture contentfor typical soils compacted using the
2.5kg rammer method(BS 1377) atmoisture contentsabove the optimumvalue (see 7.6i2.2)
(a) Distributionfor sands (b)Distributionforsoft (c) Distributionforstiff

firm to clays fissured clays
Figure 21. Envelope of strut loads on braced excavations
71
BSI B S * b 0 3 1 81 W 1 b 2 4 b b 7 0 0 1 b 1 5 3 B m
&S 6031 : 1981
Ground water level
Figure 22. Water-bearing permeable soils: seepage and uplift
boards or sheet
Footblock
Figure 23. Typical single or centre waling poling frame (see 13.1)

Figure 24. Close polingwith tucking frames (see 13.1)

~
-3
B S I BSmb031B3 W 11624bb7 0 0 3 6 3 5 53 W
1 :1 981
BS 6-03
74
Runner
FJirs of runners at ends of screw
Splaying a
timber runner Plan at junction of walings
(a) Stage 1
Screw struts in
;////////,
Packing "I
Waling-
(b) Stage 2
Figure 26. Trench excavation using steel trenchsheets as runners
75
BSI BSmb03L B L Lb2qbb7 0 0 L b L 5 7 5
BS 6031 : 1981
Pages between Firstsettinq of

walings and
rnners /
Guide timbers
7r
First setting
of runners
in final
position
/
Packing at II
Second
st rut pos¡t i ns setting of I
walings LThirdsetting of walings

(c) Stage 3 (d) Stage 4
m tting of walings
Lacings ( 1 pair to each waling 1
Puncheons (1pair to each waling 1
First setting of rurlners

infinalposition
Second setting of walings
Third setting of walings
Second setting of runners

infinalposition
Fourth setting of walings
Fifth setting of walings
(e)Stages 5 and 6
Figure 26. Trench excavationusing steel trench sheetsas runners (concluded)

BS 6031 : 1981 I
Light interlocking
2nd frdme (ifrequired)
Figure 27.Typical medium-depth trench with steel

sheet piling in bad ground (see 13.11
No. offrames of timberand

Spdcing of struts dependent
on strength of steel piling used
and ndtureofground and
local conditions,
\\ Hook /bolt
lockingsheet pilinq
Felt between wdll d

steel piles to allow
piles to bewithdrawn
Chdnnel to sump
m
*LL for pumping by -nature
ofground
T
Figure 28. Wide and deep trench using steel sheet
piling (see 13.1)

BS 6031 : 1981
bodrd
/Fdce /Poling boards
c Poling
boards7 /Sodce for rods
d,Space.for
rods
wedges Blockinqs. chocks,

b
t
hg wedges
or chow
I
Strut
FdCk bodrd
(a) Plan Section (b)
Figure 29. Blockings, chocksor chogs
(a) Well-point dewatering. Single stage (both sides if necessary)
t 5 m mdx.
Angle of
repose
SÚbdrain ( i f required 1 to sump in

place of well-pointsystem of
dewatermg
. ._
(b) Well-point dewatering,
Two stage (both sides if necessary)
3 m max.in firm and
(c) Frames composed of suitable boards at appropriate centres
Figure 30.Trenches with sloping sides(see 14.3.2)
78
Licensed by Information Handling Services L
G L
Screw strut
(a) Trench excavated and timbered
Temporaryscrew struts
Soldierserected inter-
mediately after pipe is Pipe in process of
'lowering
placed in top position
G L
Screw struts are remove Temporary screw struts
In stages, after temporary as required
struts are In positlon,and
replaced againstwalings
as pipe is lowered. Pipe temporarily held
Temporary struts and soldiers in position until soldiers
are removedwhenpipe is are removed
brought to bottom position
(b) Use of temporary soldiers and strutsduring lowering of pipe
Figure 31. Methodof lowering long steel pipesby use of temporary

strutting (see 14.7)
Existing ground level
Roiled steel channels

Steel sheet piling
anchorages for un
side pressures
Steel sheet piling
Figure 32. Trench timbering for quay walls, etc.

(see 14.9.2)

79
E S 1 BS*b03l B l m
BS 6031 : 1981
-Poling boards
Plan on A-A
Pit or shaft frame for poling
boards
Runners\, Uoriahts
Fdcepiece>
Cross I
poling ~
...
Liner
Waling and struts omitted for clarity
Crosspoling
Plan on B-B
Pit or shaft frame for runners
The bottom left-hand corner detail shows positionof uprights when groundis loose;
first,-and cross poling isnecessary.
corner uprights cannot be placed
(a)
Puncheon
Clqa? ,"-Poling' boards I
P Diagonal strut
Figure 33. Method of excavating isolated pitsand shafts(see 5.2)

80
BS 6031 :T981
rSecond delay
rFirst delay
I- Instantaneous
t
//
Base of
excavation
Drill holes
O / o
O O O
O O O
Figure 34. Rock excavation by drilling and blasting:

general excavation
-Trimmer
holes
-Cut holes
Figure 35. Rock excavation by drilling and blasting: pits and shafts

ES1 BSXb03L A L Lb24667 O O L b L b 3 O
BS 603-1: 1981
Appendix A the earth-moving transport is only able to operate attop

ground level.
plant for earthworks
Descriptions of construction
A.l Excavation plant The useof the universal excavator fitted withthese
A.1 .IGeneralpurpose excavators.General purpose different attachments enables high utilization of the basic
excavators consist ofa power unit, usually mounted on machine as it is adaptable to a widevariety of conditions.
tracts, operatinga variety of digging equipment located onA.1.2 Front endloaders. Front end loaders consist of
jibs or hydraulically controlledarms. Theprinciple types purpose-built shovels mounted on track or rubber-tyred
and functions of digging equipment are as follows. operating powerunits. Some front end loaders are
(a) Dragline equipmentpermits the machine to cast a basically bulldozers in
which the bulldozing bladehas
bucket controlled by ropes and 'to excavate at a been replaced by a bucket.
Considerable use is made of
considerable distance below orfront in of the prime rubber-tyred loadersin quarries where material is
mover. It can cast the excavated material to one sideor excavated from aface and transported a short distance by
load it into transport. a loaderto lorries or directlyinto reception hoppers
leading by conveyor to the crushing or screening plant.
(b) Backacter or hoe equipmentconsists of a bucket on
the end of the jointed arm digs that back towards and On many civil engineering projects the front end loaderis
mainly below themachine. It is usually employedto widely used for cleaningaccess roads, moving materials
load into transport,and when used in a trench deposits from stock piles intotrenches, and feeding materials
material to one side. between different parts of the site, all in addition to acting
as a piece of excavating plant.
(c)A face shovelis a bucket fitted to a jointed arm inthe
reverse direction to the backacter.It digs into the face in A.1.3 Tractors andscrapers.Tractors andscrapers can
front of and above the machine. both excavate and transport material. Rubber-tyred
scrapers can travel quickly over suitable surfacesareand
(d)A skimmer has a bucket that travels horizontally economical overa considerable range of haul distances.
along an arm to trim off the surface of the level whichon However, when the conditions at the point of loading are
the machineis standing. Backacters and face shovels very soft or slippery the scrapers may require pushing by a
are alsoused for this purpose. powerful track-laying tractorto load quickly and
(e)A grab can be fitted to basica machine havinga jib effectively. Somescrapers arefitted with powered
and is used for mucking out from within timberedor elevating equipmentto assist loading.When the
sheeted excavations or cofferdams, or fordredging conditions both forloading and for traversingare too soft
purposes. It can also befitted to basica machine having for rubber-tyred plant, then track-laying tractors and
an hydraulically poweredarm, andis then itself scrapers have to be used. Becausethey are slow theyare
power-actuated. In thiscase the length of reach and theunlikely to be used forhauls of more than300 m.
depth to which the grab can operate are very limited by Most major earth-moving contracts involve the use of
comparison with grabs operated by jibs. In highly .
rubber-tyred scrapers, the sizes of which usually vary
specialized operations such as pile excavations or the between 1 O m3 and 25 m3 struck. In general,
excavation for diaphragm walls, powered digging twin-engined machines driving all four wheels maintain
buckets are mounted on a special equipment mast fixed traction far better on softer surfaces and steep gradients.
both tothe jib and to a table projectingforward from the The economical haullimit forthese machinesis usually no
base of the machine. more than2000 m.
The effectiveness of these different types of equipment Tractors and scrapers can usually unload underown their
depends on the stiffness of the soils being excavated. The power and spread the material to a required thickness and
more positive hydraulically operated machines are in the right position. This can reduce the amount of
generally moreefficient. Hydraulically operated additional spreading equipment required. In exceptional
equipment generally requires to stand closerto the cases they mayrequire pushing assistance to unload.
excavation than equipment operated rope. by Themost
effective method ofexcavation is to use a face shovel A.1.4 Continuous trenchingmachines.These machines
digging forward and loading direct into transpoitstanding comprise an arm fitted withcontinuous chainsto which
alternately on each side of themachine. This requiresthat are attached bucketsof a widthsuitable for the trench
the excavation atall times should allowboth the required. Thesemachines are very effective in consistent
excavating plant and the earth-moving transport to ground conditions.They areunable to cater for
operate readily over it without damage. obstructions which may bemet and coarse gravel or
cobbles can affect their output. In the right ground
Dragline equipmentis suitable fora wide range of conditions their speed of operation justifies their use.
materials but does not dig hard material as readily as the
hydraulically powered face shovels or backacters.It is Continuous trenching machines can
be used for trenches
able to operate ina wide range of bucket sizes though the ranging from those required for narrow vertical drains
to
cost of the machine increases as the bucketsize wide trenches for pipelines up to1 m indiameter.
increases. Thedragline is normally used in situations A.1.5 Bucket wheelexcavators. Bucket wheel excavators
where its length of reach is of paramount importance, and are a particular form of front loading machine. Digging
in situations where excavation is required a t the same buckets are attached to a revolving heada t the end ofan
level ora t a levelbelow thata t which the machine and the arm that points forwards from the base machine. They
. earth-transporting vehiclecan operate. load ontoa conveyor belt stretchingdown the arm and
The backacter or trenchhoe can befitted with a wide across thetopbf the machine,feeding asecondary
range of buckets. This type of equipment is commonly conveyor belt having reception facilities a t the back of the
used for trench excavationand in situations where machine. This in turn may feed further conveyor belts or
excavation requiresto be removed from the top orwhere may load directly into earth-moving transport.

. ~~ ~
~ ~ -~ ~~~ ~
~. ~
~ ~~
~ . ~
~~~~~
_ _~ __
~~~
_ _ __
_ _ _ _ ~ _
BS 6031 : 1981
Bucket wheel excavators are designed for continuous machines can either have a steerable axle or centre point
digging performance and to be effective haveto be of steering. Roller weights can also be varied by attaching
robust construction.The sizeand designof themachine kentledge andwheel loads of up to 13 tonnes can be
should have particular relevanceto the typeof ground to dbtained. Those heavier wheelloads enable the
be excavated. Theseexcavators maybe obtained in a compaction of thicker layers which can frequently reduce
variety of sizes and maybe diesel or electric powered. the numberof passes required.
A.1.6 Specialistexcavatingplant.Other specialist plant A.2.3 Gridrollers. A cylindrical roller the surface of which
includes dredgers and cutter suction equipment using air, consists of a network of welded steel bars arranged in a
water or bentonite lift, and water cutting/slusher devices. rectilinear patternis termed a grid roller, It is best suitedto
The latter employ high pressure water-jets to wash down material requiring high contact pressures but little
the faceto be excavatedto collecting equipmentwhich kneading action,forexample, rockfill and most coarse
removes the spoil usually by pipeline or conveyor belt. grained granularsoils.
A.2 Compaction plant A.2.4 Sheepsfoot rollers. These rollers comprise a hollow
A.2.1 Smooth-wheeledrollers. Smooth-wheeled rollers are steel cylinder, to the rolling surface of whichare attached
suitable for mosttypes of fill. They are inappropriate for fill rows o f steel feet projecting from the surface.
where a mixing-kneadingaction is desired andwhere The performanceof theroller is a function of the number,
smooth interfaces between layers should avoided. be arrangement andshape of the steel feet.These feet may
However, they are useful for 'sealing' the surface, fill be shaped in the formof tapers, cylinders or clubs and
¡.e. giving a smooth surface to promote rainfall run-off, designed so that the compacted material is not lifted out
prior to temporary cessationof embanking. They can be as the feet withdraw. Sheepsfoot rollersare most
self-propelled ortowed, frequently by a track-laying commonly towed but where use theof specialist plant can
tractor. be justified they may be self-propelled andfitted with a
Three-wheeled roadrollers may offer the choice of dozer blade.
standard transmissionwith clutches for general work, or During thefirst fewpasses the feet penetrate the loosely
with torque converteror hydrostatic transmissionto spread layer of fill and theroller weight may be carried
provide smooth, shockless drive. Roll diameter, load and directly by the soil beneath the drum or by feeton
the the
rolling resistanceare important factors for satisfactory next lowerlayer. During subsequentpasses the feet
performance. The weightdistribution can be altered by compact thesoil in the lower partthe of toplayer so that
adding sandor waterballast to the rolls or by attaching the roller walks outof the layer, which progressively
ballast weights tothe main frames. Some rollers have becomes denserand stronger and ableto support the high
combined steering on front and rearrolls to facilitate pressures from the feet.The rollers are best suitedto dry
rolling right upto the inside and outside of curves. A fine-grained soils especially where it is desirable to break
constant roll overlap is maintained and there is less up lumps of stiff clay and weak rock.The top ofeach last
chance of scuffing the surface. compacted layeris left in a loose or rough state, which
Tandem rollers usually have torque converter facilitates good bonding between successive
layers.
transmission, and thereis a choiceof machines with A.2.5 Tampingrollers.These aresimilar to sheepsfoot
either a steerable rear roll or centre steering.
point Cenfre roliers but witha higher ratio of footarea to cylinder area,
point steering, although providing better tracking, is more the footarea generally exceeding15 % of the swept area
expensive. of the drum. They are suited Po the wetterfine-grained
A.2.2 Pneumatic-tyredrollers. Pneumatic-tyred rollersare material, suchas cohesive soil, at orabove the plastic
capable of compactinga wide range of soils from clays to limit.
granularfills. Theyare designed.to give a kneading action A.2.6 Vibratory rollers
to thematerial, the back wheels being of out
line with A.2.6.1 General. These aresmooth-wheeled machines
those a t the front to cover thework completely. fitted withan engine-driven vibratingunit. Vibrating rollers
Most pneumatic-tyredrollers are self-propelled with an are available with weights rangingfrom 150 kg to
odd numberof tyres ranging from 7 to 19 on t w o axles. 15 O00 kg and operateat pulse ratesin therange of
Large tyres and wheel loads give greater effective depth 1 1 O 0 to 2000 pulses/min. These rollers are particularly
of compaction,but since theyare further apart some of effective for the compaction of coarse-grained materials
the kneading action contributing to compaction islost. such as sands,gravels androckfills. The weight and
Large tyres offer less rolling resistance and more contact vibration characteristics should be selected for their
area. The special tyres haveto have a wide, flat tread effectiveness on the soil and the layer thickness being
since round-shaped tyres would squeeze material treated, so that fullcompactive penetrationis achieved.
sideways. The tyre pressure has to be adjusted to suit the Vibratory rollers have a tendency to dig themselvesin
material and the provisionanofair compressor is when operated on too thick layer.
a
essential. In some machines, tyre pressure can be varied The principal types of vibratory roller are described
whilst themachine is operating. inA.2.6.2 to A.2.6.8.
Some rrJllers are provided with oscillating axles to prevent
A.2.6.2 Single roll pedestrian-controlledrollers. The
the bridgingof lowspots and depressions with the
principle of vibration is an eccentric shaftin themiddle of
individual wheelsfollowing ground surfaceirregularities.
the roll whichis supported on flexible mountings.
These aresometimes referredto as 'wobbly wheel'
rollers. These rollers feature simplicity of control, a cleartoside
allow for Compaction against kerbs and a choice of petrol
Pneumatic-tyred rollers can be drawn bytractor or
or diesel engines. Some machines have a high centre of
bulldozer or can be self-propelled. Self-propelled
83
BS 6031 : 1981
gravity which renders control difficult on uneven terrain. A.2.6.7 Self-propelledvibrating rollers.The large
A.2.6.3 Double rollpedestrian-controlled rollers (vibration in self-propelled vibratingrollers have a vibrating frontroll,
each roll). The advantages ofa double roll over a single rollcentre point articulatedsteering, anda choice of rear
are easiercontrol withno weight on the operator and the driving wheels. Depending on the application, the
ability to achieve the same compaction in half the numbermachines canbe equipped with traction treadtyres,
of passes. It is common to have eachvibration roll either smooth tyres or smooth steel rolls. These machines are
supported independently in its own flexible mountings or highly manoeuvrable and
have good stabilitydue to a.low
rigidly connected to the frame.The latter method often centre of gravity. They can beobtained with a facility for
utilizes vertically directed vibration produced by varying the frequency of vibration.
synchronized eccentric weights in the rolls. A.2.6.8 Vibratingplate compactors andtampers.,Vibrating
A.2.6.4 Tandem vibrating rollers. These machines usually plate compactors consist of a steel base plate, with the
have a vibrating smooth rear roll and a non-vibrating edges turned upwards, on which is mounted either a fixed
deadweight smoothfront steering roll. The operator rides eccentric ora pivoted double-geared eccentric which is
on the machine, which has a t least one projection-free synchronously balanced. The pivoted eccentric
' side. Some large machines can operate at a high mechanism allows backwardas well as forward travel.
frequency and small amplitude for surface compaction, The weights of these compactors range from 200 kg to
and a t a low vibration frequencyand a large amplitudefor 2000 kg. It is important that the compactors should be
depth compaction.These machines can be usedwith or easy to control andhave a low centre of gravity.
without vibration, so widening their field of application. Vibrating plate tampershave a similar steelbase plate on
A.2.6.5 Double vibratingrollers.Double vibratingrollers which is attached a system of springs. These springs are
feature all-roll drive and vibration. Some machines have activated by a hollow piston within main
the engine
centre pointsteering, hydrostatic transmission and a housing. Inclining the main housing in the forward
vibration systemto produce vertically directed vibrations. direction is sufFicientto impart some horizontal motion to
On manyof these machines the vibration systemeach in the tamper as it is vibrated.
roll can be,operated independently of the other if desired. A.2.7 Power rammers. A petrol-driven piston connects
Other double vibratingrollers have,four rolls,mounted ina directly to the foot of the rammer. When the pistonis fired,
chassis in tandem pairs. In bothva'riations the operator is the energyis expended against the ground, which causes
seated on the machine. the rammerto j.ump, so there is compaction on the firing
A.2.6.6 Towedvibrating rollers. These rollers should have stroke and a comparable compaction when the machine
a large roll diameter to reduce rolling resistance andhence lands. Good balance. allows these machines to jump on
the power of the towing tractor. The tractocunit has to be the spot or, when given a tilt,
slight to 'walk' in any
as heavy as, or heavierthan, the roller. Thevibrating roller direction.
should be flexibly suspended to prevent the transmission The weights of these rammers are of the orrler of1O0 kg
of harmful vibrations to the roller frame. The roller frame to 800 kg. Theyare most commonly usedto compact
has to be well balanced to allow easy coupling to the small areas with granular soils, particularly in confined
towing tractor. Control the of rear engine can be areas. They are sus.ceptible to bogging if thesoils which
accomplished either mechanically or by means an of they are compacting are too wet or soft.
electrical control systemwith a push button controlbox in
thetowing tractor.
- .

BS 6031 : 1981
Appendix B 18. Vaughan, P. R. and Walbancke, H. Pore pressure

changes and delayed failures of cuttingslopes in
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over-consolidated clay. Geotechnique, 1973,23(4),
1. Jaeger, J. C.and Cook, N. C. W. Fundamentals of rock 53 1-539.
mechanics. Methuen, 1969.
19. Hutchinson, J. N.A coastal mudflow on the London
2. Engineering Groupof the Geological Society-The clay cliffsa t Beltinge, North Kent. Geotechnique,
logging of rock cores for engineering purposes. O. J. 1970,20,412.
Eng. Geol., 1970,3,1-1 9. 20. Bishop,A. W. Hutchinson, J. N., Penman,A. D."and
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in causes and circumstancesof thedisaster of
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preparation of maps and plans in terms ofengineering Min. Metal,2nd ed., 1977.
geology. O.J. Eng. Geol., 1972'5,293-381.
22. Taylor, D. C. Fundamentals ofsoilmechanics. Wiley,
5. Rowe, P. W. The relevance of soil fabric to site NewYork, 1948.
investigation practice.Geotechnique, 197 1,22(2).
23. Gibson, R. E. and Morgenstern,N. R! A note on the
193-300.
stability of cuttings in normally consolidatedclays.
6. Hudson, J. A. and Ryley, M. D. Measuring horizontal Geotechnique, 1 962,12,212-2 16.
ground movements.Tunnels and Tunnelling,1978,
23A. Bishop,A. W. The useof the slip circle inthe
10(2), 55-58.
stability analysisof slopes. Geotechnique, 1955,5,
7. Building Research Establishment.Reportof the (I), 7-1 7.
aggregates andwaste material working group.Current
papers 3 1 /73. 24. Bishop, A. W. and Morgenstern,N. R. Stability
coefficients for earth slopes. Geotechnique, 1960,lO,
8. Building Research Establishment.A surveyof the
129-1 53.
locations, disposalandprospective uses of themajor
by-products andwaste material. Current 25. Skempton, A. W. The pore pressure coefficients A
papers 19/74. and B. Geotechnique, 1954,4,143-I 47.
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waste and lowgrade materials in road construction. soil propertiesin the triaxialtest. Arnold 1957.
Part 1. Guide to materials available. Laboratory 27. Morgenstern, N. R. and Price, V. E.The analysisof the
Report 647.1974. stability of general slipsurfaces. Geotechnique, 1965,
15,79-93.
Part 2.Collieryshale. Laboratory Report649.1974.
28. Sarma, S.K. Stability analysis of embankments and
Part 3.Pulverisedfuelash. Laboratory Report686.
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1974.
29. Janbu, N. Slope stability computations in
Part 4.lncineratedrefuse. Laboratory Report728.
embankment damengineering, in Hirschfeld, R. C.
1974. and Poulos, S.J., eds., Casagrande Volume.Wiley,
1 O. Stott, J. P. Optimization of road layoutby computer New York, 1973,47436.
methods. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1973,55(2), 67-85.
30. Hoek, E., Bray, J. W.and Boyd, J. M. The stability of a
1 1 . InternationalStandards andrecommendedpractices rockslope containing a wedge restingt won o
for aerodromes, Annex14.6th ed. ICAO, 1 97 1. intersecting discontinuities.O.J.Eng. Geol., 1973,
12. Chandler, R. J. and Skempton,A. W. The design of 6,l.
permanent cutting slopesin stifffissured clays. 3 1'. Zinciewicz, O.C. and Cheung, Y. K. The finite element
Geotechnique, 1974,24,457-466. methodin structuralandcontinuurn mechanics.
13. Skempton, A.W. and Hutchinson,J. N. Stability of McGräw-Hill, 1967.
natural slopes and embankment foundations. 7thInt 32. Obert, L. and Duvall, W. I. Rockmechanics andthe
Conf I.S.S.M.F.E.,Mexico, 1969,State of theArt design of structures in rock.Wiley, 1 9 7. 6
Volume.
33. Schofield, A. N. Cambridge geotechnical centrifuge
1 4.Proceedings of the European Symposium on operations. Geotechnique, 1980,30,225-268.
penetration testing. Stockholm, 1974.
34. Bienatawski, K. Stability of slopes in probalistic
1 5. Bjerrum, L. Problems of soil mechanics and solution. 7th lnt.Conf, SoilMech. and Found. Eng.,
construction on soff clays, Proc. 8thlnt. Conf 1969,2,527.
I.S.S.M.F.E.,MOSCOW, 1973,3, 109-1 60.
35. Markland, J. T. Risk of failure estimation fora
16. Hoek, E. and Londe, P. The design of rock slopes and predetermined non-circularslip surface.
foundations. GeneralReport, 3rd Cong. Int. Soc. Rock Geotechnique, 1973,23,1 20.
Mechanics. Denver, 1974.
36. Schuster, R. L. and Krizek, R. J. (eds.). Landslides:
17. Bishop, A. W. and Bjerrum,L. The relevance of the Analysis and Control. Transportation Research Board,
triaxial test to the solution of stability problems.
Proc. Special Report 176,Washington, D.C.
Res. Confer. on Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils.
37. Hutchinson, J. N. Assessment of the effectiveness of
Boulder, Colorado, 1960,437-501.
corrective measuresin relation to neolonical
- -
conditions and types
of slope movement.Bull. lnt.
Assoc.Eng.Geo.,1977,16,131-155.
85
i
BS 6031 : 1981
38. Littlejohn, G.S.and Bruce, D. A. Rockänchors. 52. Clark, R. H. Earthworks in softchalk. The Highway
Foundation PublicationsLtd., 1977. Engineer, 1977,24,18-2 1.
39. Price, D. I. Aspects of reinforced earth inUK. Ground 53. Proceedings of the conference on biology in civil
Eng. 1975,8(21,19-24. engineering. Institution of Civil Engineers, 1949.
40. Lee, K. L., Adams, B. D. andvagneron, J. M. J. 54, Proceedings of the conference onfabrics in
Reinforced earth-retaining walls. ASCE, J. SailMech. geotechnics. Ecole Nationale des Ponts etChausées,
andFnd. Div., 99 (SM 1O),October 1973,745-764. Paris, April 1977.
41. Vidal, H.The principles of reinforced earth.
Highways' 55.. Ayres, D. J. The treatment of unstable slopes and
ResearchBoardKJSAl Report287,1969,1-16. . railway track formations.J. Soc. Eng., 1 96 1,
42. Proceedings of the Symposium on reinforced earth and L1 1(4), 1 14-1 18.
composite soil techniques. Edinburgh, 1 977. 56. Ritchie, A. M. The evaluation of rock falls and its
I.43. Hanna, T. H. Foundationlnstrumentation.Trans.-Tech control. Highway Research Record,1963,17,13-28.

Publications, 1973. 57, Fookes, P. G.and Sweeney, M. Stabilization and
44. Williams, H. and Stothard,J. N. Rock excavation and control of local rock falls
and degrading rockslopes.
specification trials for the Lancs-Yorks motorway. . Q.J.Eng. Geol., 1976,9,37-55.
Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1967,36,607-63 l. 58. Broms, B. and Boman, P. Stabilization of deep cuts
45. Ground treatment by deepcompaction. Institution of with lime columns.Proc. 6th European Conf.lnt.
Civil Engineers, London, 1976. Society SoilMech. andfoundEng. Vienna, 1976,1,
207-2 1O .
46. Symons, I. F. Assessment andcontrolof stability for
roadembankments constructedon soft subsoils. 59. Peck, R. B., Hanson, W. E. andThornburn,T. H.
TRRL Report LR 71 1,1976. Foundation Engineering.John Wiley, 2nd ed. 1974,
456-466.
47. Groundsubsidence. Institution of Civil Engineers,
1977. 60. Design and Construction of Deep Basements.
Institution of Structural Engineers. London 1975.
48. The effect of wet weatheron construction of
earthworks. CIRIA, Report No. 3. 6 1. Bjerrum, L. and Eide, O. Stability of strutted
excavations in clay. Geotechnique, 1956,6(1), 32-47.
49. Lewis, W. A. andParsons, A. W. The application of
belt conveyorsin road earthworks.Proc. Inst. Civ. 62. Cheney, J. E. Techniques and equipment using the
Eng., 1973,54,425-450. surveyor's level for accurate measurement of building
50. Parsons. A. W. Earthworksinsoft chalk. TRRL Report movement. Fieldinstrumentation in Geotechnical
Engineering, Butterworths, 1974,85-99.
No. LR 112,1967.
5 1. Ingoldby, H. C. and Parsons, A. W. The classification of 63. Page, E. W. M. and Semple, W. Silent and vibration
chalk for use as a fillmaterial. TR R L Repórt free sheetpile driving. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,1968,41,
No. LR 806,1977. 475-497..
64. Langley, M. S. and Ellis, P.C. Noise and vibration
" during piling. Proceedings of the Conference onrecent
developmentsin the design and construction of piles.
Institution ofCivil Engineers, 1979,289-297.

"- Licensed
. ._;i.by Information Handling Services
Standards publications referred to
CP 2* Code of practice for earth
retaining
structures
CP 1 lot Code of practice for the structural use of concrete
CP 2004 Code of practice for foundations
BS 1377 Methods of test for soil for civil engineeringpurposes
BS 5607 Code of practice for safe use of explosives in the construction industry
BS 5930$ Code of practiceforsiteinvestigations
BS ....5 Code of practice for safety in tunnelling
....
BS 5 Ground
anchors
* Under revision.
t Referred to in the foreword only.
* Formerly known as CP 2001.
J In preparation.

BS6031 : 1981
This British Standard, having been prepared underthe direction of BSI. This does not preclude the free use, in the course of
the Civil Engineering and Building Structures Standards Committee, implenlenting the standard, of necessary details such as symbols and
was published under the authority of the Executive Board and size, type or grade designations. Enquiries should be addressed to
comes into effect on 30 June 1981. the Publications Manager, BSI, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes
MK14 6LE. The number for telephone enquiries i s 0908 220022
@British Standards Institution, 1981
and for telex 825777.
First published (as CP 2003) April 1959
Contract requirements. A British Standard does not purport to
First revision June 1981
include all the necessary provisions of a contract. Users of British
ISBN O 580 11835 5 Standards are responsible for their correct application.
The following BSI references relate to the work on thisstandard:
Committee reference CSB/3 Draft for comment 77/13223 DC Revision of British Standards. British Standards are revised, when
necessary, by the issue either of amendments or of revised editions.
British Standards Institution. Incorporated by Royal Charter, BSI is It is important that users of British Standards should ascertain that
the independent national body for the preparation of Britlsh they are in possession of the latest amendments or editions.
Standards. It is the UK member of the International Organization Automatic updating service. BSI provides an economic, individual
for Standardization and UK sponsor of the British National and automatic standards updating service called PLUS. Details are
Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission. available from BSI Enquiry Section at Milton Keynes, telephone
In addition to the preparation and promulgation of standards, BSI 0908 221 166, telex 825777.
offers specialist services including the provision of information
through the BSI Library and Standardline Database; Technical Help Information on all BSI publications i s in the BSI Catalogue,
to Exporters; and other services. Advice can be obtained from the supplemented each month by BSI News which is available to
Enquiry Section, BSI, Milton Keynes MK14 6LE. telephone subscribing membersof BSI and gives details of new publications,
0908 221166, telex 825777. revisions, amendments and withdrawn standards. Any person who,
Copyright. Users of British Standards are reminded that copyright when making use of a British Standard, encounters an inaccuracy or
subsists in all BSI publications. No part of this publication may be ambiguity, is requested to notify BSI without delay in order that
reproduced in any form without the prior permission in writing of the matter may be investigated and appropriate action taken.
Code Drafting Committee CSB/3

Earthworks
Chairman M r M J Tomlinson Institution of Water
Engineers Mr N J Ruffle
British Railways Board M r D J Ayres and Scientists
M r A Onions Royal Institute of British M r A J Southard
County Surveyors' Society
Architects
Department of the Environment M r R E Boshier
Trades Union Congress M r J Dawson
(PSA) M r K O Pook
Department of the Environment Dr A D M Penman Co-opted
Members Mr R E Bloomfield
Dr J A Charles
(Building Research Establishment)
M r G I Cottis
Department of Transport (Highways) Miss S B Crutchlow M r R M W Cotton
Federation of Civil
Engineering M r O P Edge M r B Cox
Contractors M r C Garrett
M r G Walton M r A T Hutchinson,OBE
Geological Society of London
Prof J N Hutchinson
Health and SafetyExecutive M r T R Mills M r D C Lindsay
Institution of CivilEngineers M r J N Holmes M r E T Purcell
Institution of Highway Engineers Lt ColF R Oliver, OBE M r D W Quinion
M r H J Stevens
Institution of MunicipalEngineers M r A W Bullett M r J S Tanner
Institution of StructuralEngineers M r S Thorburn M r J C Waddington
M r B O Corbett M r H V Wells
M r P Mason
Secretary M r W T Sharp
Amendments issued since publication
Amd. No. D a t e of issue Text affected
425 1 April 1983 Indicated by a line in the margin
British Standards Institution 2 Park Street London WIA 2BS Telephone 01-629 9000 Telex 266933 m
CSB/3


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BS6031 : 1981

(Reprinted, incorporating Amendment No, 1)

Code of practice for

Code de bonne pratiquepour les travaux de terrassement

Richtlinie für den Erdbau

British Standards Institution

COPYRIGHT British Standards Institute on ERC Specs and Standards

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British Standard Code

Section one. General 3.Definitions

* Formerly knownas CP 200 1.

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6.1.4 A guide for preliminary design As

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channel flow [ 161.Consideration should be given

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slips or falls may occur

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* DD . .. . Ground anchors(in course of preparation). I J "-.

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by ground treatmentmethods, e.g. installation-of vertical consideration should be given to:

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materials to be excavated,the prevailing weather 8.4Earth-moving. Earth-moving is the removal of

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operations other than on a relatively small

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drawdown of ground water levels outside the periphery

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