Module 2

CE302 DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
MODULE - II
Canal Irrigation
Classifications of Canal
1. Classification based on nature of source of supply

a. Permanent canal
 Canal having a permanent source of supply.
 Also known as perennial canal.
 It has also permanent masonry works for regulation and
distribution of supplies.
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b. Inundation canal
 Source of supply is not permanent (or perennial).
 Flow occurs during the time of high flood in the river.
 Not provided with any diversion headwork. But canal head
regulator is usually provided.
2. Classification based on financial output
a. Productive canal
 Which yield a net revenue to the nation after full development of
irrigation in the area.
b. Protective canal
 A sort of relief work constructed with the idea of protecting a
particular area from famine.
3. Classification based on the function of canal
a. Irrigation canal
 Carries water to agricultural fields.
b. Carrier canal
 Besides irrigation, it carries water to another canal.
c. Feeder canal
 Constructed for feeding two or more canals.
d. Navigation canal
 Used for navigation purposes.
e. Power canal
 Canal used for hydraulic power generation.
4. Classification based on boundary surface of the canal
a. Alluvial canals
 Canal excavated in alluvial soils, such as silt.
b. Non-alluvial canals
 Canal excavated in non-alluvial soils, such as loam, clay, etc.
c. Rigid boundary canals
 Canal having rigid base and rigid sides, such as lined canal.
5. Classification based on the discharge and its relative importance in a given
network of canals.
a. Main canal
 Carries water directly from the river or reservoir.
b. Branch canal
 Branches of the main canal.
c. Major distributary
 Takes off from the branch canals.
d. Minor distributary
 Takes off from major distributary.
e. Water course (or field channel)
 Small channel which ultimately feeds the water to irrigation fields
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6. Classification based on canal alignment

a. Contour canal
b. Watershed canal
c. Side slope canal
Canal alignment
A canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be
irrigated, with shortest possible length and at the same time its cost including cross
drainage work should be minimum.
Shorter canal has less loss of head due to friction and smaller loss of discharge due to
seepage and evaporation.
According to alignment, canals can be classified as;
1. Watershed canal (or Ridge canal)

2. Contour canal
3. Side slope canal
(1) Watershed Canal or Ridge Canal

 A ridge canal is aligned along a ridge line (or watershed) and runs for most of
its length on a watershed.
 When a channel is on the watershed, it can command areas on both banks and
hence large area can be brought under cultivation.
 Also, no drainage can intersect a watershed and hence the necessity of
constructing cross drainage works is obviated.
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 When watershed takes very sharp loops, the canal may be aligned straight to
save considerable idle length. The area of the loop b/w the watershed and
the canal cannot be irrigated by this canal as there will be high ground on one
side. So, some other arrangements may be required.
 Canals may have to leave the watershed to by-pass towns and villages
situated at the watershed.
(2) Contour canal
 A channel aligned nearly parallel to the contours of the area is called a
contour canal.
 When a canal takes off from a river in a hilly area, it is not possible to align
the canal on the watershed as the watershed on the top of the hill may be
very high and the irrigation is on the valley. The canal is aligned roughly
parallel to the contours of the area.
 The contour chosen should be such that all culturable area is included.
 Contour canal can irrigate only on one side. As the ground level on the other
side is quite high.
 Contour canal does not follow the same contour all along. To enable the water
to flow by gravity, some surface slope is given.
(3) Side slope canal

 It is a channel roughly aligned at right angles to the contour and is neither
on the watershed nor in the valley.
 Such a channel would be roughly parallel to the natural drainage of the
country and hence it does not have any cross-drainage.
 However, it has very steep bed slope.
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General considerations for alignment
1. The alignment should ensure (i) the most economical way of distributing water to
the land, (ii) as high a command as possible, and (iii) minimum number of cross
drainage works.
2. Ridge canals is preferred since it is most economical.
3. The length of the main canal from the point where it takes off from a river to a
point where it mounts on a watershed should be minimum.
4. The cross drainage works should be minimum.
5. The alignment should avoid villages, roads, cart tracks, cremation places, places of
worship and other valuable properties.
6. The alignment should pass through the balanced depth of cutting.
7. The number of kinks and acute curves should be minimum.
8. Length of canal should be minimum and branches, etc. should be economically
planned.
9. The alignment should not be in rocky or cracked strata.
Cross section of an irrigation canal
 A typical section of a canal partly in ‘cutting and partly in filling’ enables the
balancing of earthwork in excavation and filling.
 When natural surface level (NSL) is above the top of the bank, the entire canal
section will have to be in cutting and called ‘canal is cutting’.
 Similarly, when natural surface level (NSL) is lower than the bed level of the
canal, the entire canal section will have to be built in filling, and it is called ‘canal
in filling’ or ‘canal in banking’.
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Components of cross-section
 Side slopes
 Berms
 Freeboard
 Banks
 Service Roads
 Back berms or Counter berms
 Spoil banks
 Borrow pits
Side slopes
 Slope should be such that they are stable, depending upon the type of the soil.
 Comparatively steeper slope can be provided in cutting rather than filling.
 (1 H : 1 V) to (1.5 H : 1 V) -> cutting
(1.5 H : 1 V) to (2 H: 1 V) -> filling
Berm
 Berm is the horizontal distance left at ground level between the toe of bank and
the top edge of cutting.
 The berm is provided such that the bed line and the bank line remain parallel.
 If S1 : 1 is the slope in cutting and S2 : 1 is the slope in filling, then the initial
berm width = (S2-S1) d1
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Purpose of berms:
o To help the channel to attain regime conditions

o Gives the bank additional strength to the banks and provide protection against
erosion and breaches.
o Protects the bank from erosion due to wave action.
o Provides a scope for future widening of the canal.
Free board
 The margin b/w FSL and bank level is known as free board.
 Amount of freeboard depends on the size of the channel.
 The generally provided values are;
Discharge (m3/s) Extend of free board (m)
1 to 5 0.50
5 to 10 0.60
10 to 30 0.75
30 to 150 0.90
Banks
 Primary purpose of banks is to retain water.

 Banks can be used as means of communication and as inspection paths.
 They should be wide enough so that a minimum cover of 0.50 m is available above
the saturation line.
Service Roads
 Service roads are provided on canals for inspection purposes.

 Also serves as a means of communication in remote areas.
 Provided 0.4m to 1.0m above FSL, depending upon the size of the channel.
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Back berms (or Counter berms)
 Even after providing sufficient section for bank embankment, the saturation
gradient line may cut the d/s end of the bank.
 In such case, the saturation line can be kept covered at least by 0.5 m with the
help of counter berms.
Spoil banks
 When the earthwork in excavation exceeds the earthwork in filling, even after
providing maximum width of bank embankments, the extra earth has to be
disposed-off economically.
 Transporting this material may become very costly, and an economical mode of
disposal is collecting this soil on the edge of the bank embankment itself, called
spoil banks.
Borrow pits
 When earthwork in filling exceeds earthwork in excavation, the earth has to be

bought from somewhere. It is very costly affair to bring soil from distances.
 The pits which are dug for taking earth are known as Borrow Pits.
 If such pits are excavated outside the channel, they are known as external
borrow pits, and if they are excavated somewhere within the channel, they are
known as internal borrow pits.
 Usually external borrow pits are not preferred due to problems like mosquito
breeding, etc.
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Balancing depth
 Maximum economy in canal construction is achieved when the earthwork in

excavation equals the earthwork in filling. Such a canal is constructed partly in
cutting and partly in filling.
 If the balance b/w the cutting and filling can occur, then the need for spoil
banks or borrow pits is eliminated and moreover earthwork has to be paid only
once in a single item.
 For a given cross-section of a channel, there can be only one depth, for which
such a balance b/w cutting and filling will occur. This depth is known as the
balancing depth.
 The value of balancing depth can be easily found out be equating areas of
cutting and filling.
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Design of canals through alluvial soils
 In India, alluvial channels are designed on the basis of hypothetical theories

given by Kennedy and Lacey.
 These theories are based on experiments and experience gained on the existing
channel over the past many years.
 If the velocity of flow in the channel is more, the bed and the banks are likely
to be eroded, and similarly, if the velocity is less, the silt which was formerly
carried in suspension is to be dropped.
 Silting and scouring must be avoided by proper designs.
 Scouring lowers full supply level and causes loss of command.
 It may also cause breaching of canal banks and failure of foundation of
irrigation structures.
 Silting interferes with the proper working of a channel, as the channel section
gets reduced by siltation, thereby reducing the discharging capacity of the
channel.
 So, a channel must be designed with neither silting nor scouring. Such channels
are known as stable channels or regime channels.
Regime channels
 A channel is said to be regime, if the flow is such that silting and scouring need
no special attention.
 Such a state can be obtained by properly designing the channel.
 The basis of designing such an ideal, non-silting, non-scouring channel is that,
whatever silt has entered the channel at its head is kept in suspension, so that it
does not settle down and deposit at any point of the channel.
 Moreover, the velocity of the water should be such that it does not produce
local silt by erosion of channel bed & slopes.
Kennedy’s theory
 R.G. Kennedy – Executive engineer of Punjab PWD investigated the upper Bari
Doab Canal system.
 He concluded that, the silt supporting power in a channel cross-section depends
on the generation of eddies.
 Eddies are generated due to the friction of flowing water with the channel
surface.
 Vertical component of the eddies tries to move the sediments up, while the
weight of the sediment tries to bring it down, thus keeping the sediment in
suspension.
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Critical velocity
 So, if the velocity is sufficient to generate these eddies, silting can be

avoided.
 The mean velocity (across the section) which will just keep the channel free
from silting or scouring is defined as the critical velocity.
 The critical velocity (𝑉0 ) is related to the depth of flow (y).
𝑉0 = 𝑐1 . 𝑦 𝑐2
c1 & c2 are constants depending upon silt discharge.
c1 & c2 were found to be 0.55 and 0.64.
𝑉0 = 0.55 𝑦 0.64
 This formula is worked out for the upper Bari Doab canal system.
 For taking account of the type of soil, Kennedy later introduced a factor (m)
in this equation.
 This factor that depends upon the silt grade is called the Critical Velocity
Ratio (C.V.R.) and denoted by m.
𝑉0 = 0.55 𝑚𝑦 0.64
Recommended values of C.V.R. (m)
Sl. No. Type of silt Value of m

1 Silt of river Indus (Pakistan) 0.7
2 Light sandy silt in north Indian rivers 1.0
3 Light sandy silt, a little coarser 1.1
4 Sandy, loamy silt 1.2
5 Debris of hard soil 1.3
Disadvantages of Kennedy’s theory
 Limitations of Kutter’s formula got incorporated in Kennedy’s theory.

 No account was taken of silt concentration & bed load. The complete silt
carrying phenomenon is incorporated in a single factor m.
 Considered only the average regime conditions.
 Silt grade & silt charge were not defined.
 Did not noticed the importance of B/D ratio.
 Did not give any slope equation.
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Lacey’s regime theory
I. Lacey’s regime channels
Even a channel showing no silting, no scouring may actually not be in regime. According
to Lacey, there are three regime conditions;
1. Initial regime
2. Final regime
3. True regime
According to him, a channel under initial regime is not a channel in regime, regime
theory is not applicable to such channels. So, Lacey’s theory is applicable only to those
channels which are either in true regime or final regime.
True regime
An artificial channel having a certain fixed section and a certain fixed slope is said to
be in regime only if the following conditions are satisfied.
(i) Discharge is constant
(ii) Flow is uniform
(iii) Silt charge is constant; i.e., amount of silt is constant
(iv) Silt grade is constant; i.e., the type and size of silt is always the same.
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(v) The channel is flowing in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character
as that transported.
(*incoherent alluvium: a material which can be scoured as easily as it can be deposited)
In practice, all these conditions can never be satisfied. And, therefore, artificial
channels can never be in true regime.
Initial regime
When only the bed slope of a channel varies due to dropping of silt, and its cross
section or wetted perimeter remains unaffected, even then the channel can exhibit no
silting no scouring properties called initial regime. They have achieved only a working
stability due to the rigidity of their banks.
Final regime
If there is no resistance from the sides and all the variables such as perimeter, depth,
slope, etc. are equally free to vary and finally gets adjusted according to discharge and
silt grade, then the channel is said to have achieved permanent stability, called final
regime.
Such a channel in which all variables are equally free to vary, has a tendency to assume
a semi-elliptical section
II. Sediment is kept in suspension not only be the vertical component of the eddies
which are generated on the channel bed, but also by the eddies generated on the
sides of the channel. Lacey, therefore assumed hydraulic mean depth (R) as
variable, unlike Kennedy who assumed depth (y) as variable.
III. Grain size of the material forming the channel need more importance than what was
given by Kennedy (critical velocity ratio (m)). So, he introduced silt factor (f).
Lacey’s Regime equations
1. 2 R = hydraulic mean depth

𝑉 = √ √𝑓𝑅
5 f = silt factor
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2. V = velocity of flow in the

channel
𝐴𝑓 2 = 140 𝑉 5
A = area of channel section
3. 𝑉 = 10.8 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2 S = slope of water surface

(usually equal to bed slope )
Using the above three equations, certain relations are derived,
(i) Perimeter-discharge (P-Q) relation
𝑃 = 4.75√𝑄
(ii) V-Q-f relation

1
𝑄𝑓 2 6
𝑉=( )
140
(iii) Regime slope equation
𝑓 5/3
𝑆=
3340 𝑄1/6
(iv) Regime scour depth relation
 When the regime width is equal to 4.75√𝑄,
5 𝑉2
𝑅=
2 𝑓
1
𝑄 3
𝑅 = 0.47 ( )
𝑓
 When actual river width does not equal to the regime width, scour
depth can be computed in terms of q
1
𝑞2 3
𝑅 = 1.35 ( )
𝑓
(v) Silt factor-Grain size relation
𝑓 = 1.76√𝑑𝑚𝑚
Where 𝑑𝑚𝑚 is the average particle size of alluvium in mm.
*refer text book for the derivation of the above relations
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Design Procedure for Lacey’s theory
1. Determine the velocity using the equation

1
𝑄𝑓 2 6
𝑉=( )
140
Where 𝑓 = 1.76√𝑑𝑚𝑚
2. Calculate the area of flow, A=Q/V
3. Compute the wetted perimeter, P=4.75√𝑄,
4. Knowing the area of flow (A) and the wetted perimeter (P), determine the depth
y and width b,
(for a trapezoidal channel with side slope 0.5H : 1V,
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 + 0.5𝑦 2
𝑃 = 𝑏 + √5 𝑦
5. Determine the bed slope
𝑓 5/3
𝑆=
3340 𝑄1/6
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Comparison b/w Kennedy’s & Lacey’s theory
Kennedy’s Theory Lacey’s Theory
Kennedy introduced CVR (m) but did not Lacey introduced silt factor (f) and
give any idea to measure the value of m. suggested method to find f with the
particle size.
Kennedy assumed that the silt is kept in Lacey assumed that silt is kept in
suspension due to the eddies generated suspension because of the eddies
from bed only, and so proposed relation generated from the entire perimeter and
b/w velocity(V) and depth(y). so proposed a relation between
velocity(V) and hydraulic mean depth(R).
Used Kutter’s formula for finding mean Lacey has his own formula for velocity.
velocity, where N is assumed arbitrarily. So, no need to choose anything
arbitrarily.
No formula for the determination of Dedicated formula for longitudinal slope.

longitudinal slope.
Involves trial and error procedure for No trial and error procedure is involved.
the design of a channel.
Simply gave the idea that a non-silting, Lacey proposed 3 different regime
non-scouring channel will be a regime conditions.
channel.
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Limitations of Lacey’s Theory
 Introduced semi-ellipse as ideal shape of a regime channel which is not correct.
 Strictly speaking, an artificial channel is not a regime channel, and regime

theory is not applicable to it.
 Did not include silt concentration as a variable.
 Did not consider the silt left in the channel.
 Did not properly define the silt grade and silt charge.
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Cross Drainage Works
 A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a

canal and a natural drain, so as dispose of drainage water without interrupting
the continuous canal supplies.
 In order to reduce the cross drainage works, the artificial canals are generally
aligned along the ridge line called watershed.
 But before the watershed (ridge line) is reached, the canal has to cross a
number of drains.
 Cross drainage work is generally a costly construction and must be avoided as
far as possible.
 A ridge canal is usually preferred over a contour canal which crosses maximum
number of drains.
 The number of cross drainage works may be reduced by diverting one drain into
another and by changing the alignment of the canal, so that it crosses below the
junction of two canals.
Types of cross drainage works
The drainage water intercepting the canal can be disposed of in either of the following
ways;
1. By passing canal over the drainage.
(i) Aqueduct
(ii) Syphon-aqueduct
2. By passing the canal below the drainage.
(i) Super passage

(ii) Canal syphon (generally called a syphon).
3. By passing the drain through the canal,
(i) Level crossing

(ii) Inlets and outlets.
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Aqueduct and Syphon Aqueduct
 In these works, the canal is taken over the natural drain, such that the drainage
water runs below the canal either freely or under syphoning pressure.
 When HFL of the drain is sufficiently below the bottom of the canal, so that
the drainage water flows freely under gravity, the structure is known as an
aqueduct.
 If the HFL of the drain is higher than the canal bed and water passes through
the aqueduct barrels under symphonic action, the structure is known as Syphon
Aqueduct.
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Super-passage and Canal syphon
 In these works, the drain is taken over the canal such that the canal water runs
below the drain either freely or under syphonic pressure.
 When the FSL of the canal is sufficiently below the bottom of the drain trough,
so that the canal water flows freely under gravity, the structure is known as a
super-passage.
 If the FSL of the canal is sufficiently above the bed level of the drainage
trough, so that the canal flows under symphonic action under the trough, the
structure is known as a canal syphon or a syphon.
Level Crossing
 In this type of cross-drainage work, the canal water and drain water are allowed
to intermingle with each other.
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 A level crossing is generally provided when a large canal and a huge drainage
(river) approach each other practically at the same level.
Inlets and Outlets
 An inlet is a structure constructed in order to allow the drainage water to enter

the canal and get mixed with the canal water and thus to help in augmenting
canal supplies.
 Such a structure is generally adopted when the drainage discharge is small and
the drain crosses the canal with its bed level equal to or slightly higher than the
canal F.S.L.
 Also, the drain water must not admit heavy loads of silt into the canal.
 Thus, in an inlet, the drainage water is simply added to the canal.
 When the drainage discharge is high or if the canal is small, the canal section
cannot take the entire drainage water.
 There may be one outlet for two or three inlets.
Selection of suitable type of cross-drainage work
 Relative bed levels, water levels and discharge of the canal and the drainage are
the primary factors which governs the suitability.
 If bed level of the canal is sufficiently above the HFL of the drain, an aqueduct
is the first choice.
 If bed level of drain is sufficiently above the canal FSL, a super passage may be
constructed.
 When the canal carries a small discharge compared to the drain, the canal may
be taken below the drain by constructing a syphon.
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 When the drain carries a small discharge, it can be taken below a large canal
through a syphon aqueduct.
 In actual field, such ideal conditions may not be available and the choice would
then depend upon many other factors;
o Suitable canal alignment.
o Nature of available foundation.
o Position of water table and availability of dewatering equipment.
o Suitability of soil for embankment.
o Permissible head loss in canal.
o Availability of funds.
Types of Aqueducts & Syphon-Aqueducts
They may be classified into three types depending upon the sides of the aqueduct:
Type I, Type II and Type III.
 Type I aqueduct:
 In this type, the sides of the aqueduct are earthen bank with complete earthen
slopes.
 The length of the culvert through which the drainage water has to pass under
the canal should not only be sufficient to accommodate the water section of the
canal but also the earthen banks of the canal with adequate slopes.
 Type II aqueduct:
 In this type, the canal continues in its earthen section over the drainage, but
the outer slopes of canal bank are replaced by retaining walls.
 So the length of drainage culvert is reduced.
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 Type III aqueduct:

 In this type, earthen section of the canal is discontinued and the canal water is
carried in a masonry or a concrete trough.
 The canal is generally flumed in this case, so as to effect economy in
construction.
 The culvert length or width of aqueduct is maximum in Type-I and minimum in

Type-III. An intermediate value exists in type II.
 Selection of suitable type lies on the consideration of economy. The cheapest of
the tree types at a particular place shall be the obvious choice.
 In these cases, the cost of abutments and wing walls is independent of the
length of the culvert along the canal.
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Previous University Questions from Module II
1. Compare Kennedy’s theory and Lacey’s silt theory.
2. Explain the different classifications of canal.
3. Draw the section of unlined canal partly in cutting and partly in filling and
explain the parts.
4. Explain the different types of aqueducts.
5. A channel section has to be designed for the following data. Discharge = 300
cumecs, silt factor =1, side slope 0.5:1. Also find the longitudinal slope.
6. What are the different types of cisterns used in falls?
7. Distinguish between watershed canal and contour canal.
8. Calculate the length of waterway, regime sour depth and the total energy level
at the upstream of a vertical drop weir for the following data. Maximum flood
discharge = 2600 cumecs, H.FL before construction = 290.0m, minimum water
level =d/s bed level = 283.0m, F.S.L of canal =289.0m, allowable flux = 1.0m and
f=1.
9. What is balancing depth?
10. What are the general considerations for Canal alignment?
11. What is a Cross Drainage work? Explain the types of Cross drainage work.
12. What is a Canal regulator?
13. Design an irrigation channel to carry a discharge of 65 cumecs. Assume Rugosity
coefficient = 0.0215.Critical velocity ratio = 1. Channel has a bed slope of
0.15m/km.
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CE302 DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

1. Classification based on nature of source of supply

6. Classification based on canal alignment

According to alignment, canals can be classified as;

1. Watershed canal (or Ridge canal)

(1) Watershed Canal or Ridge Canal

(3) Side slope canal

General considerations for alignment

Cross section of an irrigation canal

o To help the channel to attain regime conditions

 Primary purpose of banks is to retain water.

 Service roads are provided on canals for inspection purposes.

Back berms (or Counter berms)

 When earthwork in filling exceeds earthwork in excavation, the earth has to be

 Maximum economy in canal construction is achieved when the earthwork in

Design of canals through alluvial soils

 In India, alluvial channels are designed on the basis of hypothetical theories

 So, if the velocity is sufficient to generate these eddies, silting can be

c1 & c2 are constants depending upon silt discharge.

c1 & c2 were found to be 0.55 and 0.64.

Recommended values of C.V.R. (m)

Sl. No. Type of silt Value of m

Disadvantages of Kennedy’s theory

 Limitations of Kutter’s formula got incorporated in Kennedy’s theory.

Lacey’s regime theory

I. Lacey’s regime channels

(i) Discharge is constant

(ii) Flow is uniform

(iii) Silt charge is constant; i.e., amount of silt is constant

(*incoherent alluvium: a material which can be scoured as easily as it can be deposited)

Lacey’s Regime equations

1. 2 R = hydraulic mean depth

2. V = velocity of flow in the

3. 𝑉 = 10.8 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2 S = slope of water surface

Using the above three equations, certain relations are derived,

(i) Perimeter-discharge (P-Q) relation

(ii) V-Q-f relation

(iii) Regime slope equation

(iv) Regime scour depth relation

 When the regime width is equal to 4.75√𝑄,

(v) Silt factor-Grain size relation

Where 𝑑𝑚𝑚 is the average particle size of alluvium in mm.

*refer text book for the derivation of the above relations

Design Procedure for Lacey’s theory

1. Determine the velocity using the equation

Comparison b/w Kennedy’s & Lacey’s theory

Kennedy’s Theory Lacey’s Theory

No formula for the determination of Dedicated formula for longitudinal slope.

Limitations of Lacey’s Theory

 Introduced semi-ellipse as ideal shape of a regime channel which is not correct.

 Strictly speaking, an artificial channel is not a regime channel, and regime

 Did not include silt concentration as a variable.

 Did not consider the silt left in the channel.

Cross Drainage Works

 A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a

Types of cross drainage works

1. By passing canal over the drainage.

2. By passing the canal below the drainage.