Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

4 Basics of Statics and Strength of Materials

4.1 What is stress?

Stress – Internal resistance to external force. In simple words its defined as - force per unit area
(σ = F/ A). Mathematically its defined at a point as

Lim σ = F/Δ A

ΔA → 0

Stress is a surface or area based property. It could be determined at any point by assuming
ΔA → 0.

SI units of stress is N/m2. But it results in very small numerical figure & hence N/mm2 (or Mpa, Mega
Pascal) is more popular among CAE engineers.

Units
1 Pa = 10-6 N/mm2

1 MPa = 1 N/mm2

1ksi = 6.895 N/mm2 (ksi -Kilo pound per square inch)

1lbf/in2 (psi) = 6.89 x 10-3 N/mm2 (psi -pound per square inch)

1bar = 0.1 N/mm2

Consider a freely lying pen on table. Now lift the pen & hold it in your hand softly. As per the definition
of stress, force has been applied also there is area or volume of the object.

What do you feel, will there be any stress in the pen?

Please think about the answer and do not hurry to turn the page.

38
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

- Answer is : No stress ! because there is no resistance to external applied force. Technically above
phenomenon is described as “Rigid Body Motion” i.e. object displaced or translated from its original
position as it is without any physical deformation. All the formulae in strength of material or statics
are based on equilibrium condition i.e. summation of all the forces (Fx, Fy, Fz) & moments (Mx, My,
Mz) are equal to zero. At equilibrium (equal and opposite reaction force / moment) there can not be
any rigid body motion and object will have physical deformation (e.g. elongation if tensile force is
applied)

- Now hold the pen at the end in your right hand firmly & pull it by Left hand. You would experience
force (equal & opposite) in right hand to maintain the position standstill. Force experienced by right
hand is known as “Reaction Force” while force applied by left hand as “External Force”.

For linear static analysis stress is independent of material & depends only on geometry.

Steel Aluminium Brass

F F F
same force and area of c/s σ = ?

Stress is Force / Area. Its independent of material. Say 3 geometrically identical rods (same area of c/s
& length) are prepared from Steel, Aluminum & Brass. For same magnitude of force, stress generated
in all the components will be same. Hence if stress is the main criteria then there is no need to rerun
the analysis. But displacement depends upon material property ‘E’ (u = FL/AE) & it will be different for
different materials.

4.2 Types of Stress

Stress acts on area. There are three possibilities regarding direction of stress.

39
Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

Stress

⊥ 
Normal Stress’ ‘Shear Stress’ could be resolved as
⊥ & 

Normal Shear Inclined

How many types of stresses are there in the engineering world?

Only two – Normal & Shear i.e. either acting normal to area or parallel to area. Bending, torsion, tension,
compression, max. principal, von Mises stress etc. are forms of Normal and Shear stress only.

Normal stress (Acts perpendicular to cross section, causes elongation / compression )

Fx Fx

∆1/2 L Δ1/2

Results in linear elongation, measured in terms of length. Normal strain ε = Δl / L

Shear Stress {Acts parallel to cross section, causes distortion (changes original shape)}
Fx

Fx

Results in angular deformation, measured in terms of angle, Shear strain γ = θ

4.3 Types of forces

1) Based on direction of force

40
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

How many type of Forces and moments are there in the engineering world?

There are only 3 types of forces Fx, Fy & Fz & 3 types of moments in the world. All the loading conditions
like concentrated load, distributed loads, pressure, traction, gravity, torsion etc are forms of Fx, Fy, Fz,
Mx, My & Mz.
Force

Fx Fx Fx

2) Based on region of force application

Force

Point Area Line Volume

If perpendicular called Gravitational Force Centrifugal or

Pressure centriputal Force

If inclined or parallel
called Traction

4.4 Types of Moments

Moment

Mx My Mz
Torrison Bending Bending
Shear Stress Normal Stress Normal Stress

What is torque? Is it a force or Moment.

Torque is moment acting along axis of shaft / object e.g. in above figure it is Mx
41
Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

Torque causes shear stress while other two moments bending (normal) stress.

Stress is a tensor, What is tensor?

Scalar: Magnitude defines the scalar completely i.e. mass or distance. The statement “distance
between Pune & Mumbai is 192 km” is complete in itself.

Matrix representation is preferred in FEA from programming point of view. We live in 3-dimessional
space.

Basic thumb rule to represent any entity in matrix form [3]no. of additional parameters

To define a scalar no additional data is required hence scalar matrix will have [3]0 i.e. only one term.
For example mass - [m]

Scalar is also known as zero order tensor.

Vector: To define any vector, apart from magnitude one more additional data i.e. direction is required.
e.g. force, velocity etc. Statement 600 N force is acting on chair is not complete unless & until direction
of force is specified.
Matrix representation - [3]1 = 3 terms, e.g Fx
Fy
Fz
3x1

Suffix indicates direction.

Vector is also known as first order tensor.

Tensor: To define any tensor, apart from magnitude 2 additional parameters are required. i.e. the
plane on which its acting & the direction e.g. stress, strain, magnetic flux etc. Statement 20 N / mm2
stress is acting on shaft along X-axis is not complete unless surface or plane on which its acting is
specified.

Matrix representation - [3]2 i.e. 9 terms

Stress is a 2nd order tensor.

τxx τxy τxz

τyx τyy τyz

τzx τzy τzz

Diagonal terms in the above matrix (both suffixes same i.e. τxx, τyy, τzz) are normal stresses, rest of the
terms are shear stresses.

Some times normal stress is represented by symbol σ instead of τ with only one suffix i.e. σx (instead
of τxx ).
42
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

Y τxy (Shear)

F cosθy

X τxx (Normal)

F cosθz
Z
τxz (Shear)

First suffix indicates direction of normal to the area on which stress is acting and second suffix indicate
direction of stress
Y τxy (Shear)

Z τxx (Normal)

X
τxz (Shear)

How stress analysis problems are solved theoretically

Basic assumptions for nature of stress

Uni-axial Bi-axial Tri-axial

1–d 2–d 3–d
(less common) (General formulae given in Strength Real life situation, Theory of Elasticity
of Material text books) deals with the subject

43
Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

σy

τyx

τxy

σx σx

τxy

τyx

σy

σy

σz
τyx
τyz

τzx

τzy

τxy
τxy
σx τxz

τzy σx
τzx τxz

σz τyz
τyx

σy

4.5 Uniaxial or 1-D loading stress

This is the simplest form of loading i.e. Fx, Fy, Fz or Mx, My & Mz applied independently (only one load
at a time). All the experimental data (like most commonly used stress –strain diagram) is available
for uniaxial loading & it is extended for predicting failures of 2-d or 3-d loading with the help of
equivalent stresses. The same concept is used not only for static and dynamic but Fatigue analysis
also.
Uniaxial or 1-D Loading stress

Normal Shear

Tension / Bending (Force or Shear Torsion

Compression Moment) (due to force) (due to torque)

44
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

A) Tensile / Compressive stress -

σ=F/A

Stress distribution along the Stress distribution across

length (no variation along the c/s (constant across the cross
length, stress is constant) section)

B) Bending stress

σ=My/I
F

Stress distribution along Stress distribution across c/s

length Max. at fix end, zero at Tension (red) on top, compression
free end (blue) on bottom

C) Shear stress

τxy = F / A
F

Stress distribution along length Max. at center,

Stress distribution across c/s
zero at extreme ends

45
Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

D) Torsion stress

τ = Tr/J

Stress distribution along length Stress distribution across c/s

Max. at outer surface, zero at center

4.6 Biaxial or 2-d loading stress

In real life there are very few application where loading is purely one dimensional. Most of the real
life structures are subjected multi-axial loading i.e. normal & shear together. Though in general stress
state is 3-d but there are many cases for which it could satisfactorily represented by 2-d stress state
(in-plane forces & out of plane moment).
σy σy

τyx
σz
τyx
τyz
τxy τzx

τzy

τxy
τxy
σx σx σx τxz

τzy σx
τzx τxz

τxy
σz τyz
τyx

τyx

σy σy

Stress tensor for bi-axial stress analysis

σx τxy 0

τyx σy 0

0 0 0

46
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

By default all the post processors gives von Mises stress plot. What is von Mises stress & max.
principal stress?

The stress- strain diagram is plotted from standard uniaxial tensile test. This curve is helpful in
designing dimensions of component like if tensile force is known, based on yield stress one can easily
determine safe area of c/s (A = F /σyield) . But when component is subjected to multiaxial loading (i.e.
normal & shear together) nature of σ - ε curve will not be same (graph will be different). It indicates
for different combinations of loading (Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz) different graphs should be referred to. Its
just not practical to conduct so many test. Then how to design components subjected to multiaxial
loading using available test data for uniaxial loading? Its achieved via theories of failures, which gives
us equivalent max. normal or max. shear stress or energy of the component subjected to multiaxial
loading & its then equated with respective value at yield point (uniaxial tensile test).

σx

σy

Max. Principal stress –Max. value of normal stress, the plane on which max. principal stress acts, shear
stress value is zero.

σ1 = (σx + σy)/2 +√ [{(σx - σy)/2}2 + σxy2 ],

Failure criteria - σ1 (multi axial loading) = σyield (uniaxial loading).

Recommended for brittle material i.e. all casting components (transmission, clutch housing etc)

von Mises stress - Based on distortion energy or shear strain energy (= 1/2* shear stress*shear
strain*volume) theory of failure

σvon =√ 1/2 {(σ1 - σ2 )2 + (σ2 -σ3)2 + (σ3 -σ1)2}].

Failure criteria – Shear strain energy (multiaxial loading) = Shear strain energy at yield point
(uniaxial tensile test)

Recommended for ductile materials i.e. steel, aluminium components

47
Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

Why von Mises stress is recommended for ductile and Principal for brittle materials.

P
P Brittle Ductile

45IO

Plain of failure
Plain of failure

P
P

Brittle Ductile
Failure of cast iron rod subjected to uniaxial Mild steel fails at a plane inclined 45O to axis of
test is along a plane perpendicular to axis of load applications. Normal stress can not act on
loading. Clearly the failure is due to normal this plane and the only other possibility is shear
stress. Out of different theories of failures stress. Out of different theories of failures its max.
max. principal stress theory is the one which shear stress & von Mises stress which are based
is based on normal stress. Hence for brittle on shear stress. von Mises stress gives better
material component (casting parts) Max. correlation with experimental results and hence
Principal stress is recommended. preferred for ductile material.

4.7 Tri-axial or 3-d loading stress

Most general case of loading is 3-d loading. Basic strength of material is mainly restricted to 1-d & 2-d
loading cases & Theory of Elasticity or Stress Analysis deals with 3-d stresses. For tri-axial stress system
there are 3 principal stresses namely σ1 , σ2, σ3 & assuming σ1 > σ2 > σ3

τmax = (σ1- σ3) / 2

σx τxy τxz

τyx σx τyz

τzx τzy σx

48
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

σy

σz
τyx
τyz

τzx

τzy

τxy
τxy
σx τxz

τzy σx
τzx τxz

σz τyz
τyx

σy

Fatigue analysis also uses similar concepts of theories of failures with an added dimensions of force
varying with time as well changing the direction or point of application. In static analysis principal
plane remains constant or fixed since time is not involved as well force not changing its direction. In
fatigue analysis due to force variation principal planes also change its orientation with reference to
time.

Does Static indeterminacy have any effect on Finite Element Analysis?

Static indeterminacy arises when numbers of unknowns are more than the equations available. In
strength of material there are special methods developed to tackle this category of problems like
area moment, displacement, energy methods etc.

No. of equations available = 3 i.e. Σ Fx = 0 , Σ Fy = 0, Σ Mz = 0

No. of unknowns = 6

But this problem really never arises in Numerical techniques like FEA. Because for FEA number of
unknowns are always equal to number of equations available.

4.8 What is “I” Area moment of inertia & “J” polar moment of inertia?

I - Area moment of inertia is second moment of area, units “mm4”

Axial moment of inertia – Second moment of area about in plane axis i.e. x or y. It is also known as
rectangular moment of inertia (rectangular or car titian coordinate system).

49
Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

x dA
A

r
y

X
0

Ixx = y2 dA Iyy = x2 dA

Product moment of inertia

Ixy = xy dA

Polar moment of inertia – Second moment of area about axis perpendicular to plane of area. Word
polar is for polar or cylindrical co-ordinate system.

J= r2 dA = (x2 + y2) dA = Ixx + Iyy

Parrallel axis theorem

Generally moment is taken about centroidal axes but using parallel axis theorem it could be
determined about any arbitrary axis.

X yCG

dA y
C xCG

0 y

50
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

Ixx = Icg + Am2

Iyy = Icg + An2

Jo = Jcg + Ar2

More is the I lesser will be bending stress and deflection. More is the J lesser will be torsional stress
and angular deformation.

What is Mass Moment of Inertia, What is difference between Mass and Area moment inertia?

Area moment of inertia is a property of area (units mm4) while mass moment of inertia is property of
mass rotating about an axis (units kg-mm2).

Area moment of inertia is second moment of area, Mass moment of inertia is second moment of
mass. Mathematically Mass moment of inertia is defined as Mass* k2 (radius of gyration)assuming
whole mass of the object is concentrated at a distance equal to radius gyration.

Area moment of inertia does not have any physical significance on its own and is a purely mathematical
property. The concept is used only where stress or force is varying as a linear function over surface.

Mass moment of inertia is used for components / systems subjected to rotary motion (like fly wheel,
crank shaft). ‘Mass moment of inertia’ in rotary motion is analogous to ‘mass’ in translatory or linear
motion system {in short in linear motion ‘Force’ is defined as Mass* linear acceleration (F=m*a) while
in rotary motion equivalent term is Torque defined as Moment of inertia*angular acceleration (T = I
* α) }

Polar moment
Moment of Inertia about
Figure of Inertia about
centroidal axes
centroidal axes
y0

Ix = bd3/3
d x0
J = bd ( b2+d2) /12
x
Ix = bd3/12
b

D
x x
d Ix = (BD3-bd3)/12
b

a x1

Ix= bd3/12
C
y
x d
Ix=bd3/36
y
Ix1= bd3/4
b

51
Bascis of Statics and Strength of Materials

G Ix = π d4/64
x x

Ix=Iy = π r2/16
J = π r4/8
r C Ix’=Iy’= (π /16 -4/9 π) r 4

x
y
r
Ix= r4( θ – sin 2θ/2 )/4
θ C J= r4θ /2
x
θ Iy= r4( θ – sin 2θ/2 )/4

y
Ix= πab3/16

Ix’=( π/16 – 4/9 π)ab3 J= π a b (a2+b2)

b x /16
y Iy = πa3b/16
x Iy’=( π/16 – 4/9 π)a3b
a

Moment Deflection
P
L
PL (1/3){PL3/EI}
A
B
P = p.L
(1/2)* PL (1/8)*{PL3/EI}

P
(1/4)*PL (1/48)*{PL3/EI}
B

52
 Practical Finite Element Analysis

P = pL
(1/8)*PL (5/384)*{PL3/EI}

P
(1/8)*PL (2/384)*{PL3/EI}

P = pL
(1/12)*PL (5/384)*{PL3/EI}

53