ELASTICITY

Stress and Strain:

When a body is subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is developed in the body. The restoring
force per unit area is known as stress. This restoring force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
applied force.
If F is the force applied and A is the area of cross section of the body, then
Stress = F/A
The SI unit of stress is Nm–2 or pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ML–1T–2].
“The ratio of change in dimension of a body to the original dimension is called strain”.
Strain has no units or dimensions.

There are three types of stress and strains.

1. Longitudinal stress: If a force is applied normal to the cross-section of the body,
then the restoring force developed per unit area is called longitudinal stress.
Longitudinal stress may be of two types, tensile stress (stretching) or compressive
stress. In both the cases, there is a change in length of the body.
 Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in the length (Δl) to the original length L
of the body is known as longitudinal strain.
∆𝐥
i.e. Longitudinal strain =
𝐋

2. Shearing stress: If a deforming force is applied parallel to the surface area of the body, there is relative
displacement between the opposite faces. The restoring force per unit area developed due to the applied
tangential force is known as tangential or shearing stress.

 Shearing strain: As a result of applied tangential force, there is a relative

displacement Δx between opposite faces of the body as shown in the figure.
The strain so produced is known as shearing strain.
Shearing strain is defined as the ratio of relative displacement of the faces ‘Δx’ to
the height ‘h’.
∆
i.e. Shearing strain = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =

where θ is the angular displacement of the surface from the vertical (original position). Usually θ is very small
and hence tanθ ≈ θ.
∆
∴ Shearing strain = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ θ =
3. Normal stress (or) Bulk stress: If a force acts in perpendicular direction at each point of the surface then the
restoring force per unit area is called bulk stress (or) normal stress. In this case, only volume of the body
changes without any change of its shape.

 Volume strain (or) Bulk strain: The strain produced by normal stress is
called volume strain and is defined as the ratio of change in volume (Δv) to
the original volume (V).
∆
i.e. Volume strain =

 Hooke’s Law:
It states that, “stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit”.

i.e. Stress ∝ strain (or) = Constant

The proportionality constant is known as modulus of elasticity (or) Elastic constant. It is a characteristic property
of the material.

1) Young’s Modulus (Y):

Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain within the elastic
limit.

Young s modulus =

Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the unit of Young’s modulus is the same as that of stress i.e., N m–2 or
Pascal.
𝐅
𝐀 𝐅𝐋
𝐘= ∆𝐥 =
𝐀 ∆𝐥
𝐋
For metals like iron, steel, copper, aluminium etc., the Young’s moduli are very large. Therefore, these materials
require a large force to produce small change in length.

2) Rigidity modulus (n):

The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding shearing strain is called the shear modulus (or) rigidity
modulus of the material.

i.e. Rigidity modulus =

𝐅
𝐅𝐲 𝐅
i.e. n= 𝐀
∆𝐱 =
𝐀 (∆𝐱)
(or) n=
𝐀𝛉
𝐲
3) Bulk Modulus (K):
Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the bulk strain within the elastic limit.

Bulk modulus =
𝐅
𝐅𝐕
i.e. 𝑲= 𝐀
∆𝐯 =
𝐀 (∆𝐯)
𝐕

𝜷
 Poisson’s ratio , , is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain . 𝝈 = 𝜶
 is the longitudinal strain per unit stress and  is lateral strain per unit stress.

Poisson’s Ratio ():

In case of any deformation taking place along the length of a body like a wire, due to a deforming force, there
is always some change in the thickness of the body. This change which occurs in a direction perpendicular to the
direction along which the deforming force is acting is called lateral change. Within elastic limits of a body, the
ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant and is called Poisson’s ratio. If a deforming force
acting on a wire of length L produces a change in length Δl, accompanied by a change in diameter Δd in it which
has an original diameter of D, Then lateral strain = Δd /D and Longitudinal strain α = Δl/L, thereforer Poisson’s
ratio, σ =  /. There are no units for Poisson’s ratio. It is a dimensionless quantity. α is increase in length per
unit length per unit stress in the direction of the stress and β is decrease in length per unit length per unit stress in
a direction perpendicular to the stress.  is lateral strain per unit stress and  is the longitudinal strain per
unit stress.

Theoretical limits of σ:
The elastic moduli are positive so (1-2σ) is positive and it places an upper limit equal to 0.5 on the value of σ.
Similarly we can deduce the lower limit to be equal to -1 from equation 2(1+σ).

Strain Hardening: When a metal is stressed beyond its elastic limit, it enters the plastic region (in which the
residual strain remains upon unloading). When the load is further increased, the material hardens and becomes
stronger, i.e it‟s more difficult to deform the material as the strain increases and hence it‟s called “strain
hardening”. This tends to increase the strength of the material and decreases its ductility. It is region between
yield point and ultimate tensile strength.

Strain softening: Strain softening is defined as the region in which the stress in the material is decreasing with
an increase in strain. It is observed after the yield point. This is due to brittleness and heterogeneity of the material.

TY
 Expression for Bulk Modulus (K) in terms of  and  : Y

Consider a unit cube (OX = OY =OZ = 1 )

The initial volume of the unit cube = V = 1
Let the cube be subjected to tensile stresses Tx , TY , TZ TX
along the X,Y and Z axes. Each of these stresses is tensile
along the direction in which it is applied and compressive Tz X
O
in directions perpendicular to it. TX produces extension Z
of the side OX whereas TY and TZ produce compression of OX.

Due to these stresses the dimensions of OX, OY and OZ are altered and can be written as
OX’ = 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝛽 𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇
OY’ = 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝛽 𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇
OZ’ = 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝛽 𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇

Where α represents the linear strain per unit stress and  is the lateral strain per unit stress.

Final Volume = (1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝛽 𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇 ) × (1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝛽 𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇 ) × (1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝛽 𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇 )
= 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽)(𝑇 + 𝑇 + 𝑇 ) (Since α and  are small, higher powers of them are
neglected)
= 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽)(3 𝑇) (𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇 =𝑇)

Change in Volume = [1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽)(3 𝑇)] − 1 = (𝛼 − 2𝛽) 3 𝑇

( )
Volume strain = = = (𝛼 − 2𝛽) 3 𝑇

Bulk modulus is the ratio of normal stress to volume strain.

∴ Bulk Modulus K =
( )
𝟏
𝑲=
𝟑(𝛂 𝟐𝛃)

 Expression for Youngs modulus (Y) in terms of  and :

Y = longitudinal stress / longitudinal strain

 = T/ T. 𝛂
∴ Y = 1/𝛂

 Expression for Rigidity modulus (n) in terms of  and :

T
A A’ B B’

M
√2L
θ θ

D C

Consider a cube of dimension ‘L’ . The bottom face of the cube is fixed. A tangential stress ‘T’ is
applied along the top face. Under the action of the tangential force, the cube gets deformed to A’B’ C D.
The shear strain is equal to θ and is given by the ratio,
θ = BB’/BC = 𝑙 𝐿
The tangential stress is equal to a tensile stress T along BD and compressive stress T along AC. These
tensile and compressive stresses produce extension of the diagonal BD.
The increase in length of diagonal BD = MB’
If α is linear strain per unit stress and β is the lateral strain per unit stress, then
The strain produced along the diagonal BD = T (α + β )
= MB’ /BD

MB’ = BB’ cos (BB’M) = BB’ cos 450 = 𝑙 ⁄ √2

⁄√
∴ T (α + β ) = = = θ /2
√

Rigidity Modulus ‘n’ = shear stress /shear strain = T/θ

𝟏
∴ 𝐧=
𝟐(𝛂 𝛃)

Relation between Y, n and K

K = 1⁄3(𝛼 − 2𝛽) = ( )
= 𝑌⁄3(1 − 2𝜎)
 1 − 2𝜎 = 𝑌 ⁄3𝐾 ----------------(i)
𝑛 = 1⁄2( 𝛼 + 𝛽) = 1⁄2𝛼 (1 + 𝜎) = 𝑌 ⁄2(1 + 𝜎)
2 + 2𝜎 = 𝑌 ⁄𝑛 ----------------(ii)

Add (i) and (ii) and rearrange the terms to obtain the relation between the elastic modulii as

𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐘 𝟑𝐊 𝐧

Note: Theoretical limits of σ:

The elastic modulii are positive, so (1 − 2𝜎) is positive and it places a upper limit equal to 0.5 on the value
of σ. Similarly we can deduce the lower limit to be equal to -1 from eqn. (ii).

 Torsion of a Cylinder:
Consider a cylinder of length ‘L’ and radius ‘R’ . Let the cylinder be clamped at the upper end a
twisting couple be applied at the lower end . Let θ be the angle of twist.

R O θ
φ

x
O θ
B’
B
The cylinder can be considered as made up of a number of co-axial hollow cylinders of varying radii (0 to R). At
the bottom end, each of these radii are twisted through an angle, θ due to the applied external couple. As a result,
OB is displaced to OB’ and OP is displaced to OP’without change in dimensions.
A line AB parallel to OO’ is displaced to AB’ through an angle φ,
called the angle of shear. This is an example of pure shear as there is no change in either length or radius of the
cylinder.
We can calculate the twisting couple on the co-axial cylinder of radius OB (OB = x ) and integrate
the expression between the limits , x=0 and x=R to obtain the magnitude of the twisting couple on the cylinder.
We can write from the geometry of the figure,
𝐵𝐵 ′ = 𝑥 𝜃 = 𝐿𝜑
Or, 𝜑 = 𝑥 𝜃⁄𝐿 ---------------(i)

If δ F is the tangential force acting on a cylindrical shell of radius , ‘x’ and thickness, ‘ dx ‘, then
The tangential stress = δF /area of the shell = δF /2πx dx --------(ii)
The rigidity modulus = tangential stress / shear strain
n = (δF /2πx dx) /𝜑 ------(iii)
δF = 2𝜋 n x dx. 𝜑 ---------(iv)
Twisting couple on the hollow cylinder of radius ‘x’ and thickness, ‘dx’ can be written as
δC = tangential force × distance = n. φ. 2πx dx. x ----------(v)
n , is the rigidity modulus of the material and is given by the ratio of tangential stress to shear strain.
Substitute for φ in eqn. (ii) to obtain
𝜹𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒏 𝜽 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 . 𝒙⁄𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝜽 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙⁄𝑳 -------------------------------(vi)
Twisting couple on the solid cylinder of radius ‘R’ ,

2πnθ 2πnθ
C= x dx = [R ⁄4]
L L
𝛑𝐧𝐑𝟒 𝛉
𝐂=
𝟐𝐋

 Torsion Pendulum:
A rigid wire of length’ L’ and radius ‘r’ is fixed at one end and forms the
axis of rotation for a regular or an irregular body attached to the free end. When the
wire is twisted at the free end, the body is set into oscillations and these oscillations
are called torsional oscillations.
Let I be the moment of inertia of the body about the given axis and T be the time
period for torsional oscillations. Let the restoring couple per unit twist be ‘C’ and ‘θ’
be the angle of twist.
L
𝒅𝟐 𝜽
𝑰 = −𝑪 𝜽
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝑪
+ 𝜽=𝟎 represents the simple harmonic equation for torsional
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑰

oscillations. From the above equation, we can get the time period for torsional oscillations
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 𝑰⁄𝑪
𝑰 𝑪 𝝅𝒏𝒓𝟒 𝜽
Or, = where 𝑪 =
𝑻𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝟐𝑳

For a given wire, C is constant and hence the ratio I/T 2 is constant irrespective of the body or
the axis of rotation. This principle is used to determine the moment of inertia of irregular objects.
 Bending Moment of a Beam:
A beam is a structural member whose length is very large compared to other dimensions. In
the simple theory of bending of beams, the shear stresses are neglected and only tensile or compressive
stresses are considered.

Consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other end.
Due to the applied force, a force of reaction is set up at the fixed end of the beam. W

These two equal and opposite forces constitute a couple which tends to rotate the beam.
Since the beam is elastic a restoring couple is set up to bring the beam back to equilibrium.
The beam can be imagined as made up of a number of longitudinal filaments. Under the applied load the
upper filaments will undergo extensions and assume a convex form and the lower filaments will undergo
compressions and assume a concave form. The filament that does not undergo any change in dimension is the
neutral axis. The magnitude of extension or compression will depend on the distance of the filament from the
neutral axis.
“The moment of the restoring couple is called bending moment of a beam”.
 Expression for the bending moment of a beam: (Not in syllabus- for reference)
a’ b’

. A’ e f B’ A a’ b’ B

E F E e f F

D’ C’ D C
R
Let ABCD be a section of the beam.
EF is the neutral axis. Under the action
of the external couple, the section will
bend into an arc without any change in
length of neutral axis. The
uupper
θ filaments will undergo extension and
A’B’ > AB.
The lower filaments will be subjected to
O compressive stresses and C’D’ < CD

The beam is bent into an arc of acircle of radius ‘R’ with the center at O . Consider a small portion of the neutral
axis, ef , subtending an angle θ at the center. a’b’ is another small portion of the filament A’B’ which is at a
distance of ‘z’ from the neutral axis.
In the absence of bending, a’b’ = ef
ef = R θ , and a’b’ = (R+z) θ
Strain in the filament, a’b’ = {(R+z)θ – R θ} /Rθ = z/R
If δA is the area of the filament (a’b’), which is at a distance z from the neutral axis and Y is the
Youngs modulus,
𝜹𝑭⁄𝜹𝑨
𝒀=
𝒛⁄𝑹
Force acting on the filament, δF = 𝑌 𝑧 𝛿𝐴⁄𝑅 and
Moment of the force about neutral axis = (𝒀 𝒛 𝜹𝑨⁄𝑹). 𝒛
The bending moment of the beam is obtained by summing over the moments of all the filaments above and below
the neutral axis.
𝒀 𝒀
Bending Moment = ∑ 𝜹𝑨 𝒛𝟐 = ∑ 𝜹𝑨𝒛𝟐 =𝒀𝑰𝒈 ⁄𝑹
𝑹 𝑹

𝑰𝒈 = ∑ 𝜹𝑨 𝒛𝟐 = 𝑨 𝒌𝟐 is the geometrical moment of inertia and depends on the area of cross section,
‘A’ of the beam and the radius of gyration k of the area about the neutral axis.
  For rectangular cross section , 𝑰𝒈 = 𝒃 𝒅𝟑 /𝟏𝟐 , b is the breadth and d is the thickness.
 For circular cross section, 𝑰𝒈 = 𝝅 𝒓𝟒 /𝟒 , r is the radius

 Expression for Youngs Modulus of a cantilever:

A cantilever is a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other end. Consider a load, ‘W’ applied to the free end
of the cantilever of length, ‘l ’. Let δ be the deflection of the free end of the cantilever under the load. The
deflection is maximum at the free end and is equal to zero at the fixed end.
Let PQ =dx ,be a small section of the neutral axis AB. x (l –x)
PQ is at a distance x from the fixed end. A dx B
Radius of curvature of neutral axis =R P Q δ
Deflection of PQ =dy
The radius of curvature of the neutral axis is given by dy B’
the standard expression, R

⁄ W
= ⁄ = ---------(i) O ’

Here, (dy/dx) is very small and therefore higher powers of it can be neglected.

∴ =
The moment of applied force acting on the element PQ = W( l-x) ------(ii)
The restoring couple due to the elasticity of thebeam =𝑌𝐼 ⁄𝑅 ---------(iii)
At equilibrium, these two are equal and opposite.
∴ 𝑌𝐼 ⁄𝑅 = W(l-x)

i.e. 𝑌𝐼 = 𝑊( 𝑙 − 𝑥)

On integration, we get

𝑌𝐼 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑤 ∫(𝑙 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑌𝐼 = 𝑤(𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 /2) + 𝐶 where C is the constant of integration.

The deflection is zero at x= o and dy/dx =0. Substituting this condition, we get C = 0.
Again on integration, we get

𝑌𝐼 ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑤 ∫ 𝑙𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥

𝑌𝐼 𝛿 = 𝑤 − = 𝑤 − =

𝛿= ---------(v)
For a beam of rectangular cross section, 𝐼 = 𝑏 𝑑 /12 . Substituting this we obtain,

𝛿=

∴ Youngs Modulus of the cantilever is given by,

𝟒𝐌𝐠𝐥𝟑
𝐘= where w=Mg
𝐛𝐝𝟑 𝛅

I-beams and its Engineering Applications

These beams are the most commonly seen and widely used beams. As these beams are strong, they are
used to create large and spacious rooms with minimal support channels. When a house is redeveloped, these
beams are used to replace old structural channels. Apart from supporting commercial and residential
constructions, I-beams are also used to construct frames for trolley ways, elevators, trailer and truck beds, etc.

Frames and vital support elements are where generally these beams are used. A strong and supportive structure
is ensured with the usage of steel I beams. The usage of these beams can be economically beneficial since they
reduce the necessity to use too many support components. Versatile and dependable nature makes them
indispensable for every contractor and engineer.

I beams are frequently used in constructions because they are simply functional. The unidirectional bending
behavior of them is one of their best unique properties. Web component is responsible for withstanding against
shear stresses while flanges put resistance against bending. They are capable of meeting a variety of loads with
no buckling. Since I shape does not require the usage of excessive steel, they can be considered cost-effective.
There always exists a suitable type of I beam for every construction purpose. Applicability of these beams for all
construction scenarios gives its famous name “universal beam” for a good reason.

I beams are almost always used in the construction of large structures, such as warehouses and large buildings.
Because the I beam is capable of holding immense loads, a structural steel I beam can ensure the integrity of the
structure, without the need for numerous structural supports that will add to the cost and construction time of the
project. I beams are cost-effective since they don’t need an excessive amount of steel and have universal
applications. I beams are resistant to aging and are easily adaptable to structural additions and modifications due
to their composition. I beams are always in demand because of their strength, cost effectiveness, and versatility.
The superior strength, as well as savings on cost and time, make I beams the primary choice.

Elastic Fatigue:

We recall that, if the maximum stress in the specimen does not exceed the elastic limit of the material, the
specimen returns to its initial condition when the load is removed. Such a conclusion is correct for loadings
repeated a few dozen or even a few hundred times. However, it is not true when loading is repeated thousands
or millions of times. In such cases rupture will occur at a stress much lower than the static breaking strength,
this phenomenon is known as Fatigue. A fatigue failure is of a brittle nature even for materials that are normally
ductile. A body subjected to repeated strains beyond its elastic limit, has its elastic properties greatly impaired,
and may break under a stress less than its normal breaking stress even within its elastic limit. This is called
elastic fatigue. Fatigue must be considered in the design of all structural and machine components that are
subjected to repeat or to fluctuating loads. The number of loading cycles that may be expected during the useful
life of a component varies greatly. For example, a beam supporting an industrial crane may be loaded as many
as two million times in 25 years(about 300 loadings per working day) an automobile crankshaft will be loaded
about half a billion times if the automobile is driven 320,000 km, and an individual turbine blade may be loaded
several hundred billion times during its lifetime.

Failure of Engineering Materials

The failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable event for several reasons; these include
human lives that are put in jeopardy, economic losses, and the interference with the availability of products and
services. Even though the causes of failure and the behavior of materials may be known, prevention of failures
is difficult to guarantee. The usual causes are improper materials selection and processing and inadequate
design of the component or its misuse. It is the responsibility of the engineer to anticipate and plan for possible
failure and, in the event that failure does occur, to assess its cause and then take appropriate preventive measures
against future incidents.

Fracture is the separation, or fragmentation, of a solid body into two or more parts under the action of stress.
The process of fracture can be considered to be made up of two components, crack initiation and crack
 propagation. There are two types of Fracture, Ductile Fracture and Brittle Fracture.

Fracture involves the forced separation of a material into two or more parts. Brittle Fracture involves fracture
without any appreciable plastic deformation (i.e. energy absorption). Ductile Fracture in the converse and
involves large plastic deformation before separation.

Ductile Fracture

Material fractures after plastic deformation and slow propagation of crack. Surface obtained at the fracture
is dull or fibrous in appearance. It occurs when the material is in plastic condition. The tendency of ductile
fracture is increased by dislocations and other defects in metals. There is reduction in cross – sectional area of
the specimen.

Brittle Fracture

Material fractures with very little or no plastic deformation. Surface obtained at the fracture is shining and
crystalline appearance. It occurs when the material is in elastic condition. It is characterized by separation of
normal to tensile stress. The tendency brittle fracture is increased by decreasing temperature, and increasing
strain rate. There is no change in the cross – sectional area.

Elastic Fatigue

A body subjected to repeated strains beyond its elastic limit, has its elastic properties greatly impaired, and
may break under a stress less than its normal breaking stress even within its elastic limit. This is called elastic fatigue.

Stress concentration

Stress concentration is the accumulation of stress in a body due to sudden change in its geometry. When
there is a sudden change in the geometry of the body due to cracks, sharp corners, holes and decrease in the cross
section area, then there is an increase in the localised stress near these cracks, sharp corners, holes, and decreased
cross section area. The body tends to fail from these places where the stress concentration is more. So to prevent
a body from getting failed, the concentration of stress should be avoided or reduced.
It is also called as stress raisers or stress risers.

Factors affecting Elasticfatigue

It is found that bodies lose their elastic limit, due to elastic fatigue. Therefore, the manufacture
should choose the material in such a way that it should regain its elastic property even when it is
subjected to large number of cycles of stress For example substances like quartz, phosphor, bronze
etcApart from elastic fatigue some material will have change in their elastic property because
of the following factors.

1. Effect of stress

2. Effect of annealing

3. Change in temperature

4. Presence of impurities

5. Due to the nature of crystals

. Effect of stress: We know that when a material is subjected to large number of cycles of stresses, it

Loses its elastic property even within the elastic limit. Therefore the working stress on the material
should be kept lower than the ultimate tensile strengthing and the safety factor.

2. Effect of Annealing: Annealing is a process by which the material is heated to a very high
temperature and then it is slowly cooled. Usually this process is adopted for the material to increase the
softness and ductility in the material. But if annealing is made to a material it results in the
formation of large crystal grains, which ultimately reduces the elastic property of the material.

3. Effect of temperature: The elastic property of the materials changes with the temperature. Normally
the elasticity increases with the decrease in temperature and vice-versa. Examples 1. The elastic
property of lead increases when the temperature is decreased. 2. The carbon filament becomes
plastic at higher temperatures.

4. Effect of impurities: The addition of impurities produces variation in the elastic property of
the materials. The increase and decrease of elasticity depends upon the type of impurity added to
it. Examples:

1. When potassium is added to gold, the elastic property of gold increases.

2.When carbon is added to molten iron, the elastic property of iron decreases provided the
carbon content should be more than 1% in iron.

5. Effect of nature of crystals: The elasticity also depends upon the types of the crystals, whether it is
a single crystal or poly crystals. For a single crystal the elasticity is more and for a poly crystal the
elasticity is less.