Restricted waters

Areas which for navigational reasons, such as the presence of shoals or other dangers,
confine the movements of shipping within narrow limits.
When a ship moves through restricted waters, it has to navigate close to the shore and
other manmade structures because of limited navigable width. The shallow water and
proximity of the sides of the channel effects the ship navigating through the restricted
waters. These effects cause errors in maneuvering which can lead to grounding or
collision.
Navigator must keep in mind the following point in such congested or restricted waters:

Credits: PROIvan Safyan Abrams/flikr.com

Ironical as it may seem, this too demands equal allocation of time for collision
avoidance as well as position fixing. It is at times like these that the OOW must not
hesitate in informing the Master for seeking assistance as it doesn’t necessarily imply
inefficiency in the part of the OOW.

All the tasks that are in simultaneous progress are equally important and crucial to safe
navigation. That is why the navigator must keep in mind the following point in such
congested waters:
1. Stick to the Master’s orders for he knows best, out of experience and knowledge, as
to which modus operandi best suits those waters.

2. Use the best available large-scale chart for the area for higher accuracy.

3. Account for set and drift.

4. Identify all navigational marks prior to approaching them and continue to figure them
out as you progress along the voyage. Study the chart to pickup any landmarks as early
as possible.

5. Account for strong tidal currents that automatically cause deviation in the ship’s
intended operation.

6. Comply with the rules of the traffic separation scheme to avoid any unnecessary
complications.

7. Identify the landmarks using the chart and visually. Use all available navigational aids
to fix a very accurate position using that information. In congested waters, it boils down
to the very finest point of accuracy.

8. Adjust the courses to allow for deviations.

9. Avoid treading too close to navigational hazards, oil fields etc. Needless to say, it
increases the chances of a mishap especially when there is a viable prospect of shallow
waters.

10. An increased traffic density, especially the presence of fishing vessels closer to the
coast, demands higher vigilance and sharper look out. Use the manpower at hand to
the fullest.
11. Report to the VTS as and when required. The VTS is generally quite responsive
which makes it easier to coordinate bridge operations pertaining to coastal navigation.

12. The need for hand steering is almost always necessary when in such waters. It is
therefore important to have the right person (AB) to be on standby for steering duty.

13. Keep a very close watch on the UKC to avoid grounding. Seafarers who have
experienced the hassle of a grounded vessel know its best to avoid such an incident.

14. Communicate with the ECR to ensure that the engines are ready for maneuvering
as and when required. A clear communication process with the ECR brings in the
expertise of another angle, thereby increasing the efficiency of the ship overall.

15. Log all the relevant information as you go along, most importantly the radio log.
Evidence of communication is always important from a legal point of view.

16. Increase the PPI if the sea room gets more confined. Remember to inform the
Master about any decisions with respect to navigation in advance.

17. Adjust the course in case the vessel seems to be going off track. When provided
with limited room, it is obvious that the track ought to be maintained to avoid an
impending disaster.

18. Most importantly, call the Master BEFORE any crucial situation arises. Assess and
appraise a situation to determine as to when it becomes inevitable for the Master’s
expertise and knowledge to be brought in.

Meteorological Conditions

The prevailing environmental conditions as they influence the prediction of weather

The prime reason for which every seafarer is wished “Smooth sailing and Calm seas”
before boarding a vessel is to keep them safe from storms. Rough weather situation has
been faced at least once or more by every seafarer during the course of his/her career.
Some of the most common forms of heavy or rough weather are tropical depressions or
storms, typhoons, cyclones, hurricanes etc., generated due to varying atmospheric
pressures over different parts of the earth.
Beaufort wind scale criteria classify strong winds as near gale, gale, strong gale, storm,
violent storm and hurricane based on ascending magnitude of wind force. Movement of
the sun causes pressure belts to shift and thus varying temperatures over land masses
and water bodies cause pressure differences.

Tropical depressions occur often in middle latitudes and tropical cyclones that originate
in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone. A depression may often develop and travel in
any direction whereas tropical storms are mostly found to follow predicted path* in both
the hemispheres.

Tropical storms recurve after following a particular track*. It is therefore very important
for a mariner to predict the location, magnitude and path of the storm, which is required
to avoid these regions or navigate with caution while in navigating these areas.

Following are a few precautions which seafarers must follow while encountering tropical

storms or navigating in areas of their frequent occurrence.

Use Available Information: Tropical storms and depressions are formed by pressure

and temperature variations. A mariner has access to information regarding seasonal
areas and frequency of occurrence through Maritime Safety information via EGC,
Admiralty Sailing Directions, Ocean passages of the world and several other means.
Thus if prior information is available regarding the legs of a voyage where the rough
weather is expected a sheltered passage or alternate route can be carefully planned to
divert the vessel timely when required.

Study Weather Report: Often weather report and weather fax give warnings well in
advance about unsettled weather conditions. Thus a careful selection of Nav Areas and
type of weather reports by the navigating officer can be instrumental in obtaining early
warning about a storm. Frequent observations from various meteorological instruments
and prevailing weather onboard can be used to confirm weather reports.

Keep Away From Centre of Storm: Once the presence of a storm or depression is

confirmed. It is vital to establish the distance of the vessel from it, the location of the eye
of the storm, the center of the depression, and storm’s track and path. Buys Ballot’s law
states – Face the wind and center of low pressure will be from 90 degrees to 135
degrees on your right hand in N hemisphere and on your left hand in S hemisphere. It is
advisable to keep at least 250 miles away from the center of a storm however some
companies prescribe specific distances in their Safety Management Manuals.
Check Stability of The Vessel: A prudent check is required on the stability condition of
the vessel and its compliance with intact stability criteria. Damage stability conditions to
be evaluated carefully before the beginning of a voyage as it will assure compliance
with damage stability requirements. A vessel can thus take heavy weather ballast while
or before proceeding to rough weather areas. Heavy weather ballast provides additional
stability to the vessel and by lowering the center of gravity makes the vessel more
stable as the GM* increases. Heavy weather ballast tanks are designated onboard
vessels and if those tanks carried oil previously they must be crude oil washed before
carrying heavy weather ballast in them.

Use Ballast Tanks To Minimize Free Surface Effect: As a part of good seamanship,
all the ballast tanks which are slack can be pressed up to minimize the free surface
effect which will also help to increase the GM. Well planned stowage of cargo, ballast or
both can minimize the number of slack or partly filled tanks.

Be Careful While Changing Speed, Angle, and Direction: Often waves associated

with a storm or depression causes a reduction in intact stability of vessel with a threat of
capsizing or rolling of the vessel to very large angles. IMO circular MSC 1228 provides
guidelines with respect to careful reduction of speed, changing the angle and direction
of encounter and adjusting encounter period of waves to avoid parametric or
synchronous rolling motions.

Secure Loose Equipment/Cargo on Deck: For vessels with lesser freeboard, decks

are washed frequently by seas with greater magnitudes. Thus securing of various loose
equipment on deck, additional lashings to be taken to strengthen and prevent their loss
being washed away into the sea. Safety lifelines can be rigged on vessels carrying
cargoes on deck. Additional lashing must be taken to secure anchors, lifeboats, life
buoys and life rafts.

Secure Weather and Water Tight Openings: Various weather tight and water tight
openings like side scuttles, hatch covers, portholes, doors, manholes to be securely
closed to prevent any ingress of water. Leaking, damaged gaskets or inadequate
securing for covers of such openings may affect the integrity of compartment they are
protecting. Alarms and indicators for the closing of remote watertight doors and
openings are provided on Navigation bridge, their operational state to be confirmed
prior the beginning of the voyage.

Secure Doors Forward Of Collision Bulkhead: Special emphasis to be provided to

secure the doors and openings forward of the collision bulkhead for e.g. forepeak store
and hatches, vents and openings forward. These spaces often house forward mooring
equipment and associated electrical or hydraulic machinery. Spurling pipe covers need
to be cemented well in advance. Bilge alarms in such remote compartments should be
tried out regularly to give an early warning of any ingress of water or flooding. Any
openings in subdivisions of watertight compartments which can cause progressive
flooding must be secured.

Drains and Scuppers Must Be Free: All drains on deck and scuppers for drainage of
water must be free to prevent any accumulation of water on deck.

Secure Aerials and Antennas: Antennas, aerials, stay wire clamps and lashing to be
inspected before the wind speed picks up. Winds of gale force and above can easily
break and blow away aerials. Storms are associated with lightning and thundering thus
all aerials and antennas to be earthed and any low insulation alarms to be investigated
carefully.

Keep Check on RPM To Avoid Load Fluctuation on Main Engine: Due to unsettled

movement of the vessel often load fluctuations on the main engine are observed. A
careful setting of RPM can help to keep the fluctuations on the main engine within
permissible limits.

Inform All Departments: All the department’s deck, engine and galley should be
informed well in advance of any storm warning so that all the deck, engine and galley
stores, hospitals, sick bays and work areas are lashed and secured. Any major overhaul
jobs, working aloft or lifting of heavy machinery on deck and engine room using
overhead or deck crane can be postponed or avoided.

Morale of the Crew to Be Kept High: The morale of the crew should be kept high as
often heavy rolling and pitching causes giddiness, nausea and reduced appetite
amongst crew members.

Ice

5 Important Points for Ice Navigation of Ships

Navigating in ice waters can be a real task for ships, as the later moves cracking and
smashing through the frozen and frigid seas. While moving towards subzero
temperature with ice covered waters, the ship’s captain has to be extremely cautious
and must pay utmost attention to the type of ice, thickness, and its exact location in the
subzero navigation areas. If there’s any kind of misjudgment during ice navigation, a
detour from the navigable route would lead to additional fuel wastage and might also get
the vessel stuck in thick ice leading to dangerous situation and damage.

The existence of ice on seawater corresponds to a major restraint for ships and offshore
operations at high latitudes in both the hemispheres. The sea-ice, which on an average
is 2–3 m thick, can be pierced only by specially designed ice-strengthened vessels or
icebreakers with an appropriate ice class.

Most merchant ships and fishing vessels which are not ice-strengthened must
consequently keep away from all ice waters and sub-temperature areas. In many
places, where the concentration of ice is maximum and the ice pressure is highest, even
the most powerful of the icebreakers have problems with ice navigation.

Credits: Clive Tesar / WWF-Canon

To avoid such mishaps during ice navigation, an ice pilot and ice breakers are normally
provided for commercial vessel operations which help to safely guide the vessels
through the ice field to and from their destinations. In addition to the ice pilot being on
board and the ice-breaker’s relentless assistance, a few other measures must be kept in
mind by the vessel’s crew during the ice navigation.

1. Maneuvering in Ice
First of all, it is imperative to understand that if any alternative route is available for the
ship, ice water should be avoided at all costs. However, if ice navigation is inevitable, it
should be made at right angles to the leeward edge where the ice is loose or broken.
While maneuvering through ice if a floe cannot be avoided then it should be hit squarely
with the stem. Note that a glancing blow may damage the ship’s shell plating or throw
the vessel off course causing another unavoidable blow.

Entry in ice should always be done at low speeds to avoid any sort of damage. Once
into the pack, the vessel’s speed can be increased so as to maintain headway and
control so as to never lose all way off and avoid the ice floes to close in on the hull,
rudder and propeller.

If the ship is stopped by heavy concentration of ice the rudder should be put amidships
and the engines should be kept turning slowly ahead. This will wash away the ice that is
accumulated astern and will help the vessel to fall back.

In a close pack during ice navigation, avoid sharp alterations of course and keep the
speed enough for steerage way. Full rudder movements should be avoided or used only
in cases of emergencies.

2. Lookout
Always keep vigilant lookout for leads (navigable channel within an ice field) through
ice. Additional lookouts should be posted forward or at higher ends for safety concerns.
Conning should be carried out from the ship’s bridge to get a better view of the ice
accumulation.

Keep in mind that at all times the stern must be observed for rudders’ movement so as
to avoid a floe from actually moving the stern towards it. In such cases, it is advised to
post men right aft with torches, whistles, walkie-talkies, etc. to make sure that the bridge
is informed immediately in case the propeller is in any kind of danger. This is extremely
important in twin screw vessels. Reduce speed if the ice goes under the ship.

3. Engine care
During ice navigation, engines should be kept running at all times and
under maneuvering conditions in such a way that the ahead and astern movements can
be easily carried out without time delay. Similarly, engine movements from ahead to
astern and vice-verse should be made cautiously to avoid stressing the engine
mechanisms in low temperatures, which could be unfavorable to the ship’s engine parts.
Also, when ice approaches the stern of the vessel while maneuvering  bursts of the
engines should be given accordingly to keep ice from accumulating.
4. Navigation at Night
As far as possible, avoid navigating through ice at night. It is preferred to “heave to”
since the leads or lanes cannot be seen. Most ice navigators stop the vessel along the
edge of the ice and leave the vessel drifting along with the pack.

At nights, seawater lubricated tail end shafts are in the danger of getting frozen. To
avoid from freezing, vessels with single screws should have their aft peak tank filled
with water and have it kept warm by means of steam hose injection, or other alternative
means. The vessel should keep her engines running with propeller on low RPM so as to
avoid seizure by ice.

5. Anchoring
Anchoring in heavy concentrations of ice should be avoided; if ice is moving then its
force may break the cable. When conditions permit, anchoring can be carried out and it
must be done in light brash ice, rotten ice or widely scattered floes with the main engine
on immediate notice. Anchor should be brought in as soon as the wind threatens to
move ice onto the vessel.

Even with the advent of new techniques and technologies for ice navigation such as
radar sensor images through cloud cover, infra-red images, and satellite images for a
larger view of the surroundings around the vessel, it is vital to understand that ship’s
operations of any sort under the influence of sea-ice are not only dangerous but also life
threatening, and utmost care must be taken while navigating through such ice areas.

Restricted visibility

Means any condition in which visibility is restricted by fog, mist, falling snow, heavy

rainstorms, sandstorms or any other similar causes.

Important Points Ship’s Officer on Watch Should Consider during Restricted Visibility
One of the most important duties of a ship’s officer on watch (OOW) is safe and smooth
navigation of the ship. During its voyage, a ship has to sail through different weather
and tidal conditions. It’s the duty of the navigating officer to know and understand the
ship’s sailing route well in advance and prepare for the same accordingly.

One of the most dangerous conditions to navigate a ship is restricted visibility because
of fog, heavy rain or dust storm. When the ship’s officer gets information regarding such
upcoming weather condition, he or she should take all the necessary precautions to
ensure that the ship sails through restricted visibility area without confronting any kind of
collision or grounding accident.
Photograph by John Lightfoot

Mentioned below are ten important points that must be taken into consideration
for safe navigation of the ship through restricted visibility area.

1. Know your Ship inside-out: An efficient navigating officer must know each and
every aspect of his or her ship in order to prevent any kind of accident. From
dimensions to the characteristics of the ships, the officer should know how the ship will
behave under different circumstances. For restricted visibility situation, it is important
that the OOW know the stopping distance of the ship at any particular RPM in order to
control the ship during emergencies.

2. Inform the Master: During restricted visibility, it is important that the master is on the
bridge. The OOW must call or inform the master regarding the navigating condition. The
officer should also inform the engine room and ask the duty engineer to man the engine
room incase it is on “unmanned” mode.

3. Appoint Adequate Man Power: It is important that enough man power is present on
the bridge in order to keep a close watch on the ship’s course. Additional personnel
must be appointed as “lookout” at different locations on the ship. If there is traffic in the
area, the officer must inform the engine room to have enough manpower so that the
engine is also ready for immediate maneuvering.

4. Keep the Fog Horn Ready: Ensure that the fog horn is working properly for the
restricted area. If the horn is air operated, drain the line prior to opening the air to the
horn.

5. Reduce Speed: Reduce the speed of the ship depending on the visibility level. If the
visibility is less, bring down the ship to maneuvering RPM.
6. Ensure Navigation Equipment and Light Are Working Properly: Ensure that all
important navigating equipment and navigation lights are working properly during
restricted visibility. The OOW must ensure that the navigation charts are properly
checked for correct routeing and a good radar watch is carried out.

7. Stop All Other Works: Though it’s obvious, but never multi-task during restricted
visibility even if there are more than sufficient people present on the bridge. Also stop all
other deck work and order the crew to go to their respective rooms. This is to prevent
injury to personnel working on open deck in case collision or grounding takes place.

8. Open/Close Bridge Doors: Ensure that the bridge door is kept open and is without
any obstruction for easy bridge wing access (Considering that the bridge wing is not
enclosed). Also, in case of dust or sand storm, close all the bridge openings.

9. Shut Ventilation: If the ship is passing through a sand storm, the ventilation fans and
accommodation/ engine room ports must be closed to avoid sand particles from
entering bridge, accommodation and engine room.

10. Follow All Procedures: Follow all the important procedures for restricted visibility
as mentioned in COLREG Rule -19.  Also monitor channel 16 in the radio and ensure
that all important parameters of the ship such as latitude and longitude, time, speed etc.
are noted in the log book.

Traffic Separation Scheme

Is an area in the sea where navigation of ships is highly regulated. It is meant to create
lanes in the water and ships in a specific lane are all going in (roughly) the same
direction.

Is a traffic-management route-system ruled by the International Maritime

Organization or IMO. The traffic-lanes (or clearways) indicate the general direction of
the ships in that zone; ships navigating within a TSS all sail in the same direction or they
cross the lane in an angle as close to 90 degrees as possible.
TSSs are used to regulate the traffic at busy, confined waterways or around capes.
Within a TSS you normally see at least one traffic-lane in each main-direction, turning-
points, deep-water lanes and separation zones between the main traffic lanes. In most
TSS schemes you will find Inshore Traffic Zones between the traffic-lanes and the
coast. The inshore traffic zone is unregulated and shouldn't be used for ongoing traffic.
It is meant for local traffic, fishing and small craft.

A ship navigating in a traffic-lane should sail in the general direction of that lane. The
body of water between two opposite lanes is to be avoided by vessels travelling within
the TSS as far as possible except in certain circumstances such as emergencies or for
fishing activities.

The TSS rules are incorporated in the International Regulations for Preventing

Collisions at Sea (Under Part B, Section I, Rule 10- Traffic Separation Schemes)
As said, when sailing within a lane of a TSS that ship has to follow the general direction
of the lane. Where needed there are special zones where a lane splits into two
channels: one ongoing and the other to the nearby port(s).

Vessel Traffic Service

Is a marine traffic monitoring system established by harbor or port authorities, similar
to air traffic control for aircraft. Typical VTS systems use radar, closed-circuit
television (CCTV), VHF radiotelephony and automatic identification system to keep
track of vessel movements and provide navigational safety in a limited geographical
area.

Importance of Vessel Traffic services can be better understood from the functions it
plays in managing ship traffic. The key importance of VTS is for managing vessel traffic.
This further helps ensuring safety of ships, along with helping attain maximum traffic
flow from any given route.

Maximum economic returns possible from a marine route can be realized only with help
of these traffic services that keep important marine information available for all mariners
at all times. It even helps in keeping a tab on movement of unauthorized cargo
movements, making waters safer and more controlled. However, one of the most
important roles of these services is to act as a vessel finder. The information gathered,
stored and replayed by various sensors help in keeping a tab on movements of vessels
at all time. This crucial marine information is available at all times and can be used to
find a vessel if it goes missing.

Types of vessel traffic services

Vessel traffic services chiefly include devices to collect and transmit maritime
information which includes traffic images. This information is further transmitted to
various vessels in a given VTS zone. This helps the vessels’ captains to make better
navigational decisions and decide their routes. Several devices are used for purpose of
gaining and transmitting this information. Depending on type medium used to gain this
information, VTS can be classified as:

 Surveilled – they consist of land based sensors for attaining important marine

information. These sensors include radars, AIS and closed circuit television
sites. Signals from these sensors are sent to central locations where trained VTS
personnel analyze the information and guides ship traffic.

 Non Surveilled- consists of one or more reporting points at where ships notify
about their identity, course, speed and other data. Using this data, courses of
various vessels are mapped out and regulated to avoid any mishaps.

Uniformity is attained in between surveilled and non-surveilled sensors for complete

coverage of entire marine traffic.  Hence understanding nature and working of these
sensors would be of importance to any mariner.

Here is a list of most commonly used sensing components of vessel traffic services.

1. Radar system

It includes transmission of marine information in form of radio waves of certain

frequencies. These frequencies can be read to determine size and speed on any
incoming object to a distance of several miles. All vessels are equipped with radar
systems which are further connected to onshore center for transmitting information and
forming a web of data.

2.  AIS

It stands for System and helps in improving safety and efficiency of navigation. This
system makes use of a broadcast system that helps in updating data on connected
vessels automatically. This is a speedy system which can update information ever two
seconds. Self Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) technology is used
to handle and transport such huge amount data at such high speeds.
 3. Radio direction finder

As the name suggest, this component of VTS helps in obtaining maritime information
that will help to locate direction from which radio frequencies are coming. This device
particularly helps in acting like a vessel finder.

Vessel traffic services are used for the sole purpose of making all ship routes safer and
more efficient. With trained personnel, this take becomes easier and makes marine
routes safer.

Some areas

 Approaches to Vigo (Spain)
 Cape Roca or Cabo da Roca
 Cape St. Vincent or Cabo de São Vicente
 Banco del Hoyo
 Canary Islands
 off Finisterre
 Before the coast of Ouessant (in English: (Ushant).
 around the Isles of Scilly, off the coast at Lands End
 Fastnet Rock, south of Ireland

Irish Sea
 Off Tuskar Rock, named after the lighthouse on one of the islands forming
Tuskar rock
 Off Smalls
 Holyhead Harbour, governed by Stena LineFerries/
 Off Skerries at the northern coast of Northern Ireland
 Liverpool Bay
 Approaches to Dublin, governed by the Government of Ireland
 In the North Channel
 Off Neist Point

English Channel
The English Channel connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Southern part of the North
Seaand belong to the busiest shipping areas in the world with ships going in numerous
direction: you have ships that are 'just' passing through from the Southwest to Northeast
(or vice versa), ships going to or departing from one of the many ports around the
English Channel and then the ferries crossing the channel. In the English Channel
several TSS schemes are in operation:
 Dover Straights TSS
 Casquets TSS near Alderney
 West Hinder TSS off the Belgium coast.
 Southern North-Sea
The Southern North Sea overlaps the TSS mentioned in the English Channel above [1]
 Approaches to the Humber River
 Sunk and Northern approaches to the Thames Estuary
 North Hinder TSS
 Approaches to Hook of Holland

Russia and Norway

TSS in these areas aren't governed by the IMO but by either the government of Russia
(marked: R) or the Norwegian government (marked N)

 off Mys Zimnegorskiy (R)

 off Ostrov Sosnovets (R)
 off Ostrova Ponoyskiye Ludki (R)
 off Tersko-Orlovskiy (R)
 off Svyatonosskiy Poluostrov (R)
 Entrance to Kol’skiy Zaliv (R)
 Proliv Karskiye Vorota (R)
 off Makkaur (N)
 off Cape Nordkinn (N)
 off Nordkapp (N)
 Coast of Western Norway (IMO)
 Coast of Southern Norway (IMO)
 4 different TSS around Oslo Fjord (N)
 Vardø to Røst (IMO)
 off the Southwest coast of Iceland (IMO)

China Sea
Some 25 TSS schemes are in operation in and around the China Seas. Shipping is very
busy around Hong Kong, the mainland of South-East China and around Taiwan.
Some of the most important TSS schemes in this area:

 East Lamma Channel off Lamma Island, Hong Kong

 Tathong Channel, Hong Kong
 Cheung Chau North and West (SAR Hong Kong)
 Dangan Shuida and Lan Tau channel (SAR Hong Kong)
 Qingzhou, (China). only applies to high-speed craft
 approaches to Shanghai, (China)
 Chengshan Jiao (IMO)
 approaches to Dalian, (China)
 approaches to Caofeidian, (China)
 Taichung
 Chilung
 Taipei
 approaches to Kaohsiung, (Kaohsiung Harbor Bureau)
 North Eastern approaches to Qiongzhou Haixia, (China)

Australia and Papua New Guinea

In this area there are 5 TSS in operation: two in the Bass Strait, governed by the IMO
and three leading to Australian ports, governed by Australia.
 South of Wilsons Promontory in the Bass Strait
 In the Bass Strait
 Port Jackson, (Australia)
 Port Darwin, (Australia)
 Botany Bay, (Australia)

Areas of Extensive tidal Effects

Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of
the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of Earth.
Tide tables can be used to find the predicted times and amplitude (or "tidal range") of
tides at any given locale. The predictions are influenced by many factors including the
alignment of the Sun and Moon, the phase and amplitude of the tide (pattern of tides in
the deep ocean), the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and the shape of the
coastline and near-shore bathymetry (see Timing). They are however only predictions,
the actual time and height of the tide is affected by wind and atmospheric pressure.
Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide—two nearly equal high and low tides
each day. Other locations experience a diurnal tide—only one high and low tide each
day. A "mixed tide"—two uneven tides a day, or one high and one low—is also possible.

Tidal flows are important for navigation, and significant errors in position occur if they
are not accommodated. Tidal heights are also important; for example many rivers and
harbors have a shallow "bar" at the entrance which prevents boats with significant draft
from entering at low tide.
Until the advent of automated navigation, competence in calculating tidal effects was
important to naval officers. The certificate of examination for lieutenants in the Navy
once declared that the prospective officer was able to "shift his tides".[58]
Tidal flow timings and velocities appear in tide charts or a tidal stream atlas. Tide charts
come in sets. Each chart covers a single hour between one high water and another
(they ignore the leftover 24 minutes) and show the average tidal flow for that hour. An
arrow on the tidal chart indicates the direction and the average flow speed (usually
in knots) for spring and neap tides. If a tide chart is not available, most nautical charts
have "tidal diamonds" which relate specific points on the chart to a table giving tidal flow
direction and speed.
The standard procedure to counteract tidal effects on navigation is to (1) calculate a
"dead reckoning" position (or DR) from travel distance and direction, (2) mark the chart
(with a vertical cross like a plus sign) and (3) draw a line from the DR in the tide's
direction. The distance the tide moves the boat along this line is computed by the tidal
speed, and this gives an "estimated position" or EP (traditionally marked with a dot in a
triangle)
The highest tides in the world can be found in Canada at the Bay of Fundy, which
separates New Brunswick from Nova Scotia. At some times of the year the difference
between high and low tide in this Bay is 16.3 meters, taller than a three-story building.

The highest tides in the United States can be found near Anchorage, Alaska, with tidal
ranges up to 12.2 meters.

Tidal highs and lows depend on a lot of different factors. The shape and geometry of a
coastline play a major role, as do the locations of the Sun and Moon. Storm systems at
sea and on land also shift large quantities of water around and affect the tides. Detailed
forecasts are available for high and low tides in all sea ports, but are specific to local
conditions.

That many of the areas of the world with high ranges of tides are in the areas of Alaska,
Canada, and northern Europe has created a misconception that the range of tide
increases with increasing latitude (as one moves farther from the equator and closer to
the poles). This is incorrect.

Increased tidal ranges in these areas are created by the positions and configurations of
the continents in the northern hemisphere. In the higher latitudes of the northern
hemisphere, the continents of North America, Europe, and Asia are pressed closer
together. This “constriction” of the oceans creates the effect of a higher range of tides. 

In the higher latitudes of the southern hemisphere, in the southern tips of South
America, southern Africa, Australia, and Antarctica, tidal ranges are not increased. In
these areas the continents are not pressed closely together, there is not a “constriction”
of the oceans, and the tidal ranges are not increased.
Pilot Chart

Ocean passages of the world

Sailing directions

Chart
Ensures that the vessel’s position is monitored using two or more
independent position determination systems appropriate to the area
Since the beginning of maritime navigation, the desire of the navigator has always been
to answer a fundamental question: “Where, exactly, is my vessel?” To answer that
question, the navigator was forced to continually take fixes on celestial bodies, on fixed
objects ashore, or using radio signals, and plot the resulting lines of position as a fix on
a paper chart. Only then could he begin to assess the safety of the ship and its progress
toward its destination. He spent far more time taking fixes, working out solutions, and
plotting the results than on making assessments, and the fix only told him where the
ship was at the time that fix was taken, not where the vessel was some time later when
the assessment was made. He was always “behind the vessel.” On the high seas this is
of little import. Near shore, it becomes vitally important.
Electronic charts automate the process of integrating real-time positions with the chart
display and allow the navigator to continuously assess the position and safety of the
vessel. Further, the GPS/DGPS fixes are far more accurate and taken far more often
than any navigator ever could. A good piloting team is expected to take and plot a fix
every three minutes. An electronic chart system can do it once per second to a standard
of accuracy at least an order of magnitude better.
Electronic charts also allow the integration of other operational data, such as ship’s
course and speed, depth soundings, and radar data into the display. Further, they allow
automation of alarm systems to alert the navigator to potentially dangerous situations
well in advance of a disaster.
Finally, the navigator has a complete picture of the instantaneous situation of the vessel
and all charted dangers in the area. With a radar overlay, the tactical situation with
respect to other vessels is clear as well. This chapter will discuss the various types of
electronic charts, the requirements for using them, their characteristics, capabilities and
limitations.
As a navigator, it is essential to know where you are in the world. Failure to do so could
see the bottom ripped out of your ship and your whole day ruined! The modern
navigator lives in interesting times when it comes to positioning. Some say that we are
rapidly moving from an age of ‘navigation as an art form’ to that of ‘navigation as a
science’. However, it’s probably more accurate to recognise that we are moving from an
age where position fixing was a manual task, to one where positioning is mainly done
automatically. Regardless of how reliable GPS may seem, manual checks must be
made on a regular basis. Few mariners have ever endured a sustained failure of GPS,
and this leads to complacency. But we are continually reminded that GPS, as well as all
other forms of Global Navigational Satellite Systems (GNSS), such as GLONASS,
Galileo, BeiDou, etc, are increasingly susceptible. These satellite systems all share a
common vulnerability of relying on a relatively weak signal that can be disrupted by
unintentional jamming, such as from solar activity; or from intentional jamming, such as
people trying to mask the signal from their GPS tracked company cars. Many other
systems on a modern vessel also depend on GPS input. Failure of this signal will have
quite a knock-on effect, so it is prudent to conduct a GPS loss drill on a routine basis,
and perhaps incorporate this into the SMS. The age-old adage for mariners has always
been ‘never rely on one source for positioning’. In the past, this has included not relying
on range and bearing from a single object and never relying on just two lines of position.
Today, it might mean never relying on GNSS alone. The modern navigator must be
competent and confident enough to use a number of positioning tools and techniques,
including but not limited to visual bearings, radar information, depth soundings, celestial
observations, dead reckoning, and – most importantly – visual situational awareness for
checking plausibility. We are in a transitional period where advancement in technology
is charging ahead and sometimes the Human Element has difficulty keeping up. It is
essential that modern navigators understand how to employ a range of positioning
methods to assure them of where they are, particularly in relation to nearby navigational
hazards. For example, with ECDIS navigators must be confident in the ability to plot
visual and radar information, in order to ensure the integrity of positioning. This is
essential as the navigator is responsible for many lives, the ship, the cargo and the
environment.

Ensures that the vessel’s position is determined at appropriate

intervals and monitored continuously

“Position fixing interval” is the maximum interval between two position fixes. So if in a

particular section of the passage, we have agreed to the PFI of 01 hour, we must plot
the ship’s position at least every hour.
But how do we decide the position fixing interval? For that just think why do we need to
plot the position ? We plot position to be sure that we are on our track and not drifting
towards a danger. With that logic in mind, let us take an example. I plot a position at
0800 Hrs. The agreed position fixing interval is 30 minutes. Now just after 0800 Hrs, the
vessel starts to draft directly towards a danger. I will only come to know about that at
0830 Hrs when I plot the next position of the ship. If at 0830 Hrs, vessel is at the danger
then the PFI was set too high. Because before we could know that we are running into
danger, we already were at the danger. So even if vessel deviates from its course, the
interval between two consecutive position fixes should be such that allows time to take
the course corrective action. The progress of the vessel in accordance with the voyage
and passage plan should be closely and continuously monitored. Any changes made to
the plan should be made consistent with these Guidelines and clearly marked and
recorded.
Ensures that the execution of the voyage plan is monitored and that
any required alterations are appraised, evaluated and approved where
these are outside the authority of the watch keeping officer

Third stage of passage planning is the execution stage. The IMO was careful to include
execution as part of the process of passage planning. This underscores the fact that
the Guidelines list a number of tasks that are to executed during the course of the
voyage. It also reiterates the captain's responsibility to treat the plan as a "living
document" and to review or change it in case of any special circumstances that should
arise. Execution In this stage, the navigating officers executes the plan that has been
prepared. After departure, the speed is adjusted based on the ETA and the expected
weather and oceanographic conditions. The speed should be adjusted such that the
ship is not either too early or late at its port of destination. The Master should find out
how long his intended voyage is, accounting for water and fuel available. Also to be
taken into account are any expected weather changes along the way. In case and
ECDIS is being used, appropriate limits must be set with regard to the safety settings. It
is important that a proper, formal record of navigational activities and incidents, which
are of importance to safety of navigation, is kept in appropriate logbooks. Paper records
from course recorders, echo sounders, NAVTEX receivers etc. should also be retained
at least for the duration of the voyage, suitably date and time marked if practicable. In
order to allow the ship's actual track to be reconstructed at a later stage, sufficient
information concerning position, course and speed should be recorded in the bridge
logbook or using approved electronic means. All positions marked on the navigational
charts also need to be retained until the end of the voyage.