MODULE - 2 Periodic Table and Periodicity in Properties

Atomic Structure and

Chemical Bonding

3
Notes

PERIODIC TABLE AND

PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

We have seen different heaps of onions and potatoes at vegetable shop. Imagine,
they are lying mixed and you want to buy 1 kg of onion. What will happen? You
will have to wait for long to sort that and then weigh them. When you possess a
variety of material substances, you have to keep them classified for an easy access
and quick use. You cannot afford to mix clothes with eatables, cosmetics or books.
Classification assures you that your eatbles are in the kitchen, books on the study
table or rack and your cosmetics are on the dressing table. Shopkeepers, business
houses, storekeepers, administrators, managers, information technology experts
and scientists etc. have to keep their materials duly classified.
Chemists faced a similar problem when they were to handle a large number of
elements. The study of their physical and chemical properties and keeping a
systematic record of them had been a great challenge to chemists. Classification of
elements finally could be possible due to pioneering work of a few chemists. In the
present lesson we shall discuss the need, genesis of classification and periodic trends
in physical and chemical properties of elements.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
z recongise the need for classification of elements;
z recall the earlier attempts on classification of elements;
z define modern periodic law;
z name the elements with atomic number greater than 100 according to IUPAC
nomenclature;

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z co-relate the sequence of arrangements of elements in periodic table with Chemical Bonding
electronic configuration of the elements;
z recall the designations of the groups (1-18) in the periodic table;
z locate the classifiction of elements into s-, p-, d- and f- blocks of the periodic
table; and
z explain the basis of periodic variations of
Notes
(a) atomic size
(b) ionic size
(c) ionization enthalpy
(d) electron gain enthalpy within a group or a period.
(e) valence

3.1 EARLY ATTEMPTS

Attempts were made to classify elements ever since the discovery of metals or
may be even earlier. J.W. Dobereiner in 1817 discovered that when closely related
elements are grouped in a set of three, the atomic weight of the middle element
was almost the arithmetical mean of the other two elements in that group e.g.,
Element Lithium Sodium Potassium
Atomic weight 6.94 22.99 39.10
Mean atomic weight ------ 23.02 -------
He called such a group of three elements a triad. He could group only a few
elements due to lack of knowledge of correct atomic weights of the elements at
that time.
In 1863, J.A.R. Newlands, developed a system of classification of elements and
entitled it as Law of Octaves. He arranged the elements is such a way that every
eighth element had similar properties, like the notes of music. The law could not
apply to a large number of known elements. However, the law indicated very
clearly the recurrence of similar properties among the arranged elements. Thus
the periodicity was visualised for the first time in a meaningful way.
Periodicity: Re-occurrence of properties after regular intervals.
More significant results were obtained when Lother Meyer’s work reflecting the
periodicity was found to be based on physical properties of the elements. He
clearly showed that certain propertics showed a periodic trend.

3.2 MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

In 1869, Mendeleav, a Russian Chemist made a thorough study of the relation
between the atomic weights of the elements and their physical and chemical

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Atomic Structure and

Chemical Bonding properties. He then constructed a table in which elements were arranged in order
of their increasing atomic weights. It was also found that every eighth element
had properties similar to that of the first element. Thus, there was a periodic
occurrence of elements with similer properties.

One of the most striking applications of Mendeleev’s classification of elements

was that in his periodic table (Table 3.1) he left gaps for elements which were
Notes yet to be discovered. He also predicted the properties of these elements.
However, Mendeleev’s periodic table did not provide any place for isotopes
and noble gases which were discovered later on.

Table 3.1 Mendeleev’s Table of 1871

Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Oxide R2O RO R2O3 RO2 R2O5 RO3 R2O7 RO4

Hydride RH RH2 RH3 RH4 RH3 RH2 RH

Periods A B A B A B A B A B A B A B Transition
↓ series

1 H
1,008

2 Li Be B C N O F
6.939 9.012 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998

3 Na Mg Al Sl P S Cl
22.99 24.31 29.98 28.09 30.974 32.06 35.453

4 First K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
series: 39.102 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.94 50.20 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.71
Second Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
series: 63.54 65.37 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.909

5 First Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd
series: 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 99 101.07 102.91106.4
Second Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
series: 107.87 112.40 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.90

6 First Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Os Ir Pt
series: 132.90 137.34 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 190.2 192.2 195.09
Second Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
series: 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.98

The extent of knowledge regarding the chemical properties of the elements and
his insight into the system of periodicty possessed by the elements under certain
arrangement have no parallel in the history of chemistry. This work laid strong
foundation of the fundamental principles of the periodic law. One of his most
important conclusions was that the elements if arranged according to their atomic
weights, exhibit an evident systematic reoccurence of properties (periodicity of
properties) and even the properties of some elements were listed much before
their discovery. Mendeleev’s periodic Table (Table 3.1) was quite useful till the
discovery of atomic number. There existed certain inherent defects which opposed
the system.

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3.3 MODERN APPROACH Chemical Bonding

Atomic number was discovered in 1913 by a team lead by Mosely. The periodic
table based on atomic number is termed as Modern Periodic Table. Moseley
arranged all the elements according to increasing atomic number and showed
that the properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Modern periodic law: The properties of the elements are periodic function of
Notes
their atomic numbers.

3.4 LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

The arrangement of elements in the long form of periodic table is a perfect matching
of electronic configuration of the elements on one hand and physical and chemical
properties of the elements on the other. Some important considerations of the
modern atomic structure applied to the classification of elements are discussed
below:
(i) An atom loses electron(s) from or gains electron(s) in the outermost shell of
an atom during a chemical reaction.
(ii) The sharing of an electron or electrons by an atom with other atom or atoms
is largely through the outer most shell. Thus the electrons in the outermost
shell of an atom largely determine the chemical properties of the elements.
We may therefore conclude that the elements possessing identical outer electronic
comfiguration should possess similar physical and chemical properties and
therefore they should be placed together for an easy and systematic study.
Keeping in mind the reasoning given above, when all the known elements are
arranged in a table according to their increasing atomic number, the properties of
the elements show periodicity (reappear at definite intervals). The periodicity is
shown in Table in 3.2.

3.5 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE LONG FORM OF

PERIODIC TABLE
(i) In this table there are 18 vertical columns called GROUPS. They are
numbered from 1 to 18. Every group has a unique configuration.
(ii) There are seven horizontal rows. These rows are called PERIODS. Thus
the periodic table has seven periods, numbered from 1 to 7.
(iii) There are a total of 114 elements known to us till today. Of all the known
elements 90 are naturally occurring and others are made through nuclear
transformations or are synthesised artificially. Either way they are Man-made
Elements, but you will find the term specifically applied to transuranic
elements (elements listed after uranium) only.

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Chemical Bonding (iv) First period consists of only two elements (very short period). Second and
third periods consist of only eight elements each (short periods). Fourth and
fifth periods consist of 18 elements each (long periods). Sixth period consists
of 32 elements (long period). Seventh period is yet incomplete and more and
more elements are likely to be added as the scientific research advances.
(v) There are also nick names given to the groups or a cluster of groups on the
Notes basis of the similarity of their properties, as given below:
Group 1 elements except hydrogen, are called Alkali Metals
Group 2 elements are called Alkaline Earth Metals.
Group 3 to 12 elements are called Transition Metals.
Group 16 elements are called Chalcogens
Group 17 elements are called Halogens
Group 18 elements are called Noble Gases.
Apart from what has been said above elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71
are called Lanthanoids – or Inner Transition elements (First series). Elements
from atomic numbers 90 to 103 are called actinoids – Inner Transition elements
(Second series). All elements except transition and inner transition elements are
also collectively called Main Group Elements.

3.6 POSITION OF METALS, NON-METALS AND

METALLOIDS
In order to locate the position of metals, non-metals and metalloids in the periodic
table, you may draw a diagonal line joining the element boron (At. no. 5) with
that of tellurium (At. no. 52) and passing through silicon and arsenic. Now we
are in a position to make the following observations.
(i) The elements above the diagonal line and to the far right are non-metals
(except selenium which shows slightly metallic character also). The non-
metallic character is more marked the farther an element is from the diagonal
line and up.
(ii) The elements below the diagonal line and to the left are metals. (Hydrogen is
a non-metal and is an exception)The metallic character is more marked the
farther an element is from the diagonal line and down. All lanthanoids and
actinoids are metals.
(iii) The elements along the diagonal line are metalloids and possess the
characteristics of metals as well as of non-metals. In addition germanium,
antimony and selenium also show the characteristics of metalloids.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1
1. Classify the elements of group 14, 15 and 16 into metals, non-metals and
metalloids.
2. Compare the metallic character of aluminium and potassium.
Notes 3. Name the group number for the following type of clements
(i) Alkaline earth metals
(ii) Alkali metals
(iii) Transition metals
(iv) Halogens
(v) Noble gases.
4. Name five man made elements.

3.7 CATAGORISATION OF ELEMENTS INTO ‘s’, ‘p’, ‘d’,

AND ‘f’ BLOCKS
Grouping of elements in the periodic table can be done in another way also,
which is more related to their electronic configuration. Under this categorisation,
the location of the differentiating electron (the last electron) is most important.
If, for example, the electron has gone to ‘s-subshell’, the elements will fall in ‘s-
block’ and if the last electron goes to ‘p-subshell’, then the element will belong to
p-block. Similarly if the defferentiating electron enters the ‘d-subshell’, of an
atom, then the elements comprising all such atoms will belong to d-block.

p-Block
S-Block

d-Block

f-Block

Fig. 3.1 : Blockwise categorization of elements.

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There are minor exceptions in Mn and Zn configurations. You will study more Chemical Bonding
about the reasons for such exceptions in Lesson 23.

The grouping of elements explained above can be related to the type of elements
discussed earlier:

(i) s-block elements: All alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.
Notes
(ii) p-block elements: All elements of group number 13 to group number 18.

(iii) d-block elements: All elements from group no. 3 to group no. 12 except
Lanthanoids and Actinoides.

(iv) f-block elements: Lanthanoids (atomic number 58 to 71) and Actinoids

(atomic number 90 to 103)

This is shown in Fig. 3.1.

Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers greater than 100

The naming of the new elements was earlier left entirely to its discoverer. The
suggested names were then later ratified by IUPAC. But due to certain disputes
that arose over the original discoverer of some of the elements of atomic numbers
greater than 104, the IUPAC in 1994 appointed a Commission on Nomenclature
of Inorganic Chemisty (CNIC). After consultation with the Commission and the
chemists around the world, the IUPAC in 1997 recommeded a nomenclature to
be followed for naming the new elements with atomic numbers greater than 103
until their names are fully recognised.
z The names are derived directly from the atomic number of the element using
the following numerical roots for 0 and numbers 1–9.

0 = nil 3 = tri 6 = hex 9 = enn

1 = un 4 = quad 7 = sept

2 = bi 5 = pent 8 = oct

z The roots are put together in the order of the digits which make up the
atomic number and ‘ium’ is added at the end.

z Names, thus derives, and the IUPAC approved names of some elements with
atomic numbers greater than 103 are listed in Table 3.3.

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Chemical Bonding Table 3.3 : Nomenclature of elements with atomic numbers greater than 103

Atomic Name Symbol IUPAC approved IUPAC

number name symbol
104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfordium Rf
105 Unnilpentium Unp Dubnium Db
106 Unnilhexium Unh Seaborgium Sg
Notes 107 Unnilseptium Uns Bohrium Bh
108 Unniloctium Uno Hassium Hs
109 Unnilennium Une Meitnerium Mt
110 Ununnillium Uun – –
111 Unununnium Uuu – –
112 Ununbium Uub – –
113 Ununtrium Uul – –
114 Ununquadium Uuq – –
115 Ununpentium Uup – –

3.8 PERIODICITY IN ATOMIC PROPERTIES

The term periodicity is used to indicate that some characteristic properties occur
in the periodic table after definite intervals, however with a varying magnitude.
Thus after starting from a certain point on the periodic table, we are almost
certain that the movement in a particular direction will show steady increase or
decrease of a said property.

3.9 ATOMIC SIZE

In homonuclear diatomic molecules the distance from the centre of one nuclus to
the centre of another nucleus gives the bond length and half of this bond length is
atomic radius (Fig. 3.2). The first member of each period is the largest in size.
Thus we can say that the group 1 atom are the largest in their respective horizontal
rows. Similarly, atoms of group 2 elements are large but are definitely smaller
than the corresponding atoms of group 1. This is due to the reason that the extra
charge on the nucleus draws the electrons inward resulting in smaller size for the
atoms under reference. This trend of decrease in size of atoms, continues from
left to right. An example is shown in Fig. 3.3. However, there may be some
exceptions and there will be other reasons to explain them.

A A

1
Fig 3.2 : Atomic radius = d =r
2 A–A

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Li Be B C N O F

Fig. 3.3: From left to right, size of atoms decrease in the perodic table

In going down the group of elements (in any particular column) the atomic size
increases at each step. Notes

This increase may be explained in terms of a new electron shell being added,
when we pass from one element to another in a group.

3.10 IONIC SIZE

An ion is formed when an atom undergoes a loss or gain of electrons.
M (g) ⎯⎯
→ M+ (g) + e– (cation formation)

M (g) + e– ⎯⎯
→ M– (g) (anion formation)
A cation is formed when an atom loses the most loosely bound electron from its
outermost shell. The atom acquires a positive charge and becomes an ion (a
cation). A cation is smaller than its atom. On the removal of an electron, the
positive charge of the nucleus acts on lesser number of electrons than in the
neutral atom and thus greater pull is exerted by the nucleus, resulting in a smaller
size of the cation.
An anion is bigger than its atom because on receipt of an electron in the outermost
orbit the number of negative charges increase and it outweighs the positive charges.
Thus the hold of the nucleus on the shells decrease resulting in an increase in the
size of the anion.
A cation is always smaller than its atom and an anion is always bigger than
its atom e.g. Na+ is smaller than Na, Cl- is bigger than Cl.
z In the main groups, the ionic radii increase on descending the group. e.g., Li+
= 0.76 Å, Na+ = 1.02 Å, K+ = 1.38 Å, etc. It is due to the addition of extra
shell at each step.
z There is a decrease in the ionic radii of the positive ions on moving from
left to right across a period in the periodic table. e.g., Na+ = 1.02 Å, Mg2+ =
0.72 Å, Al3+ = 0.535 Å, etc. It is due to the increase in the number of charges
on the nucleus and also due to the increase in the charge on the ion.
z The ionic radii of the negative ions, also decrease on moving from left to
right across a period. e.g., O2– = 1.40 Å, F– = 1.33 Å, etc. This is partly due
to increase in the number of charges on the nucleus and also due to the
decreasing charge on the ion.

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Chemical Bonding

INTEXT QUESTION 3.2

1. Write the names of the elements with atomic numbers 105, 109, 112, 115
according to IUPAC nomenclature.
2. Arrange the following in the order of increasing size
Na+, Al3+, O2–, F–
Notes
3. How does the size of atoms vary from left to right in a period and on
descending a group in the periodic table?

3.11 IONIZATION ENTHALPY

Ionization Enthalpy is the energy required to remove the most loosely bound
electron from an isolated atom in the gaseous state for one mole of an element. It
is expressed in kJ mol–1 (kilojules per mole).
M(g) + IE → M+(g) + e–
As we move from left to right in the periodic table, there is a nearly regular
increase in the magnitude of the ionization enthalpy of elements.
Similarly, on moving down a group the magnitude of the ionization enthalpy
indicates a regular decline. The ionization enthalpy of the first member of any
group is the highest within that group and the ionization enthalpy of the last
member in the same group, is the least. This is shown in table 3.4.
Table 3.4: First ionization enthalpies of the elements (in kJ mol-1)
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1 H He
• •
1311 2372

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
• • • • • • • •
520 899 801 1086 1403 1410 1681 2081

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
• • • • • • • •
496 737 577 786 1012 999 1255 1521

4 K Ca Se Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
419 590 631 656 650 652 717 762 758 736 745 906 579 760 947 941 1142 1351

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Te Ru Rn Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
403 549 616 674 664 685 703 711 720 804 731 876 558 708 834 869 1191 1170

6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ti Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
376 503 541 760 760 770 759 840 900 870 889 1007 589 1007 589 715 703 813

7 Fr Ra Ac
912 1037

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The variation in the magnitude of ionization enthalpy of elements in the periodic Chemical Bonding
table is mainly dependent on the following factors:
(a) The size of the atom
(b) The magnitude of the nuclear charge on the atom,
(c) The extent of screening
(d) The type of orbital involved (s, p, d, or f). Notes

z In small atoms, the electrons are tightly held whereas in large atoms the
electron are less strongly held. Thus, the ionization enthalpy decreases as the
size of the atom increases.
z When an electron is removed from an atom, the effective nuclear charge, i.e.,
the ratio of the number of charges on the nucleus to the number of electrons,
increases. As a result the remaining electrons come closer to the nucleus and
are held more tightly. The removal of a second electron, therefore, requires
more energy. e.g., Mg+ is smaller than the Mg atom The remaining electrons
in Mg+ are more tightly held. The second ionisation enthalpy is, therefore,
more than the first ionisation enthalpy.
z Since the orbitals (s, p, d and f) have different shapes, the ionization enthalpy
depends on the type of electrons removed. e.g. an electron in an s orbital is
more tighly held as compared to an electron in a p orbital. It is because an s
electron is nearer to the nucleus as compared to a p electron. Similarily a p-
electron is more tightly held than a d-electron, and a d-electron is more tightly
held than a f-electron. If all other factors are equal, the ionization enthalpies
are in the order s > p > d > f.
Ionization energy (kJ mol–1)

Atomic number
Fig 3.4 : Variation of ioniztion enthalpy of elements.

These factors taken together contribute largely to decide the extent of the force
of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons around it. The resultant of

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Chemical Bonding these factors thus determine the magnitude of ionization enthalpy of any element.
You can see the variation in the magnitude of the ionization enthalpy of elements
with atomic number in the Fig. 3.4.
It is clear from Fig. 3.4 that
(i) the metals of group 1 (Li, Na, K, Rb, etc.) have the lowest ionization enthalpies
in their respective periods.
Notes (ii) the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) have the highest ionization
enthalpies in their respective periods. It is because the energy required to
remove an electron from a stable fully filled shell is very large.
(iii) The values of ionization energies do not increase smoothly. e.g. the first
ionization enthalpy of B (boron) is lower than that of Be (beryllium); the
ionization enthalpy of Al (aluminium) is lower than that of Mg (magnesium);
the first ionization enthalpy of O(oxygen) is lower than that of N (nitrogen).
It can be explained as follows.
z The first ionization enthalpies of Be and Mg are higher than those of their
preceding elements because the elecrons are removed from the fully filled s-
orbitals.
z The first ionization enthalpy of N is higher than that of O because from N,
the electron is to be removed from a half-filled p-orbitals
Ionization enthalpy is the energy required to remove the most loosely
bound electron form an atom (in the gaseous state) for one mole of an
element. It is an absolute value and can be determined experimentally.

3.12 ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY

Every atom, in general, has a tendency to gain or loose electrons in order to
acquire a noble gas configuration. The atom which have five, six or seven electrons
in their outermost shell show tendency to accept electrons and attain the nearest
noble gas configuration. Halogens, for example, have seven electrons in their
outermost orbit. Thus they show a tendency to accept one more electron and
attain the nearest noble gas configuration. The energy change (ΔE) for this process
is called electron gain enthalpy of that atom.
Electron gain enthalpy is the energy released for one mole of neutral atoms
in a gaseous state when electron is accepted by each atom.
X(g) + e– ⎯⎯
→ X –(g)

where X represents an atom.

Cl (g) + e– ⎯⎯
→ Cl– (g): ΔE = –349 kJ mol-1

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The negative value shows release of energy and hence tendency to greater Chemical Bonding
stabilisation. The electron gain enthalpy becomes more in negative from left to
right in a period. This is because it is easier to add an electron to a smaller atom
since the added electron would be closer to the positively charged nucleus.
Halogens release maximum energy when they accept an electron. On the other
hand, metals do not accept electrons and show a high positive value for ΔE. Thus
electron gain enthalpy can be positive or negative.
Notes
Electron gain enthalpies becomes less in negative as we go down the group
showing that the electropositive character of the atoms increases. This is because
the size of the atom increases down the group and the electron added goes to the
higher shells. Electron affinity values for some elements are shown in table 3.5,
along with their position in the periodic table. The electron gain enthalpy of chlorine
is more in negative value as compared to that of fluroine. This is due to the small
size of the F atom. As the electron approaches the small F atom, it expriences a
repulsion from other electrons.
Table 3.5: Electeron gain enthalpy in kJ mol-1
Group

Period 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 H He
–73 +98
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
–59.6 (0) –26.7 –154 –7 –111 –328 +116
3 Na Cl Ar
–53 –349 + 96
4 K Br Kr
–48 –325 + 96
5 Rb I Xe
–47 –295 + 77
6 Rn
+ 68

3.13 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
It is an indicator of the extent of attraction by which electrons of the bond pair
are attracted by an atom linked by this bond. The value of electronegativity is
assigned arbitrarily to one atom such as hydrogen. Then the value of
electronegativity is assigned to all other atoms with respect to hydrogen. One
such scale is the Pauling Scale of electronegativity (Table 3.6).
Electronegativity is defined as a measure of the ability of an atom to attract
the electron pair in a covalent bond to itself.

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Chemical Bonding In a homonuclear diatomic molecule such as hydrogen (H2) or fluorine (F2), the
electron pair of the covalent bond in each molecule experiences equal attraction
by each atom. Thus none of the two atoms is able to shift the bond pair of electrons
to itself. However in a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, the bond pair electrons
get shifted towards the atom which is more electronegative than the other. For
example, in HF or HCl the bond pair of electrons are not shared equally but the
more electronegative atom F or Cl is able to shift the bond pair towards itself,
Notes resulting in the polarization of the molecule.
A large difference between electronegativities of the two atoms indicates highly
ionic character of the bond between them, for example in Cs+F –. On the other
hand, zero difference in the electronegativities between the two atoms indicates
that the percentage ionic character is zero. Therefore the molecule is purly covalent
e.g. H2, Cl2, N2 etc.
Table 3.6 : Electronegativities of elements on Pauling scale.
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
K Ca Se Ge As Sc Br
0.8 1.0 1.3 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.5
Cs Ba
0.7 0.9

The most electronegative elements have been placed on the farthest right hand
upper corner (noble gases are not included). The value of electronegativity
decreases as we go down in any group and increases from left to right in the
period. Thus fluorine is the most electronegative and caesium is the least
electronegative element. (We have not considered Francium being radioactive).

3.14 CONCEPT OF VALENCE OR VALENCY

You that that different elements have different number of electrons in the
outermost or the valence shell. These electrons in the outermost shell are known
as valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the
combining capacity of an atom in an element. Valence is the number of
chemical bonds that an atom can form with univalent atoms. Since hydrogen
is a univalent atom, the valence of an element can be taken by the number of
atoms of hydrogen with which one atom of the element can combine. For
example, in H2O, NH3, and CH4 the valencies of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
are 2, 3 and 4, respectively.
The elements having a completely filled outermost shell in their atoms show little
or no chemical activity. In other words, their combining capacity or valency is
zero. The elements with completely filled valence shells are said to have stable

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electronic configuration. The main group elements can have a maximum of eight Chemical Bonding
electrons in their valence shell. This is called octet rule; you will learn more about
it in lesson 7. You will learn that the combining capacity or the tendency of an
atom to react with other atoms to form molecules depends on the ease with
which it can achieve octet in its outermost shell. The valencies of the elements
can be calculated from the electronic configuration by applying the octet rule.
z If the number of valence electrons is four or less then the valency is equal
Notes
to the number of the valence electrons.
z In cases when the number of valence electrons is more than four then
generally the valency is equal to 8 minus the number of valence electrons.
Thus,
Valency = Number of valence electrons (for 4 or lesser valence electrons)
Valency = 8 - Number of valence electrons (for more than 4 valence electrons)
The composition and electronic configuration of the elements having the atomic
numbers from 1 to 18, along with their valencies is given in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7: The composition, electron distribution and common valency
of the elements with atomic number from 1 to 18

*However, the elements in the 3rd and higher periods may show higher valencie, than
predicted by octect rule since more than 8 electrons can be accommodate in their outermost
shells due to available d orbitas,.

CHEMISTRY 91
 MODULE - 2 Periodic Table and Periodicity in Properties

Atomic Structure and

Chemical Bonding 3.14.1 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
By this time you can see a pattern develop among the ground state electron
configurations of the atoms. This pattern explains the periodic table. Consider
helium, neon, argon, and krypton, elements in Group 18 of the periodic table.
Neon, argon, and krypton have configurations in which a p subshell has just
filled. (Helium has a filled 1s subshell; no lp subshell is possible.)
Notes helium 1s2
neon 1s2 2s22p6
argon 1s22s22p63s23p6
krypton 1s22s22p6 3s23p63d104s241)6
These elements are the members of the group called noble gases because of
their relative unreactivity.
Look now at the configurations of beryllium, magnesium, and calcium, members
of the group of alkaline earth metals (Group 2), which are similar, moderately
reactive elements.
beryllium 1s22s2 or [He]2s2
magnesium 1s22s22p63s2 or [Ne]3s2
calcium Is22s22p6 3s23p64s2 or [Ar]4s2
Each of these configurations consists of a noble gas core, that is, an inner shell
configuration corresponding to one of the noble gases, plus two outer electrons
with an ns2 configuration.
The elements boron, aluminum, and gallium (Group 13) also have similarities.
Their configurations are
boron Is 2 2s22p] or [He]2s22pI
aluminum ls2 2s22p6 3s23p] or [Ne]3s23p1
gallium 2s2 2s22p6 3s2 3p6 3d104s2 4pl or [Ar]3d104s24p1
Boron and aluminum have noble-gas cores plus three electrons with the
configuration ns2 npl. Gallium has an additional filled 3d subshell. The noble-
gas core together with (n - 1)d10 electrons is often referred to as a pseudo-
noble gas core, because these electrons usually are not involved in chemical
reactions.
An electron in a core outside the noble-gas or pseudo-noble-gas core is called
a valence electron. Such electrons are primarily involved in chemical reactions,
and similarities among the configurations of valence electrons (the valence-shell
configurations) account for similarities in the chemical properties among the
groups of elements.

92 CHEMISTRY
Periodic Table and Periodicity in Properties MODULE - 2
Atomic Structure and
Chemical Bonding

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.3

1. What is the correlation between atomic size and ionization enthalpy.
2. Which species, in each pair is expected to have higher ionization enthalpy.
(i) 3Li, 11Na (ii) 7N, 15P
Notes
(iii) 20Ca, 12Mg (iv) 13Al, 14Si
(v) 17Cl, 18Ar (vi) 18Ar, 19K
(vii) 13Al, 14C
3. Account for the fact that there is a decrease in first ionization enthalpy from
Be to B and Mg to Al.
4. Why is the ionization enthalpy of the noble gases highest in their respective
periods?
5. Name the most electronegative element.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

z The classification of elements makes their study systematic.
z The arrangement of elements in the long form of the periodic table depends
on their electornic configuration.
z The properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic
number.
z All the known elements are arranged in 18 groups in the long form of periodic
table
z There are seven horizontal rows (periods) in the long from of the periodic
table.
z Elements of groups 1 and 2 are known as alkali metals and alkaline earth
metals respectively.
z Elements of groups 17 and 18 are known as halogens and noble gases
respectively.
z s, p, d and f are the four blocks in the periodic table classified on the basis of
their outer most electrons residing in s, p, d or f sub-shell.
z The elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids on the
basis of their properties and their position in the periodic table.
z The atomic size, ionic size, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy and
electronegativity and valence show regular trends along a group and a period.
z Valence can be explained.

CHEMISTRY 93
 MODULE - 2 Periodic Table and Periodicity in Properties

Atomic Structure and

Chemical Bonding

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Define modern periodic law.
2. Refer the periodic table given in Table 3.2 and answer the following
questions.
Notes (i) The elements placed in group number 18 are called ...............
(ii) Alkali and alkaline earth metals are collectively called ............... block
metals.
(iii) The general configuration for halogens is ...............
(iv) Name a p-block element which is a gas other than a noble gas or a
hologen.
(v) Name the groups that comprise the ‘s’ block of elements.
(vi) Element number 118 has not yet been established, to which block, will
it belong?
(vii) How many elements should be there in total if all the 7s, 7p, 6d and
5f, blocks are to be full?
3. Describe the variation of electron affinity and ionization enthalpy in the
periodic table.

4. Define the following:

(a) Electron gain enthalpy (b) Ionization enthalpy

(c) Ionic radius (d) Electronegativity.
5. What is electronegativity? How is it related to the type of bond formed?
6. Why is the electron gain enthalpy of Cl more in negative value as compared
to that of F?

ANSEWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

3.1
1. Metals Non metals Metalloids
Sn, Pb C Si, Ge
Sb, Bi N, P As
Te, Po O, S Se

94 CHEMISTRY
Periodic Table and Periodicity in Properties MODULE - 2
Atomic Structure and
2. Potassium is more metallic than aluminum. Chemical Bonding
3. (i) 2 (ii) 1 (iii) 3 - 12 (iv) 17 (v) 18
4. Np, Lr, No, Rf, Hs.

3.2
1. (i) Unnilpentium, Notes
(ii) unnilennium,
(iii) Ununbium,
(iv) Ununpentium
2. Al3+, Na+, F –, O2–
3. The atomic size decreases from left to right across a period and increases
on moving down the group.

3.3
1. Ionization enthalpy decreases with increase in atomic size and vice-versa.
2. (i) 3Li (ii) 7N (iii) 12Mg
(iv) 14Si (v) 12Ar (vi) 18
Ar (vii) 6C
3. The electronic configureation of Be is 1s2 2s2 whereas that of B is 1s2 2s2
2p1. In case of Be, the electron is to be removed from completely filled s
orbital whereas in case of B it is to be removed from a singly occupied p
orbital. Fully-filled orbitals are more stable. Hence, ionization enthalpy
decreases from Be to B. Similarily it decreases from Mg to Al.
4. The noble gases have fully filled shells and are stable. Hence, they have
the highest ionization enthalpies in their respective periods.
5. Fluorine.

CHEMISTRY 95